ASNT NDT Handbook Volume 2_ Liquid Penetrant

pitting: Discontinuity consisting of psychophysics: Interaction between
surface cavities. See also cavitation vision performance and physical or
fatigue and pitting fatigue.8,10 psychological factors. One example is
the so-called vigilance decrement, the
pitting fatigue: Discontinuity consisting degradation of reliability based on
of surface cavities typically due to performing visual and/or repetitive
fatigue and abrasion of contacting activities over a period of time.8,10
surfaces undergoing compressive
loading. See also cavitation fatigue and PT: Liquid penetrant testing.10
pitting.8,10 pupil: Aperture in the center of an eye’s

pooling: Collection of excessive amounts iris, through which light focused by
of liquid penetrant, emulsifier, water the lens passes.8,10
or developer in an incompletely
drained area of a part. Q

pores: (1) Small voids within a metal. qualification: (1) Process of
(2) Minute cavities, sometimes demonstrating that an individual has
intentional, in a powder metallurgy the required amount and the required
compact. (3) Minute perforations in an type of training, experience,
electroplated coating.2,10 knowledge and capabilities. See also
qualified.8,10 (2) Process of
porosity: Discontinuity in metal resulting demonstrating that a liquid penetrant
from the creation or coalescence of testing material meets the property
gas. Very small pores are called and performance requirements of a
pinholes.8,10,12 governing material specification.

postcleaning: Removal of liquid qualified: (1) Having demonstrated the
penetrant testing residues from the required amount and the required
test piece at the end of a liquid type of training, experience,
penetrant test. knowledge and abilities.8,10 (2) Having
passed the required property and
postemulsification: Liquid penetrant performance tests. See also
removal technique using a separate qualification.
emulsifier applied over the surface
liquid penetrant to make it removable quality: The ability of a process or
with water spray.2,10 product to meet specifications or to
meet the expectations of its users in
practical examination: In certification of terms of efficiency, appearance,
nondestructive testing personnel, a longevity and ergonomics.8,10
hands-on examination using test
equipment and sample test objects. quality assurance: Administrative actions
Compare general examination and that specify, enforce and verify a
specific examination.8,10 quality program.8,10

precleaning: Removal of surface quality control: Physical and
contamination from the test piece so administrative actions required to
that it cannot interfere with the liquid ensure compliance with the quality
penetrant testing process.2,10 assurance program. May include
nondestructive testing in the
prewash technique: Liquid penetrant manufacturing cycle.8,10
removal technique in which major
portion of a nonwater washable liquid quality of lighting: Level of distribution
penetrant is mechanically removed of luminance in a visual task or
with a water spray prior to application environment.8,10
of emulsifier. Formerly called
prerinsing. quenching of fluorescence: Extinction of
fluorescence by causes other than
process: Repeatable sequence of actions to removal of the ultraviolet radiation
bring about a desired result.8,10 (the exciting radiation).2,10

process control: Application of quality R
control principles to the management
of a repeated process.8,10 radiance: Radiant flux per unit solid
angle and per unit projected area of
process testing: Initial product testing to the source. Measured in watt per
establish correct manufacturing square meter steradian. Compare
procedures and then by periodic tests irradiance.8,10
to ensure that the process continues to
operate correctly.2,10 radiant energy: Energy transmitted
through a medium by electromagnetic
pseudoisochromatic plates: Color plates waves. Also known as radiation.8,10
used for color vision examinations.
Each plate bears an image which may radiant flux: Radiant energy’s rate of
be difficult for the examinee to see if flow, measured in watt.8,10
his or her color vision is impaired.8,10

446 Liquid Penetrant Testing

radiant intensity: Electromagnetic energy rinse: Process of removing liquid
emitted per unit time per unit solid penetrant testing materials from the
angle. Measured in watt per surface of a test object by means of
steradian.8,10 washing or flooding with another
liquid, usually water. Also called
radiant power: Total radiant energy wash.2,10
emitted per unit time.8,10
robotic system: Automated system
radiometer: Instrument for measuring programmed to perform purposeful
radiant power of specified frequencies. movements in variable sequences.8,10
Different radiometers exist for
different frequencies.8,10 root crack: Crack in either the weld or
heat affected zone at the root of a
radiometric photometer: Radiometer for weld.2,10
measuring radiant power over a
variety of wavelengths.8,10 root penetration: Depth to which weld
metal extends into the root of a
recommended practice: Set of guidelines joint.2,10
or recommendations.8,10
S
Recommended Practice SNT-TC-1A: See
ASNT Recommended Practice sampling, partial: Testing of less than
No. SNT-TC-1A.10 one hundred percent of a production
lot. See one hundred percent testing.8,10
reference standard: Typical test object
with known artificial or natural sampling, random partial: Partial
discontinuities of various specific sizes, sampling that is fully random.8,10
used as a basis for test comparisons,
equipment calibration or determining sampling, specified partial: Partial
the efficiency of the discontinuity sampling in which a particular
detection process. Also called reference frequency or sequence of sample
or test panel, reference or test block and selection is prescribed. An example of
reference or test piece.2 See also specified partial sampling is the testing
acceptance standard.10 of every fifth unit.8,10

refractometer: Device that measures the scale: Oxide formed on metal by chemical
refractive index of a liquid. This value action of the surface metal with
increases in proportion to the oxygen from the air.2,10
dissolved solids in the liquid and
hence has been used to measure scale pit: Shallow surface depression in
hydrophilic remover concentration. metal, caused by scale.2,10

reinforcement of weld: (1) In a butt scaling: (1) Forming a layer of oxidation
joint, weld metal on the face of the product on metals, usually at high
weld that extends out beyond a temperatures. (2) Deposition of
surface plane common to the insoluble constituents on a metal
members being welded. (2) In a fillet surface, as in cooling tubes and water
weld, weld metal that contributes to boilers.8,10,12
convexity. (3) In a flash, upset or gas
pressure weld, weld metal exceeding scoring: (1) Marring or scratching of any
base metal diameter or thickness.2,10 formed part by metal pickup on a
punch, die or guide. (2) Reducing the
relative photometry: (1) Evaluation of thickness of a part along a line to
desired photometric characteristic weaken it purposely at a specific
based on assumed lumen output of location.8,10,12
test lamp. (2) Measurement of one
uncalibrated light source relative to scotopic vision: Dark adapted vision,
another uncalibrated light source.8,10 using only the rods in the retina,
where differences in brightness can be
repeatability: Ability to reproduce a detected but differences in hue
detectable indication in separate cannot. Vision is wholly scotopic
processings and tests from a constant when the luminance of the test
source.1,2,10 surface is below 3 × 10–5 cd·m–2
(2.7 × 10–6 cd·ft–2). Also known as
reserve vision acuity: The ability of an parafoveal vision. Compare mesopic
individual to maintain vision acuity vision and photopic vision.8,10
under poor viewing conditions. A
visual system with 20/20 near vision
acuity under degraded viewing
conditions has considerable reserve
vision acuity compared to that of an
individual with 20/70 near vision
acuity.8,10

retina: In the eye, the tissue that senses
light.8,10

Liquid Penetrant Testing Glossary 447

seam: (1) On the surface of metal, an shrinkage: See macroshrinkage and
unwelded fold or lap that appears as a microshrinkage.2,3,10
crack, usually resulting from a
discontinuity obtained in casting or shrinkage cavities: Cavities in castings
working. (2) Mechanical or welded caused by lack of sufficient molten
joints.3 (3) Longitudinal surface metal as the casting cools.2,3,10
discontinuity on metal originating
from a surface crack or blowhole near shrinkage cracks: Hot tears associated
the surface of the ingot, that is drawn with shrinkage cavities.2,3,10
out during rolling and follows the
rolling direction. Also due to overfill shrinkage porosity or sponge: Porous
while rolling. After forging, seams metal often with a network of fine
generally follow the direction of flow cracks formed during solidification of
lines.2,10 molten metal. At a surface, may form
a localized, lacy or honeycombed
seeability: Characteristic of an indication liquid penetrant indication.2,10
and/or liquid penetrant that enables
an observer to see it against the SI: The International System of units of
adverse conditions of background, measurement. An international system
outside light etc.2,10 of measurement based on seven base
units: meter (m), kilogram (kg),
self emulsifiable: Of or pertaining to second (s), kelvin (K), ampere (A),
liquid penetrant able spontaneously to candela (cd) and mole (mol).10
form an emulsion with water, a
property that lets it be rinsed off with SNT-TC-1A: See ASNT Recommended
water, with more control than if it Practice No. SNT-TC-1A.10
actually dissolved in the rinse water.
Also called water washable. See soak time: Period of time when the
penetrant, water washable.2,10 emulsifier remains in contact with the
liquid penetrant on the surface of the
sensitivity: (1) Performance characteristic test object. Soak time ceases when the
of a liquid penetrant system, of a liquid penetrant emulsifier is
developer or of an entire liquid quenched with water or completely
penetrant process that provides a removed by water rinsing. Also called
relative measure of the ability to emulsification time.2,10
detect discontinuities. (2) Enumerated
level of performance of a liquid solvent action: Ability of a liquid to
penetrant system determined by dissolve another material.2,10
applying standardized processing
procedures on reference standards solvent developer: See developer,
with known defects. nonaqueous.

shallow discontinuity: Discontinuity solvent removal: Process of removing
open to the surface of a solid object excess liquid penetrant from the
that possesses little depth in surface of a test object by hand wiping
proportion to the width of this with a solvent dampened cloth.2,10
opening. A scratch or nick may be a
shallow discontinuity in this sense.2,10 solvent remover: Volatile liquid that can
dissolve liquid penetrant and that is
shear break: Open break in metal at the used to remove excess surface liquid
periphery of a bolt, nut, rod or penetrant from object surfaces by
member at approximately a 45 degree appropriate hand wiping
angle to the applied stress. Occurs techniques.2,10
most often with flanged products. Also
called shear crack.8,10,12 spalling: Cracking or flaking of small
particles of metal, usually in thin
shear crack: See shear break.10 layers, from the surface of an
shot peening: Cold working the surface object.2,10

of a metal by metal shot special application: Of a remover or
impingement.3,10 developer, qualified for use only with
shoulder: Cylindrical metal component a specific liquid penetrant.
surface, machined to receive threading
indentations but in fact not threaded, specific examination: In certification of
where the thread stops on the outside nondestructive testing personnel, a
surface.8,10 written examination that addresses the
shrink: Internal rupture occurring in specifications and products pertinent
castings due to contraction during to the application. Compare general
cooling, usually caused by variations examination and practical
in solidification rates in the mold. examination.8,10
Includes shrinkage sponge, small voids
(stringers or bunches) or a fingerprint specific gravity: Ratio of the density of a
pattern of semifused seams. Also substance (usually aqueous developer)
applied to surface shrinkage to the density of water, usually
cracks.2,6,10 measured at 15.6 °C (60 °F).

specification: Set of instructions or
standards invoked by a specific
customer to govern the results or
performance of a specific set of tasks
or products.8,10

448 Liquid Penetrant Testing

specular: Pertaining to a mirror-like system: With respect to liquid penetrant
reflective finish, as of a metal. testing materials, a combination of
Compare lambertian.8,10 liquid penetrant and emulsifier that
are furnished by the same
spot check tests: Testing a number of manufacturer and are qualified
objects from a lot to determine the together. For water washable and
lot’s quality, the sample size being solvent removable liquid penetrants, a
chosen arbitrarily, such as five or ten system consists of liquid penetrants
percent. This does not provide only.
accurate assurance of the lot’s
quality.2,10 T

spot examination: Local examination of temperature: Measure of intensity of
welds or castings.2,10 particle motion in degrees Celsius (°C)
or degrees Fahrenheit (°F) or, in the
spray scrubber: Technique of pressure absolute scale, kelvin (K) or degrees
washing nonwater soluble liquid Rankine (°R), where 1 K = 1 °C =
penetrant from the surface by 1.8 °R = 1.8 °F.
introducing a hydrophilic emulsifier
or detergent into the water wash.2,10 temperature envelope: Temperature
range over which a particular liquid
standard: (1) A physical object with penetrant testing technique will
known material characteristics used as operate.2,10
a basis for comparison or calibration.10
(2) A concept established by authority, test: See examination.10
custom or agreement to serve as a test object: Part subjected to testing.10
model or rule in the measurement of test surface: Exposed surface of test
quantity or the establishment of a
practice or procedure.7,10 object.2,7,10
(3) Document to control and govern
practices in an industry or application, U
applied on a national or international
basis and usually produced by ultraviolet borescope: See borescope,
consensus. See also acceptance standard, ultraviolet.10
working standard and reference
standard.4,8,10,11 ultraviolet radiation: (1) Electromagnetic
radiation with wavelengths ranging
steel: Iron alloy, usually with less than from about 4 to about 400 nm,
two percent carbon.8,10 between visible light and X-rays.
Compare near ultraviolet radiation.8
stress: (1) In physics, the force in a (2) The range of wavelengths used for
material that resists external forces fluorescent nondestructive testing is
such as tension and compression. typically between 320 and
(2) Force per unit area.8,10 400 nm (UV-A). Shorter wavelengths
are very hazardous. Compare black
stress corrosion cracking: Failure by light.6,10
cracking under combined action of
corrosion and stress, either applied or ultraviolet radiometer: Meter, usually
residual. Cracking may be either calibrated at 365 nm, used in
intergranular or transgranular, fluorescent liquid penetrant and
depending on the metal and corrosive magnetic particle testing to measure
medium.2,10 the viewing conditions under near
ultraviolet irradiation.
stress raiser: Contour or property change
that causes local concentration of UV: Ultraviolet.
stress.8,10 UV-A radiation: Near ultraviolet

stress riser: See stress raiser.10 radiation.
stringer: In wrought materials, an
V
elongated configuration of
microconstituents or foreign material vigilance decrement: Degradation of
aligned in the direction of working. reliability during performance of
Commonly, the term is associated visual activities over a period of time.
with elongated oxide or sulfide See also psychophysics.8,10
inclusions in steel.2,10
substrate: Layer of metal underlying a viscosity: State or degree of being viscous.
coating, regardless of whether the The resistance of a fluid to the motion
layer is base metal.2,10 of its particles.13
subsurface discontinuity: Any
discontinuity that does not extend
through the surface of the object in
which it exists.2,10

Liquid Penetrant Testing Glossary 449

visibility: Quality or state of being W
perceivable by the eye. In many
outdoor applications, visibility is water break free: Rinse water, having the
defined in terms of the distance at ability to cover an entire surface in an
which an object can be just perceived unbroken film.2,10
by the eye. In indoor applications it
usually is defined in terms of the water content: Proportion of water
contrast or size of a standard test contamination of a sample of water
object, observed under standardized washable liquid penetrant or lipophilic
viewing conditions, having the same emulsifier taken from process tank.
threshold as the given object.8,10,14
water suspendable particle developer:
visible dye penetrant: Liquid penetrant Developer in which the developer
characterized by its intense visible particles are mixed with water to form
color, usually red. Also called color a suspension.13
contrast or nonfluorescent penetrant.13
water tolerance: Amount of water that a
visible light: Radiant energy generated in liquid penetrant or emulsifier or wet
the 400 to 700 nm wavelength developer can absorb before its
range.6,10,11 effectiveness is impaired.2,10,13

vision: Perception by eyesight. See mesopic water wash: Liquid penetrant removal
vision, near vision, photopic vision, technique wherein excess liquid
scotopic vision.8,10 penetrant is washed or flushed from
the test surface with water.13
vision acuity: Ability to distinguish fine
details visually. Quantitatively, it is the water washable penetrant: Liquid
reciprocal of the minimum angular penetrant that contains its own
separation in minutes of two lines of emulsifier, making it water washable.13
width subtending one minute of arc
when the lines are just resolvable as weld crack: Crack in weld metal.2,10
separate.8,10,14 wet developer: Developer in which

visual acuity: See vision acuity.10 developing powder is applied as
visual efficiency: Reliability of a visual suspension or solution in a liquid,
usually water or solvent.2,10
system. The term visual efficiency uses wetting action: Action of liquid in
20/20 near vision acuity as a baseline spontaneously spreading over and
in the United States for 100 percent adhering to solid surfaces.2,10
visual efficiency.8,10 white light: Light combining all
visual field: Locus of objects or points in frequencies in the visible spectrum
space that can be perceived when head and in equal proportions.8,10
and eyes are kept fixed. The field may working standard: Work piece or energy
be monocular or binocular.8,10,14 source calibrated and used in place of
visual perception: Interpretation of expensive reference standards. In
impressions transmitted from the calibrating of photometers, the
retina to the brain in terms of standard would be a light source.8,10
information about a physical world
displayed before the eye. Visual
perception involves any one or more
of the following: recognition of the
presence of something (object,
aperture or medium); identifying it;
locating it in space; noting its relation
to other things; identifying its
movement, color, brightness or
form.8,10,14
visual performance: Quantitative
assessment of the performance of a
visual test, taking into consideration
speed and accuracy.8,10,14
visual task: Appearance and immediate
background of those details and
objects that must be seen for the
performance of a given activity. The
term visual task is a misnomer because
it refers to the visual display itself and
not the task of extracting information
from it.8,10,14
visual testing: Method of nondestructive
testing using electromagnetic radiation
at visible frequencies.8,10
voids: Hollow spots, depressions or
cavities. See also discontinuity.8,10

450 Liquid Penetrant Testing

References

1. Nondestructive Testing Handbook, third 13. Nondestructive Testing: Liquid Penetrant,
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Nondestructive Testing (1998). Worth, Texas: General Dynamics,
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2. Nondestructive Testing Handbook,
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12. EPRI Learning Modules. Charlotte, NC:
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Liquid Penetrant Testing Glossary 451

17

CHAPTER

Liquid Penetrant Testing
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United States Department of Defense SAE AMS 2644, Inspection Materials,
(cancelled January 1962; superseded Penetrant. Warrendale, PA: SAE [Society
by MIL-I-19684). of Automotive Engineers]
International (1996).
MIL-I-6866B, Inspection, Liquid Penetrant.
Washington, DC: United States SAE AMS 3161A, Oil, Odorless Heavy
Department of Defense (1964). Solvent. Warrendale, PA: SAE [Society
(Cancelled July 1987; superseded by of Automotive Engineers]
MIL-STD-6866.) International (1993).

MIL SPEC AN-I-30a, Fluorescent Method of Product Oriented, Inactive
Inspection (September 1946).
MIL-F-25104A, Fluorescent Penetrant
MIL-STD-271, Nondestructive Testing Inspection Unit, Type MA1. Washington,
Methods, Requirements for. DC: United States Department of
Washington, DC: Department of Defense (Cancelled April 1966;
Defense; United States Government superseded by MIL-F-38762).
Printing Office (June 1986). (Cancelled
May 1998; superseded by NAVSEA MIL-F-38762, Fluorescent Penetrant
Technical Publication Inspection Units. Washington, DC:
T9074-AS-GIB-010/271.) United States Department of Defense
(cancelled July 1995).

480 Liquid Penetrant Testing

MIL-I-25105, Inspection Unit, Fluorescent Filtered Particle Testing
Penetrant, Type MA2. Washington, DC:
United States Department of Defense Betz, C.E. “Two New Testing Methods for
(1955). (Superseded by MIL-F-38762.) Ceramic Products.” Nondestructive
Testing. Vol. 7, No. 2. Columbus, OH:
MIL-I-25106, Inspection Unit, Fluorescent American Society for Nondestructive
Penetrant, Type MA3. Washington, DC: Testing (Fall 1948): p 22-26.
United States Department of Defense
(1955). DeForest, T. and H.N. Staats. Section 14,
“Principles and Techniques of Filtered
MIL-I-25135, Inspection Materials, Particle Inspection.” Nondestructive
Penetrants. Washington, DC: United Testing Handbook, second edition:
States Department of Defense (1989). Vol. 2, Liquid Penetrant Tests.
(Cancelled January 1998; superseded Columbus, OH: American Society for
by SAE AMS 2644.) Nondestructive Testing (1982):
p 575-594.
MIL-I-9445A, Inspection Unit, Fluorescent
Penetrant, General Specification for. DeForest, T. and H.N. Staats. Method of
Washington, DC: United States Detecting Cracks in Porous Surfaces.
Department of Defense (Cancelled United States Patent 2 516 857
November 1957; superseded by (August 1950).
MIL-F-38762).
DeForest, T. and H.N. Staats. Method of
MIL-P-47158, Penetrant Inspection, Detecting Cracks in Porous Surfaces.
Soundness Requirements for Materials, United States Patent 2 635 329
Parts and Weldments. Washington, DC: (April 1953).
United States Department of Defense
(1974). (Cancelled August 1989; DeForest, T. and H.N. Staats. Method of
superseded by MIL-STD-1907).) Detecting Cracks in Porous Surfaces.
United States Patent 2 636 127
QPL-25135-17, Inspection Materials, (April 1953).
Penetrants. Washington, DC: United
States Department of Defense Staats, H.N. “Which Nondestructive Test
(superseded by QPL-AMS-2644, March for Finding Defects in Ceramic Parts.”
1998). Materials and Methods. Vol. 36, No. 3.
New York, NY: Reinhold Publishing
SAE AMS 3155C, Oil, Fluorescent Penetrant Corporation (1952): p 116.
Solvent-Soluble. Warrendale, PA: SAE
[Society of Automotive Engineers] Staats, H.N. “Nondestructive Testing of
International (1994). Green Ware.” American Ceramic Society
Bulletin. Vol. 29, No. 11. Westerville,
SAE AMS 3156C, Oil, Fluorescent Penetrant OH: American Ceramic Society
Water Washable. Warrendale, PA: SAE (November 1950): p 411-415.
[Society of Automotive Engineers]
International (1983). Staats, H.N. “The Testing of Ceramics.”
Nondestructive Testing. Vol. 10, No. 3.
Other Methods Using Columbus, OH: American Society for
Liquid Penetrants Nondestructive Testing (Winter 1952):
p 23-26.
AT&T. “Detecting Flaws in Patterned
Substrate, by Incorporating Staats, H.N. “Filtered Particle Inspection of
Fluorescent Dye and Exposing to High Tension Insulators.”
Electromagnetic Radiation (for Nondestructive Testing. Vol. 11, No. 3.
Electronic Boards).” British Patent Columbus, OH: American Society for
2 144 923 (April 1985); European Nondestructive Testing (January 1953):
Patent 133 351 (March 1985). p 21-24.

Eapen, A.C., B.L. Ajmera and S.M. Agashe. Leak Testing
Pipeline Leak Location Using Radiotracer
Technique. Bombay, India: Bhabha Davis, L. “Pinpointing Vehicle Leaks
Atomic Research Centre (1983). Faster with Ultraviolet Light.”
Materials Evaluation. Vol. 47, No. 11.
IBM Corporation. “Detection of Flaws in Columbus, OH: American Society for
Printed Circuit Board — By Applying Nondestructive Testing (November
Fluorescing Dye in Polymerisable 1989): p 1248-1250.
Solution Curing and Encapsulating
Sample.” European Patent 71 872 Marrano, G. “Fluorescent Tracer Additives
(April 1983). as a Nondestructive Inspection
Technique for Leak Testing” (Back to
Basics). Materials Evaluation. Vol. 51,
No. 4. Columbus, OH: American
Society for Nondestructive Testing
(April 1993): p 436, 438.

Liquid Penetrant Testing Bibliography 481

Marrano, G. “Leak Detection Using Poeth, D.F., II, C.O. Ruud and S.H. Levine.
UV-Fluorescent Tracers in Power “The Measurement of Neutron Cross
Plants” (Back to Basics). Materials Sections for Contrast-Enhancing
Evaluation. Vol. 51, No. 6. Columbus, Penetrant Fluids.” Research in
OH: American Society for Nondestructive Testing. Vol. 8, No. 2.
Nondestructive Testing (June 1993): Columbus, OH: American Society for
p 646. Nondestructive Testing (1996):
p 67-82.
Migun, N.P. “Calculating the
Characteristics of the Process of Leak Shelton, C.G. and P.R. Marks. “Failure of
Tightness Inspection by the Penetrant Ductile Interlayer Composites:
Method.” Soviet Journal of High-Resolution X-Radiographic
Nondestructive Testing. Vol. 22, No. 11. Examination Using an Opaque
New York, NY: Plenum/Consultants Penetrant.” Journal of Materials Science
Bureau (July 1987): p 789-794. Letters. Vol. 7, No. 6. Norwell, MA:
Kluwer Academic Publishers
RadiometrIcally Opaque Liquid (June 1988): p 673-675.
Penetrants

Cotterell, K. and R.S. Sharpe. “The Use of
Carbon Tetrachloride As a Radiopaque
Penetrant.” Nondestructive Testing.
Vol. 20, No. 4. Columbus, OH:
American Society for Nondestructive
Testing (July-August 1962): p 234-237.

Kolker, H. and P. Henze. “Application of
Microfocus Radiology and Dye
Penetrants in Quality and Fracture
Toughness Determination of Ceramic
Samples.” Euro-Ceramics: Vol. 2,
Properties of Ceramics. Amsterdam,
Netherlands: Elsevier Applied Science;
for the European Ceramic Society, c/o
Institute of Materials, Shelton,
Stoke-on-Trent (1989): p 2.192-2.196.

Kolker, H., P. Henze, K.A. Schwetz and A.
Lipp. “X-Ray Microfocus and Dye
Penetrant Techniques for Crack
Detection in Ceramics.” Proceedings of
the 3rd International Symposium on
Ceramic Materials and Components for
Engines [Las Vegas, NV,
November 1988]. Columbus, OH:
American Chemical Society (1989):
p 1122-1140.

Mahoon, A. and F. Stewart. “The Use of
Radio-Opaque Penetrants for Study of
Damage in Composites.” NDT-86.
Proceedings of the 21st Annual British
Conference on Nondestructive Testing
[Newcastle-upon-Tyne, United
Kingdom, September 1986]: p 613-626.
Warley, West Midlands, United
Kingdom: Engineering Materials
Advisory Services Limited (1987).

Poeth, D.F. The Development of the
Methodology for the Optimization of
Neutron Opaque Penetrants for Use in the
Evaluation of Manufacturing Damage in
Monolithic and Composite Materials.
Dissertation RN 54514. University
Park, PA: Pennsylvania State
University. Abstract in Dissertation
Abstracts International. Vol. 54, No. 5
(DA 9326926). Ann Arbor, MI: UMI
(November 1993): P.2685-B.

482 Liquid Penetrant Testing

Index

Readers are encouraged to consult this volume’s glossary: glossary entries are detection probability of cracks in flat plates, 16-17, 18
not entered in this index. discontinuities, 352-353
etching, 191-192
A fan blades, 158, 362
fatigue cracks, 246
abrasive blasting. See grit blasting fluorescent compound chelation with, 397
abrasive particle size and sieve apertures, 29 forgings, 147, 357
abrasive precleaning, 167, 169-170 ingots, 356-357
absolute pressure, 28 liquid penetrant testing, 128, 129, 352-358
absorption, of light. See light absorption mechanical processing effects on liquid penetrant testing, 184-193
acceptance/rejection criteria pistons, 144, 145
process induced versus laboratory induced cracks, 251
aerospace applications, 155-158, 385 self-developing liquid penetrant testing, 386-391
critical parts, 64 transparent surface layer test panels, 265-266
decision process, 283 ambient visible light intensity, 226
establishing, 63, 140-141, 154-158 American Bureau of Shipping (ABS) requirements, 423
heat source capsule welds, 411 American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH), 75, 80
Navy ships, 424 near ultraviolet exposure limits, 78
acid contamination, 104, 163, 165 American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) steel types
removal, 176 AISI 300 series, 350
acid precleaning, 167, 174, 175 AISI 300 or 300M, 190, 193-196, 198, 253, 293, 295, 298
activated carbon, for liquid penetrant recovery, 312-313 AISI 304, 288-292, 293, 296, 298, 299, 369
adhesion energy, 84 AISI 316, 299
aerosol cans. See spray cans AISI 347, 295, 299
aerospace applications, 46 AISI 400 series, 350
acceptance/rejection criteria, 155, 156-157, 158 AISI 635, 293
automated equipment, 217-225 AISI 1018, 196, 253
cleaning restrictions, 170, 182 AISI 4130, 195-196, 253
custom designed dip stations, 208 AISI 4340, 190, 193-196, 252, 281
depth sensing capability liquid penetrants, 396-397 American National Standards Institute (ANSI), 80, 377
developerless, 386-391 ANSI/API 510, 376
fleet maintenance, 404-406 ANSI/ASNT CP-189, 13
fluorescent liquid penetrant cleaning, 181-183 American Petroleum Institute (API), ANSI/API 510, 376
heat source capsules for deep space missions, 407-412 American Society for Nondestructive Testing (ASNT)
history of liquid penetrant testing, 23-26 ANSI/ASNT CP-189, 13, 377
importance of good eyesight for inspectors, 139 Central Certification Program, 13, 377
jet engine blade automatic testing system, 216 NDT Level III, 377
light alloy castings, 357-358 Recommended Practice No. SNT-TC-1A, 13, 376-377, 381-382
liquid oxygen systems, 393-395 American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), 63
low/high temperature liquid penetrants, 138 D 95, 110, 112-113, 381
open face honeycomb seals, 398-401 D 129, 300-301, 302
specifications, 380-385 D 516, 302
structural weldment crack enhancement, 402-403 D 808, 300, 303, 304
without developer, 386-391 D 1179, 304
Aerospace Industries Association of America (AIA) D 1266, 302
AIA NAS 410, 13, 382 D 1552, 300-301
agitation cleaning, 167 D 2441, 300
AIA. See Aerospace Industries Association of America D 2512, 41
aircraft component testing. See aerospace applications E 165, 299, 302, 303, 304, 348, 423
aircraft structural integrity program, 404-406 E 433, 61, 154
air knife, 217, 224 E 1417, 100, 109, 183, 236, 348
air pollution control, 70 E 1135, laboratory fluorometer specified by, 111
AISI. See American Iron and Steel Institute F 22-65, 408
Alburger, James, 20, 25 See also Liquid Penetrant Testing Bibliography
alkali contamination, 104, 163, 165 American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME), 63
removal, 176 ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, 247, 300, 348, 364-367, 375, 423
alkaline precleaning, 167, 174, 175 AMS. See SAE International
aluminum and alloys, 9, 344 analog signal processing, laser scanning system, 241-242
alloys, 122, 192, 352, 357 anodized aluminum test panels, 265-266
anodized test panels, 265-266 ANSI/API 510, 376
automotive parts, 425 ANSI/ASNT CP-189, 13, 377
controlled surface cavity test panels, 261-263 aqueous soluble developers. See water soluble developers
cracked comparator blocks, 122, 185-190, 247-251

aqueous suspendible developers. See water suspendible developers chelating liquid penetrant system, 396-397
arc welding, 171 chemical cleaning, 167
ASME. See American Society of Mechanical Engineers
ASTM. See American Society for Testing and Materials aircraft components, 181
atomized spray application systems, 215 surfaces damaged by mechanical processing, 184
audits, nuclear power plants, 374 chemical oxygen demand (COD), 307
austenitic stainless steel, 345 chinaware cracks, 337
chlorides
liquid penetrant restrictions, 10 analysis methods, 302-303
liquid penetrant testing, 350 analysis specifications, 300-301
stress corrosion mechanism, 295-299 content restrictions, 41, 288
stress corrosion testing, 289-292 effects on stainless steels, 298
sulfide corrosion, 293 removal, 298
automated liquid penetrant test systems, 8, 35 stress corrosion effects, 289-292
aerospace applications, 217-225 chlorinated hydrocarbon cleaners, 171, 172, 173, 298-299
primary metals production applications, 348 Christmas tree, 144
production line systems, 208-209 chromate residue contamination, 104, 165
automotive part testing, 425-428 chromatography. See ion chromatography
chromic anodization treatment, 137
B effect on crack indications in aluminum alloys, 188, 190
clarifiers, 318, 319-320
balling up, wet developers, 116 clay tile, laminar cracks in, 330
bases, contamination by. See alkali contamination clayware cracks, filtered particle testing, 327-341
bearing shells, 62 discontinuities in unfired, 337
Beer-Lambert law, 90 prewetting, 335-336
Betz, Carl E., 19-20 cleaning, 7, 8, 34
bibliography, 453-482 aerospace applications, 181-183, 383
billets, 129 contamination effects, 162-166
biodegradable liquid penetrants, 308 and diffuse liquid penetrant indications, 134
biological oxygen demand (BOD), 307 field preparation of parts, 65
black light. See ultraviolet radiation importance of, 35
bleedback, 155 oil field down hole tubular parts, 419
bleedout, contamination and, 162 postcleaning procedures, 178-180
blooms, 129 precautions, 168
blow holes, 62 precleaning procedures, 167-177
Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, ASME, 247, 300, 348, 364-367, 375, 423 procedures for various contamination types, 162-165
bomb turbidemetric sulfur test, 302 process flowsheet, 167
bottom hole assembly, 419-420 process selection, 168
Brady, Elliot, 24 surface contamination, 163, 164
braze bonds surfaces damaged by mechanical processing, 184
See also postcleaning; precleaning; removal, liquid penetrants; removers
copper, 417 cleanliness, of processing area, 70
cracks in, 142-143 and surface contamination, 166
open face honeycomb seals, 398-401 clumping, of dry developers, 101
brightness discrimination, 14, 134 coating contamination, 104, 163, 164
reference conditions, 267-268 removal, 177
test panels for background brightness, 264-272 cobalt alloys, fatigue cracks, 279, 282
broad field microscopes, use in liquid penetrant testing, 14 cold discharge tubular fluorescent lamps, 234
brushing, 8, 35 cold shut, 147
buffing, 8, 35 cold working, 130, 169-170
builders, alkaline cleaners, 175 cracks, 143
color, liquid penetrants, 90-91
C color blindness, 14, 96
color contrast liquid penetrants. See visible liquid penetrant testing
candela, 29 color vision, 13-14
capillary pressure, liquid penetrants, 45, 84-86 comparators, comparator blocks and panels
carbide cutting tool testing, 143, 416-418 aluminum quench cracks, 122, 246-251
carbon, 330 controlled surface cavities, 261-263
liquid penetrant system monitor panel, 259-261
surfactant adsorption onto, 312-313 steel grinding cracks, 253
carbon contamination, 163, 164, 174 steel quench cracks, 252
carbon matrix composite materials, filtered particle testing, 339-341 titanium stress corrosion cracking, 251-252
carbon steel, 344 composite carbon matrix materials, filtered particle testing, 339-341
conical surface indentations, test panels with, 262-263
liquid penetrant testing, 350-351 contact angle, liquid penetrants, 84
postcleaning to prevent corrosion, 179-180 contamination, 7, 8, 34
carcinogens, 76 developers in use, 107-108
care and maintenance. See maintenance effects on liquid penetrant indications, 137
cascading dye process, 25 and emulsifier effectiveness, 88
cast aluminum alloys, 352-358 emulsifiers and removers in use, 106
castings, 47 emulsifier tanks, 53-54
excessive bleedout indications, 60 liquid penetrants in storage, 101
fluorescent liquid penetrant testing, 344-349, 351 liquid penetrants in use, 103-104
liquid penetrant indications, 134 precleaning, 167-177
mechanized conveyorized test system, 210-212 prior liquid penetrant testing residues, 165
sources of discontinuities, 128-129 types, effects, and removal procedures, 162-165
cast irons, liquid penetrant testing, 350, 351 See also specific contaminants
cataracts, and fluorescent liquid penetrant indication viewing, 96 contrast, 40
Central Certification Program, American Society for Nondestructive Testing eye sensitivity to, 228
(ASNT), 13, 377 fluorescent liquid penetrants, 60, 61, 91, 95, 237, 269-271, 272
centrifugation, for liquid penetrant removal from waste water, 311 visible dye liquid penetrants, 59, 61, 90, 95, 429, 430
ceramics, 9, 35 conveyorized liquid penetrant test system, 209-212
filtered particle testing, 326-341 copper
porosity, 150 alloys, 9
ceramoplastics, 430 brazing, 417
cermets, 35
filtered particle testing, 330
certification, of liquid penetrant testing personnel, 13, 375-377

484 Liquid Penetrant Testing

corrosion wetting and detergent properties, 36
chlorine, 289-292 See also dry powder developers; solvent developers; water soluble
liquid penetrant processing equipment, 69
contamination of product, 163, 164 developers; water suspendible developers
protecting cleaned surfaces from, 170 development time, 42
removal, 174 dexterity, of liquid penetrant testing personnel, 13
sources of failures related to, 132 die castings, 147
sulfur, 292-294 differential pressure, 28
See also stress corrosion cracking diffuse liquid penetrant indications, 134, 141
digital computer pattern recognition, 243
cracked metal comparator blocks, 246-253 dip-and-drain stations (dip tanks)
crack initiation, 296
crack propagation, 296-297 custom designed, 208
cracks, 2, 46 hydrophilic emulsifier station, 215
in multicomponent test unit, 205, 206, 207
aerospace structural weldment crack enhancement, 402-403 in self-contained test unit, 203
anodized aluminum test panels, 265-266 liquid penetrant care and maintenance with, 103
in clayware, filtered particle testing, 327 disbonds, 2
cutting tools, 417 discontinuities, 2, 4
filled, 104, 163-164 automated detection, 209
geometry effects on indication brightness, 266 chasing out, in unfired ware, 332, 338
liquid penetrant detection, 7, 11, 39, 276-284 laminar, 147-148
liquid penetrant indications, 126, 142-146 light alloy castings, 352-353
plastics, 429 liquid penetrant detection, 7, 11
simulation, 246 liquid penetrant indication classification, 127
sources in primary metals production, 128-132 minimum allowable, 8
synthetic specimens, 120-122 optical pattern recognition, 242-243
See also quenching cracks; stress corrosion cracking porous materials, 326
crack size, 246 sources in primary metals production, 127-132
process induced versus laboratory induced, various metals, 251 discontinuity size, 10, 35, 46
production parts, various metals, 246 and liquid penetrant testing reliability, 18
and reliability of detection, 16-17, 18 and sensitivity level, 39
crankshaft, 67 dispersants, in hydrophilic emulsifiers, 88-89
critical test parts, 10, 47 dispersibility, 266
fracture critical components, 283 down hole tubular parts, 419-420
cupping, 129 dragout, emulsifiers, 88
dragout, liquid penetrants, 86, 106
D drain dwell technique, 48, 52
drying, 42, 43, 45
dark adaptation, 14 aerospace applications, 380, 383
in fluorescent testing, 227, 229-230 oil field down hole tubular parts, 420
primary metal production applications, 346-347
deburring. See tumble deburring drying stations
deep space missions, heat source capsules for, 407-412 in automated aerospace systems, 218, 221, 224
DeForest, A. V., 20, 21-22 in mechanized conveyorized system, 211
DeForest, Taber, 20, 21-22, 23, 25, 326 in multicomponent test unit, 206, 207
depth sensing fluorescent liquid penetrants, 396-397 in self-contained test unit, 204
detergents dry powder developers, 38, 55, 92
advantages and disadvantages, 56
in hydrophilic emulsifiers, 88-89 aerospace applications, 385
in precleaning, 167 application technique, 56
pollution from, 318-319, 321 care and maintenance, 107
deterioration clumping, 101
developers in use, 57, 107-108 postcleaning, 179, 180
emulsifiers and removers in use, 106 visual test for degradation, 115
liquid penetrants in storage, 101-102 dual immersion tank application system, 214
liquid penetrants in use, 103-104 dual mode liquid penetrants, 36
standard materials for evaluation of, 110 viewing indications, 46
developer, dry powder. See dry powder developers dwell time, 42, 43, 48
developer, nonaqueous. See nonaqueous developers effects on liquid penetrant indications, 138
developer, soluble. See nonaqueous developers postemulsifiable liquid penetrants, 51-52
developer, solvent suspendible. See solvent developers dye type
developer, suspendible. See water suspendible developers liquid penetrant classification by, 36
developer application stations and sensitivity level, 39
in automated aerospace systems, 224 dynamic viscosity, 29
in multicomponent test unit, 206, 207
in self-contained test unit, 204, 205 E
developer dwell time, 42
developerless liquid penetrants. See self-developing liquid penetrants electrically calibrated pyroelectric radiometer (ECPR), 236
developers, 7, 34 electric current units, 27
aerospace applications, 381, 384-385 electric power applications, 361-378
application techniques, 56-58
care and maintenance in storage, 101-102 power plants, 362-363
care and maintenance in use, 57, 107-108 high tension bushing, 333
crack visibility with/without developer, 92 electrocleaning, 167, 174
development of, 23 electromagnetic spectrum, 227
and diffuse liquid penetrant indications, 134 electrostatic spray application systems, 38, 213-215
effects on liquid penetrant indications, 138 automated aerospace systems, 218-225
fluorescent liquid penetrant interactions, 91, 93-94 with solvent suspendible developers, 58
liquid oxygen applications, 394-395 Ellis, Greer, 22
mechanism of action, 55 emulsification time, 53
oil-and-whiting method, 19 emulsifier, hydrophilic. See hydrophilic emulsifiers
oil field down hole tubular parts, 420 emulsifier, lipophilic. See lipophilic emulsifiers
with opaque crack test panels, 257-258 emulsifiers, 37, 87-89
postcleaning, 178-180 care and maintenance in storage, 101-102
primary metal production applications, 347 care and maintenance in use, 106
principles of application, 55-58 contamination sources, 53-54
types, 55, 92-94 contamination tests, 112-115
for visible liquid penetrants, 90, 95
Index 485

pollution from, 318 fire alarms, 69
in postcleaning, 179 fired ceramic materials, 330
principles of application, 48-54 fire extinguishers, 69
washability break, 113 fire hazards, 72-73, 75
wetting and detergent properties, 36 flammability, 75
See also lipophilic emulsifiers; hydrophilic emulsifiers
emulsion postcleaning, 179 liquid penetrants, 72-73
emulsion precleaning, 176 flash point, 72, 75
EN 473, 13
engine varnish contamination, 163, 164 common solvents, 173
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 70, 71 and spot dry time, 87
equipment, for liquid penetrant testing. See liquid penetrant testing fleet maintenance applications, aircraft, 404-406
equipment flooding, 207
erythemal ultraviolet radiation, 77, 78 floodlights, 226
etching, 7, 8, 167 fluorescent brightness, 268-272
aluminum, 191-193 background test panels, 264-268
primary metal production applications, 345 contrast curves, 271, 272
steel, 195-196 measurement, 111-112
surface removal necessary to restore liquid penetrant indications, 190 fluorescent compounds, chelation with aluminum, 397
titanium, 198, 199 fluorescent liquid penetrant testing, 36
eutectic melting, 353 advantages, 46
eutrophication, 319 aircraft components, 181-183, 405-406
evaporation, liquid penetrants, 104 aluminum alloys, 355, 356-357
explosion hazards, 75 automotive parts, 425-428
explosive limits, 75 basic processes, 42-46
exposure limits, 74-75 brazed ring seals, 401
ultraviolet radiation, 78-79 brightness, 39
extrusion discontinuities, 130, 148 color, 90-91
eyes, 13-14, 39 contrast, 60, 61, 91, 95, 237, 269-271
brightness discrimination, 14, 134 contrast ratio, 237
cataracts, 96 dark adaptation, need for adequate, 229-230
contrast sensitivity, 228 depth sensing capabilities, 396-397
fatigue, 71 developers with, 92-94
fluorescence of eyeball, 61, 79-80, 230 development of, 20-22
relative luminosity efficiency curves, 229 field techniques, 66
response to ultraviolet radiation, 227-228 filtered particle test media, 331-332, 335
response to various light wavelengths, 228 light sources for, 226-238
response to white and colored light, 228-229 mechanized scanners, 239-243
vision threshold, 228 optical pattern recognition, 242-243
and vitamin A deficiency, 139 plastics, 430
portable kits, 202
F precision investment castings, 344-349
reapplication, 336
fail safe aircraft design, 405 selection, 46-47
failure, rising costs of, 3-4 self-developing, 392-393
far ultraviolet radiation. See ultraviolet radiation sensitivity, 39
false indications, 151-152, 162 ultraviolet level selection, 236
fatigue cracks ultraviolet measurement, 234-236
viewing indications, 45-46, 59, 95-96
aircraft structures, 131, 404 welds in heat source capsules, 409
aluminum alloys, 246 white light interference, 226-227, 236-237
cobalt alloys, 279, 282 See also ultraviolet radiation; ultraviolet lamps
low cycle specimens, 246-247 fluorescent liquid penetrant light trap, 93, 94
metal comparator block specimens, 246-253 fluorescent tubes, 226
prevention, 131-132 ultraviolet radiation sources, 234
in service, 144-145 fluorine, analysis methods, 304-305
sources, 131 fluorometers, 111-112
steel, 246, 281 flying spot fluorescent liquid penetrant laser scanning, 240-242, 243
titanium alloys, 246, 247, 280 foamed hydrophilic emulsifiers, 215
Federal Occupational Safety and Health Act, 72 footcandle, 235
ferrous metals, 8, 350-351 forging laps, 130, 147
See also steel forgings, 47, 134, 136, 138
field techniques, 7, 9, 10, 65-68 cracks, 138, 143
military aircraft inspection, 406 sources of discontinuities, 129-130
nuclear power plants, psychology of, 374 formula racing cars. See racing cars
precautions, 65 fossil fuel power plants, 362
precleaning process selection, 168 foundry applications, 344-349
pressurized solvent spray cans, 172-173 light alloys, 352-358
safety considerations, 73 fracture critical components, 283
See also portable liquid penetrant kits fractured glass step wedge test panels, 266-271
filled cracks, 104, 163-164 fugitive dye technique, 25
film type developers, 58 fusion weld cracks, 142
filtered particle testing future usefulness, and nondestructive testing, 2
applications, 327
carbon matrix composite materials, 339-341 G
design and selection, 331-332
differential absorption in, 329 gage pressure, 28
equipment, 333-334 gamma values, 269
indication interpretation, 337-338 gas holes, 149
media, 326-327, 329, 331-332 gears, 60
mechanism of operation, 328-330 glass, 35
prewetting, 327, 335-336
principles, 326-327 cracks, 146
filtration, for liquid penetrant removal from waste water, 310-311 fractured glass step wedge test panels, 266-271
fingerprint contamination, 165 glass bonded mica, 430
removal, 177 glossary, 433-451
graphite, 330
486 Liquid Penetrant Testing

grease contamination, 35, 104, 163-164 aircraft structural integrity program, 405
precleaning, 169, 170 automotive parts, 425-428
castings, 344-345, 349, 350
green clayware, chasing out discontinuities, 332, 338 cutting tools, 416-418
grey iron castings, 351 electric power components, 361-378
grinding, 8, 29, 35 ferrous metals, 350-351
light alloys, 352-358
sources of discontinuities, 130 nuclear power plants, 374, 375
grinding cracks, 143 plastics, 429-430
radioisotope capsules for space travel, 407-412
steel comparator blocks, 253 ships, 421-424
grit coarseness. See mesh inspection stations
grit blasted test panels in automated aerospace systems, 219, 221, 225
in mechanized conveyorized system, 211
emulsifier washability test, 113 in multicomponent test unit, 206, 207
for fluorescent background measurement, 264-266 in self-contained test unit, 204, 205
fractured glass step wedge panels, 266-271 insulators, high tension, 327, 332
grit blasting, 8, 29, 35, 170, 174, 184 intergranular attack, sulfur, 293-294
effect on crack indications in aluminum alloys, 188, 190 International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), 76
etching of steel after, 195-196 International Organization for Standardization (ISO), 377
etching of titanium after, 198, 199 ISO 9712, 13, 377
See also abrasive precleaning International System of Units (SI), 27
investment casting, 344
H ion chromatography
for chlorine analysis, 303
halogens, 41, 295 for fluorine analysis, 305
analysis methods, 302-305 for halogen analysis, 300
analysis specifications, 300-301 for sulfur analysis, 300, 302
cleaning compound restrictions, 170 irrelevant indications. See nonrelevant indications
content restrictions, 288 ISO 9712, 13, 377
stress corrosion effects, 289-292
J
hand creams, 72
hand wiping jet engine blades, automatic testing system, 216

developers, 180 K
in solvent cleaning, 37, 44-45, 87, 173
Hazard Awareness Communications Program, 76 kinematic viscosity, 29
health and safety hazards Kuhrt, Harry, 23
material hazards, 71-73
material safety data sheets, 73-76 L
solvent cleaning, 172-173
ultraviolet radiation precautions, 76-80 laboratory fluorometers, 111-112
vapor degreasing, 171 lacquer developers, solvent based, 93
heat checks, 145 lamps. See ultraviolet lamps
heat source capsules, for deep space missions, 407-412 lapping, effect on crack indications in aluminum alloys, 185
heat treating processes, 130 laser scanning systems, 239-243
heat treatment cracks, 138, 143 law enforcement, use of fluorescent materials, 20-21
high carbon alloy steels, 350-351 lead, 41
high temperature alloy oxides. See oxide contamination leak testing
high temperature liquid penetrants, 41
high tension insulators, 327, 332 car transmissions, 426-427
high volume liquid penetrant testing equipment, 8, 35, 202, 208 with liquid penetrant testing, 7-8, 35, 67-68, 141, 150
honeycomb seals, open face, 398-401 prior testing residues, 165
honeycomb structures, depth sensing liquid penetrant testing, 396-397 welded seams, 150
honing, 8, 35 length units, 27
effect on crack indications in aluminum alloys, 185 light absorption
etching of steel after, 195-196 fluorescent liquid penetrants, 90-91, 93-94
etching of titanium after, 198, 199 visible liquid penetrants, 90, 91
Hurter and Driffield (H&D) film density curves, 267, 268 light alloys, 128, 129, 352-358
hydrogen embrittlement, 131, 297 fatigue cracks, 144-145
hydrogen precipitation as hydride in nickel alloys, 296 lighting equipment, 226-238
hydrophilic emulsifiers, 37, 88-89 light intensity
avoiding overremoval, 51 ambient visible light, 226
basic process, 43-44, 48, 49 and fluorescent liquid penetrant indications, 95-96
care and maintenance, 106 various industrial conditions, 96
concentration control, 114 and visible liquid penetrant indications, 95
contamination in tanks, 53 light scattering
converting lipophilic test systems to, 214 and developers, 93-94
dip tank station, 215 fluorescent liquid penetrants, 91, 93-94
manual test installations, 214 light units, 28
mechanism of action, 52-53 See also ultraviolet lamps
postemulsification process, 314-316 linear indications
refractive index, 114 acceptance/rejection criteria, aerospace applications, 385
spray application of foamed, 215 acceptance/rejection criteria, Navy applications, 424
tests for contamination by, 114-115 interpretation, 133-134
visual monitoring for contamination, 113-114 links, 60
lipophilic emulsifiers, 37, 88
I avoiding overremoval, 51
basic process, 43, 43, 44, 48, 49
illuminance, 29 care and maintenance, 106
incandescent lamps, 226 contamination in tanks, 53
incandescent ultraviolet radiation sources, 234 converting test systems to hydrophilic, 214
index of refraction, liquid penetrants, 93 disadvantages, 88
indications. See liquid penetrant indications mechanism of action, 52
ingot molds, 127
ingots, 128 Index 487
inherent discontinuities, 127
inspection, 34

aircraft components, 181-182, 357-358, 379-406

postcleaning, 179 prior testing residues, 165
postemulsification process, 43 process selection, 9-11, 46-47
water contamination test, 112-113 productivity, 15, 18
water tolerance, 109 quality control tests, 118-122
liquid oxygen (LOX) systems, 40-41 reasons for selecting, 8, 9, 11, 35
aerospace applications, 392-395 reliability, 18
postcleaning restrictions, 178 repetitive testing standards, 141
liquid penetrant, color contrast. See visible liquid penetrant testing sensitivity, 8, 35, 39
liquid penetrant, fluorescent. See fluorescent liquid penetrant testing signal-to-noise ratio, 48, 282-283
liquid penetrant, solvent removable. See solvent removable liquid penetrants surface conditions interfering with, 162
liquid penetrant, visible dye. See visible liquid penetrant testing test object preparation, 162
liquid penetrant incoming testing, aerospace industry, 358 waste pollution control, 306-313
liquid penetrant indications See also field techniques; liquid penetrant indications; specific applications
acceptance standards, 140-141
appearance, 133-134 and materials
classification by discontinuity, 127 liquid penetrant testing applications. See aerospace applications; nuclear
crack geometry effects on brightness, 266
cracks, 142-146 power plants; primary metals production
ensuring inspector knowledge of, 15 liquid penetrant testing equipment, 202-216
evaluation, 126-132, 133
evaluation specifications, 63-64, 154-158 aerospace automated applications, 217-225
faulty technique effects, 138 automated production line system, 208-209
field techniques, 66, 67 high volume, 8, 35, 202, 208
filtered particle testing, 337-338 lighting equipment, 226-238
importance of excess liquid penetrant removal, 48 maintenance, 69-70
inadequate, possible causes, 141 mechanized conveyorized, 209-212
interpretation, 42-43, 61-63, 126, 133-135 mechanized scanners, 239-243
laminar discontinuities, 147-148 portable, 202
mechanism of formation, 133 primary metal production applications, 347-348
mechanized scanners, 239-243 quality control tests, 118-122
nonrelevant and false, 46, 151-152, 162, 338, 424 selection, 209
persistence, 135 specialized, 202, 208
primary metal production applications, 347, 355-356 stationary, 202-208
processing effects influencing, 136-139 low carbon alloy steels, 350
recognition training, 153 lower explosive limit (LEL), 75
surface condition effects, 137 low temperature liquid penetrants, 41
time to develop, 135 LOX systems. See liquid oxygen (LOX) systems
variables affecting, 137-139 lubricant contamination, 163
viewing, 42, 45-46, 59-61, 95-96 luminance, 29
liquid penetrants luminous flux, 29
biodegradable, 308 luminous intensity, 27, 29
care and maintenance in storage, 100-102
care and maintenance in use, 103-105 M
classification by dye type, 36
classification by removal method, 36-37 machines, increased demand on, 3
color, 90-91 machining, 8, 35, 184
disposal, 216
dual mode, 36, 46 etching of aluminum after, 192-193
evaporation, 104 machining cracks, 143
heat effects, 105 magnesium, 9, 134, 344
light absorption of films, 91
liquid oxygen applications, 392 microshrinkage in, 150
major requirements of, 39-40 open wheel racing cars, 145, 427-428
material hazards, 71-73 postcleaning to prevent corrosion, 179-180
physical properties, 40, 84-86 magnetic particle testing, 19
prewash concept, 314-315 fossil fuel power plants, 362
qualified/approved, 38-39 liquid penetrant testing contrasted for nuclear power applications, 365
quality control tests for, 109-117 residue removal, 169
removal. See removal, liquid penetrants magnification, use in liquid penetrant testing, 14
selection, 46-47 maintenance
slow solubility, 321 developers, 107-108
special application requirements, 40-41 emulsifiers, 106
waste treatment by adsorption, 311, 312-313 liquid penetrants in storage, 100-102
wetting and detergent properties, 36 liquid penetrants in use, 103-105
See also fluorescent liquid penetrant testing; visible liquid penetrant liquid penetrant test systems, 69-70
removers, 106
testing; water washable liquid penetrants; postemulsifiable liquid ultraviolet lamps, 237-238
penetrants malleable iron castings, 351
liquid penetrant system monitor panel, 259-261, 316-317 marine applications, 421-424
liquid penetrant testing martensitic stainless steel, 345
basic process, 7-8, 34, 42-46 liquid penetrant testing, 350
bibliography, 453-482 mass units, 27
cleanliness of processing area, 70, 166 material hazards, 71-73
closed loop system, 320-322 material safety data sheets (MSDS), 73-76
disadvantages and limitations, 8-9, 35-36 mechanical processing
glossary, 433-451 cracks from, 143
history, 19-26 and liquid penetrant testing indications, 8, 35, 136-139, 184-199
human performance, 282-284 and surface contamination, 164
key individuals in development of, 19-26 See also specific operations, i.e., shot peening
labor intensiveness, 9, 12 mechanical working, 8, 35
with leak testing, 7-8, 35, 67-68, 141, 150 mechanized conveyorized liquid penetrant test system, 209-212
lighting, 226-238 mechanized scanning
management interest and, 12 for fluorescent liquid penetrant testing, 239-243
management of, 7-11 nuclear power plant piping, 373
materials inspectable, 9, 34-35 mental qualifications, of liquid penetrant testing personnel, 14-15
personnel selection and qualification, 12-18 mercury, 41
mercury vapor arc ultraviolet sources, 13, 230-233
radiation intensity variation with distance, 233
various commercial, 232
mesh measurement of grit coarseness, 29, 185-190, 193, 198, 329, 330

488 Liquid Penetrant Testing

metal cutting tool testing, 416-418 O
metallic materials, 9, 10
methyl chloroform (1,1,1-trichloroethane), 171 Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), 70, 71, 72, 80
metric system, 27 carcinogens, 76
micelles, 318 Hazard Communication Rule, 73
micelle theory, 318 material safety data sheets (MSDS), 73-76
microscopes, use in liquid penetrant testing, 14
microshrinkage, 128, 150 ocular fluorescence, 61, 79-80, 230
military specifications, 26, 100 oil-and-whiting method, 19, 36
oil contamination, 35, 104, 163-164
AN-1-30a, 26
cleaning compound restrictions, 170 precleaning, 169, 170
laboratory fluorometer specified by, 111, 112 oil field down hole tubular parts, 419-420
MIL-I-6866, 26, 100, 109 open face honeycomb seals, 398-401
MIL-I-25135, 26, 100, 101, 120 open wheel racing cars, 426-428
MIL-S-8949, 101 optical pattern recognition, 242-243
MIL-STD-1823, 284 organic coating contamination, 104, 164-165
MIL-STD-2035, 422 organic fluid contamination, 163-164
MIL-STD-2132, 422 oxide contamination, 163, 164
MIL-STD-2175, 384
NAVSEA 250-1500-1, 100 removal, 174-175
NAVSEA Technical Publications, 422-423
NAVSHIPS 250-1500-1, 422 P
Navy specifications, 422-423
QPL-25135, 38 paint contamination, 35, 104, 163, 164-165
QPL-AMS-2644, 38-39, 246 removal, 174
milling cutters, carbide tipped, 417-418
minimum allowable discontinuities, 8 paint stripping, 167, 174
moisture contamination. See water contamination aircraft components, 182
motor ability, of liquid penetrant testing personnel, 13
multiple component stationary liquid penetrant test units, 205-207 Parker, Donald, 25, 26
part drying stations. See drying stations
N part handling, 10
peening, 169-170
narrow angle photometer, 120
national certifying body, 13, 377 See also shot peening
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), 80 penetrants. See liquid penetrants
penetrant testing. See liquid penetrant testing
near ultraviolet exposure limits, 78-79 penetrating ability, 40
National Materials Advisory Board (NMAB) Ad Hoc Committee on Pensky-Martens closed cup technique, 73
perchloroethylene, 171
Nondestructive Evaluation, 4 permissible exposure limit (PEL), 74-75
National Toxicology Program (NTP), 76 personnel certification, 13, 375-377
Naval Ships Technical Manual, 423
near ultraviolet radiation (ultraviolet-A radiation). See ultraviolet radiation nuclear power plants, 375
nickel and alloys personnel qualification, 12-18

cleaning compound restrictions, 170 aerospace applications, 13, 381-382, 406
liquid penetrant restrictions, 10 nuclear power plants, 374
sulfide corrosion, 293 photoelectric meters, 235
nickel chrome test panels, 90 photometers, 120, 264
emulsifier overspraying effects, 89 photopic vision, 229
surface cracked, 254-258 photosensitive eyeglasses, avoidance of, 14, 230
90/95 probability of detection value, 276 physical qualifications, of liquid penetrant testing personnel, 13-14
nonaqueous developers. See solvent developers pickling, 7
nondestructive material characterization, 2 aluminum alloy castings, 355
nondestructive testing, 2 pickling cracks, 417
method categories, 4 pierced products, 130
method classification, 4-6 pigmented drawing lubricants, removal, 169
method objectives, 6 pipe weld testing device, 373
purposes, 2-4 piping, nuclear power plants, 369-373
units of measure for, 27-29 plastic media blasting (PMB), 8, 35
nonferrous metals, 8, 35 plastics, 9, 35
surface testing, 19-21 cracks, 146
See also aluminum and alloys; titanium and alloys discontinuity sources, 429-430
nonfluorescent liquid penetrants. See visible liquid penetrant testing porosity
nonmetallic inclusions, 128 aluminum castings, 128, 353, 356
nonmetallic materials, 9, 10, 35 automotive parts, 427
carbon matrix composites, 339-341 cutting tools, 416-417
ceramics, 330-338 fractured glass step wedge test panels, 267
clayware, 330-338 liquid penetrant indications, 126, 149-150
plastics, 429-430 sources in primary metals production, 128, 130
precleaning, 168 porosity units, 28
nonrelevant indications, 46, 151-152 porous materials, 48
acceptance/rejection criteria, Navy applications, 424 background fluorescence caused by, 61
filtered particle testing, 338 filtered particle testing, 326-341
nuclear power plants, 100, 362 nondestructive testing, 326
low/high temperature liquid penetrants, 138 selective fluid absorption, 328
onsite liquid penetrant examinations, 366-367 small dot liquid penetrant indications, 134
personnel issues, 374-377 portable liquid penetrant kits, 202
piping discontinuity testing, 369-373 solvent based developers for, 93
postcleaning restrictions, 178 solvent spray cans for, 172
precleaning restrictions, 170 portable liquid penetrant test equipment, 35, 202
pressure component testing, 364-368 portable radiometers, 235
in service inspection, 362-363 postcleaning, 7, 34, 165, 167
procedures, 178-180
sulfur and halogen compound removal, 289
postemulsifiable liquid penetrants, 36-37, 87, 184
basic process, 43-44, 51
care and maintenance in use, 103
development of, 23, 25
hydrophilic process for recovery, 314-316
primary metal production applications, 345

Index 489

waste water clarification, 318 rounded indications
posttreatment, of liquid penetrant rinsings, 309-311 acceptance/rejection criteria, aerospace applications, 385
potassium compounds, 41 interpretation, 134

cleaning compound restrictions, 170 rust contamination, 163, 164
powdered metal products, 35 removal, 174
precleaning, 7, 34, 162
S
aircraft components, 181-183
primary metal production applications, 345 SAE International (formerly Society of Automotive Engineers [SAE]), 63
procedures, 167-177 AMS 2644, 39, 100, 120, 183, 246, 247, 248, 348, 350, 380, 381, 384,
pressure units, 28 388, 408
prewash concept, 314-315 AMS 6419, 253
prewetting, filtered particle testing, 327, 335-336 AMS 5608D, 282
primary metals production AMS 5850, 398
cracks, 143 See also Liquid Penetrant Testing Bibliography
discontinuity sources, 127-132
ferrous metals, 350-351 safety. See health and safety hazards
foundry applications, 344-349, 352-358 safety factor, 3
light alloy foundry applications, 352-358 salt bath descaling/deoxidizing, 167, 175-176
probability of detection curve, 276 sampling, 2
processing discontinuities, 127
production line liquid penetrant testing systems, 208-209 liquid penetrant materials, 110
productivity, of liquid penetrant testing, 15, 18 sand blasting. See grit blasting
pulling apart, wet developers, 116 sanding, 8, 35, 184
Purkinje shift, 230
effect on crack indications in aluminum alloys, 185, 186, 187
Q etching of aluminum after, 191, 192, 193, 194
etching of steel after, 195-196
qualification, of liquid penetrant testing personnel. See personnel qualification etching of titanium after, 198
quality assurance, nuclear power plants, 374-376 sandwich braze, 416
quality control sanitary ware, filtered particle testing, 327, 331, 332
scale contamination, 163, 164
liquid penetrants, 109-117 removal, 174
precleaning aircraft components, 183 scattering, of light. See light scattering
test systems and procedures, 118-122 scotopic vision, 229
quenching cracks, 130 sealants, aircraft structures, 405
aluminum comparator blocks, 122, 247-251 seals
steel comparator blocks, 252 nuclear power plants, 366
open face honeycomb seals, 398-401
R seams, 147-148
welded, leak testing, 149, 150
racing cars, in service liquid penetrant testing, 426-428 selenium cell photoelectric meters, 235
radiography, light alloy castings, 354 self-contained liquid penetrant test units, 203-205
radiometers, 235 self-developing liquid penetrants, 392-393
reactive materials, 75-76 for heat source capsules for deep space missions, 407-409
recognition training, liquid penetrant inspectors, 153 performance, 386-391
Recommended Practice No. SNT-TC-1A, American Society for Nondestructive sensitivity level, 39
service discontinuities, 127
Testing (ASNT), 13, 376-377, 381-382 service expectations, of test parts, 10
red eyeglasses, 14, 230 settling out, developers, 117
red visible indications, 36, 47, 95 Shannon, John “Pop,” 20
reference brightness conditions, 267-268 sheet metal, 129, 344
reference panels. See test panels cracks, 143
refractomer test, for hydrophilic emulsifier concentration control, 114 shims, 416
refractory materials, 330 shipbuilding applications, 421-424
refrigerant-113 (trichlorotrifluoroethane), 298-299 short wave ultraviolet radiation, 77
rejection criteria. See acceptance/rejection criteria shot peening, 8, 29, 35, 184
removal, liquid penetrants, 34, 87-89 effect on crack indications in aluminum alloys, 187, 188
etching of steel after, 195-196, 197
aerospace applications, 383-384 etching of titanium after, 198
avoiding overremoval, 51 shrinkage cavities, 149-150
and diffuse liquid penetrant indications, 134 shrinkage discontinuities, 128-129
liquid penetrant classification by removal method, 36-37 automotive parts, 427
oil field down hole tubular parts, 420 light alloy castings, 353
purpose and control of, 48 SI multipliers, 27-28
reprocessing parts after inadequate, 53 SI system, 27-29
and signal-to-noise ratio of testing, 48 base units, 27
tests for effectiveness, 119-120 conversions to, 28
See also cleaning; water washable liquid penetrants; postemulsifiable liquid derived units, 27
silver solder, 417
penetrants signal-to-noise ratio, of liquid penetrant testing, 48, 282-283
removers, 38, 44-45 silicon carbide, 339
slow solubility liquid penetrants, 321
care and maintenance in storage, 101-102 small dot liquid penetrant indications, 134
care and maintenance in use, 106 Smith Sparling, Rebecca, 24, 25
comparison evaluation, 258 Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE). See SAE International
field precautions, 73 Sockman, Loy, 24-25
liquid oxygen applications, 394-395 sodium compounds, 41
spray application of foamed hydrophilic, 215 cleaning compound restrictions, 170
tests for contamination by, 114-115 soft metals. See aluminum and alloys; titanium and alloys
water recycling, 216 soil contamination, 34, 163, 164
resin contamination, 35 precleaning, 169, 174
reverse osmosis, for liquid penetrant removal from waste water, 309-310 solder, silver, 417
rhodopsin, 14, 229 solvent based lacquer developers, 93
rolled products, 129, 130
rough surfaces
background fluorescence caused by, 61
liquid penetrant comparators, 264

490 Liquid Penetrant Testing

solvent developers (nonaqueous developers), 38, 55, 93 strong acid or alkali contamination. See acid contamination; alkali
aerospace applications, 385 contamination
application techniques, 58
care and maintenance, 107-108 structural weldment crack enhancement, aircraft, 402-403
control and maintenance of baths, 116-117 sulfamic acid, 299
postcleaning, 180 sulfur compounds, 41

solvent precleaning, 167, 171-172 analysis methods, 301-302
solvent removable liquid penetrants, 37 analysis specifications, 300-301
cleaning compound restrictions, 170
basic process, 44-45 corrosive effects, 292-294
field techniques, 66-67 in early emulsifiers, 87
primary metal production applications, 345 restrictions on, 288
solvent rinse, 87 sources in liquid penetrant materials, 288
solvents surface contamination. See contamination
contamination from, 104 surface preparation, 162
flash points and relative toxicity of common, 173 surface tension, liquid penetrants, 45, 84, 85
spot dry time versus flash point of volatile, 87 surface volume, liquid penetrants, 86
solvent wipeoff, 44-45, 87 surfactants
field techniques, 66 as pollutants, 306, 308
spar caps, 62 in water soluble developers, 107
Sparling. See Smith Sparling Switzer brothers, 20
specialized liquid penetrant test units, 202, 208 Switzer, Joseph, 20, 21, 22-23, 25
specifications, 140 Switzer, Robert C., 19-22, 23, 25
aerospace applications, 380-385 synthetic voids, 45
aircraft structural integrity program, 405 Le Systeme Internationale d’Unites (SI system), 27
for evaluating liquid penetrant indications, 63-64, 154-158
See also military specifications and names of issuing organizations T
spindles, 60
spot dry time, volatile solvents, 87 television scanning systems, 239, 240
spray application systems, 210, 212-215 temperature, of test parts, 138
automated aerospace systems, 218-225 temperature units, 27
electrostatic, 38, 58, 213-215, 218-225 test panels
spray cans
care and maintenance in storage, 101 comparison tests, 258
care and maintenance in use, 103 controlled surface cavities, 261-263
developers, 116 crack pattern reproducibility, 261
field use of solvents, 172 for fluorescent background measurement, 264-272
in portable equipment, 202 fractured glass step wedge test panels, 266-271
sprockets, 60 liquid penetrant system monitor panel, 259-261, 316-317
Staats, Henry N., 326 nickel chrome surface cracked, 254-258
stacking fault energy, 297 synthetic cracks, 120-122
stainless steel, 345 See also comparators
austenitic, 288-292 thermal cracks, 129
cleaning fluids, 298-299 thread gages, 417
fatigue cracks, 246 threshold limit value (TLV), 75
grit blasted test panels, 264-265 time units, 27
liquid penetrant requirements, 10, 41 tin, 41
liquid penetrant testing, 350 titanium and alloys
stress corrosion mechanism, 295-299 6Al-4V alloy, 280
stress corrosion testing, 289-292 cleaning compound restrictions, 170
sulfide corrosion, 293 etching, 198, 199
tube cracks, 140 fatigue cracks, 246, 247, 280
welding, 362 liquid penetrant restrictions, 10, 41
See also American Iron and Steel Institute and steel mechanical processing, 184
standards, 477-481 mechanical processing effects on liquid penetrant testing, 188, 190-191,
acceptance/rejection. See acceptance/rejection criteria
liquid penetrant testing in nuclear power plants, 364 197-199
military. See military specifications process induced versus laboratory induced cracks, 251
See also names of issuing organizations stress corrosion cracking, 251-252
stationary liquid penetrant test systems titanium liquid penetrant comparator blocks, for stress corrosion cracking,
multiple component test units, 205-207 251-252
self-contained test units, 203-205 transmittance, 29
steam cleaning, 167 1,1,1-trichloroethane (methyl chloroform), 171
steel, 344, 345 trichloroethylene, 171
comparator blocks, 252-253 trichlorotrifluoroethane (refrigerant-113), 298-299
D6A6 (type), 253 tubular products
etching, 195-196 cracks, 140, 143
fatigue cracks, 281 nuclear power plants, 366
liquid penetrant restrictions, 10, 41 oil field down hole, 419-420
liquid penetrant testing, 350-351 tumble deburring, 184
mechanical processing, 184 effect on crack indications in aluminum alloys, 188, 189
mechanical processing effects on liquid penetrant testing, 188, 190-191, etching of aluminum after, 191, 192
etching of steel after, 195-196
193-196 etching of titanium after, 198
postcleaning to prevent corrosion, 179-180 turbine blades, 60, 362
process induced versus laboratory induced cracks, 251 acceptance/rejection criteria of cast, 155, 156-157, 158
sulfide corrosion, 293 fatigue cracks, 144
See also American Iron and Steel Institute and stainless steel hydrophilic postemulsification testing, 316
stratification, for liquid penetrant removal from waste water, 311 29-out-of-29 method, 283-284
stress corrosion cracking, 132, 145
austenitic steels, 295-299 U
chlorine effects, 289-292
nuclear plant piping, 371, 372-373 ultrasonically enhanced liquid penetrant testing, 402-403
prevention, 297-298 ultrasonic cleaning, 167, 172
susceptibility, 296-297 ultrasonic testing, residue removal, 169
titanium comparator blocks, 251-252
strip metal, 129, 344

Index 491

ultraviolet lamps, 13, 230-238 washability break, 113
care and maintenance, 70, 237-238 washing
for filtered particle testing, 333
in mechanized conveyorized system, 211 aerospace applications, 384
in multicomponent test units, 207 primary metal production applications, 345
physiological effects of, 238 wash stations
placement, 61 in automated aerospace systems, 218, 223, 224
portable, 202 in mechanized conveyorized system, 210
reflected radiation from, 79 in multicomponent test unit, 206, 207
safety considerations, 76-77 in self-contained test unit, 203-204
in self-contained test units, 205 spray rinsing equipment, 216
waste pollution, 306-313
ultraviolet radiation, 77, 78 waste water clarification, 315, 318-322
effect on inspector performance, 278 waste water recycling. See water recycling
effects on eye, 61 waste water treatment, 306-313
exposure limits, 78-79 water contamination, 34, 163, 165
eye response, 79-80, 227-228 in emulsifiers, 106
filters, 112 emulsifier tanks, 54
hazards, 78-80 in postemulsifiable liquid penetrants, 103
intensity required versus ambient visible light, 95-96 removal, 176-177
near ultraviolet radiation (ultraviolet-A radiation). See ultraviolet radiation test for in lipophilic emulsifiers, 112-113
measuring, 77-78, 234-235 water tolerance of liquid penetrants, 109
measurement instruments, 235-236 in water washable liquid penetrants, 103
scattering by fluorescent liquid penetrants, 93-94 water content measurements, 110
ultraviolet-A radiation (near ultraviolet radiation). See ultraviolet radiation water immiscible solvent removers, 311-312
ultraviolet-B radiation, 77, 78 water pollution
ultraviolet-C radiation, 77 avoidance, 307-308
emulsifiers, 88, 89
ultraviolet radiation mechanized scanning systems, 239-242 water recycling, 311, 312
United States Air Force (USAF) specifications hydrophilic remover systems, 216
and prewash concept, 314-317
QPL-25135, 38 water soluble developers (aqueous soluble developers), 38, 55, 93
QPL-AMS-2644, 38-39, 246 advantages and disadvantages, 58
United States Coast Guard (USCG) requirements, 423 aerospace applications, 384-385
United States Navy (USN) specifications, 422-423 application techniques, 57
NAVSEA 250-1500-1, 100 care and maintenance, 107
NAVSEA Technical Publications, 422 control and maintenance of baths, 115-116
NAVSHIPS 250-1500-1, 422 postcleaning, 180
Unites States Auto Club, 427 storage, 101
units, 27-29 water suspendible developers (aqueous suspendible developers), 38, 55, 93
upper explosive limit (UEL), 75 advantages and disadvantages, 57-58
aerospace applications, 385
V application techniques, 57
care and maintenance, 107
valve bodies, 134, 362 control and maintenance of baths, 115-116
valves, fatigue cracks, 145 postcleaning, 180
vapor arc lamps, 226 storage, 101
water washable liquid penetrants, 36, 87
See also mercury vapor arc ultraviolet sources basic process, 42-43, 48-51
vapor blasting, effect on crack indications in aluminum alloys, 187, 189 care and maintenance in use, 103
vapor degreasing, 87, 167, 170-171 development of, 23, 24
postcleaning, 179
aircraft components, 182 primary metal production applications, 345
vapor density, 75 waste water clarification, 318
varnish contamination, 163, 164 water tolerance of, 109
weld discontinuities, 46
removal, 174 welded seams, leak testing, 149, 150
ventilation, 76 weld residue contamination, 164
viewing indications, 42 welds
aerospace structural weldment crack enhancement, 402-403
fluorescent liquid penetrants, 45-46, 59, 95-96 crack indications, 142
visible liquid penetrants, 45, 59, 95 in heat source capsules, 409-412
viscosity, liquid penetrants, 45, 85, 86 nuclear power plants, 366, 369, 370-371, 372
viscosity units, 28 residual stresses, 362
visible liquid penetrant testing (color contrast liquid penetrant testing), 36 sources of discontinuities, 129-130
advantages, 46 wetting
basic processes, 42-46 developers, 116
brazed ring seals, 401 liquid penetrants, 40, 84-85
color, 90-91 white light illumination
contrast, 59, 61, 90, 95 eye response to, 228-229
development of, 22, 23-25 interference with fluorescent liquid penetrant testing, 226-227, 236-237
field techniques, 67 sources, 226
light sources for, 226 wipe-and-watch technique, 347
plastics, 430 wire brushing, 170
selection, 47 work rolls, steel rolling mills, 350-351
viewing indications, 45, 59, 95
vision acuity, 13-14, 96 X
and object brightness, 229
See also eyes X-ray fluoroscopic incoming testing, aerospace industry, 358
vision acuity examinations, 13
vision threshold, 228 Z
visual examination. See inspection and viewing indications
vitamin A deficiency, 139 Ziegfield, Flo, 20
volatility, liquid penetrants, 40, 86
and safety, 75
volume units, 28

W

wall thinning, 2
Ward, R.A., 22, 23

492 Liquid Penetrant Testing

Figure Sources

The following list indicates owners of figures at time of submittal. Chapter 12

Chapter 1 Figure 1 — Reynolds Metals Company, Richmond, VA.
Figures 1-2 — D&W Enterprises, Limited, Littleton, CO. Figures 2-3 — Magnaflux Division of Illinois Tool Works, Glenview, IL.
Figures 3-5, 7-11, 14 — Magnaflux Division of Illinois Tool Works,
Chapter 13
Glenview, IL.
Figure 6 — Alys Alburger Braun, Somis, CA. Figures 1-4 — Battelle Memorial Institute, Columbus, OH.
Figure 5 — Southwest Research Institute, San Antonio, TX.
Chapter 2 Figures 6-7 — Stone and Webster, Boston, MA.
Figures 1-11 — Magnaflux Division of Illinois Tool Works, Glenview, IL.
Chapter 14
Chapter 3
Figures 1-11 — Magnaflux Division of Illinois Tool Works, Glenview, IL. Figure 1-6 — Boeing Company, Long Beach, CA.
Figure 8 — Air Force Research Laboratory, Wright-Patterson Air Force
Chapter 4
Figures 1-2, 5, 7, 9 — Magnaflux Division of Illinois Toolworks, Glenview, IL. Base, OH.
Figures 3-4, 6 — Sherwin Incorporated, South Gate, CA. Figures 9-14 — Rockwell International, Canoga Park, CA.
Figure 8 — Met-L-Chek, Santa Monica, CA.
Chapter 15
Chapter 5
Figures 1-6, 8, 12-15, 18-25 — Magnaflux Division of Illinois Toolworks, Figure 1 — Magnaflux Division of Illinois Tool Works, Glenview, IL.
Figure 2-3 — International Pipe Inspectors Association, Houston, TX.
Glenview, IL. Figure 4 — Chrysler Corporation, Detroit, MI.
Figures 7, 26 — Allied Signal Aerospace Company [formerly AiResearch Figure 5 — Gregory F. Monks, QC Technologies, Incorporated, Noblesville, IN.
Figure 6 — Dennis G. Hunley, Quality Assurance Corporation, Indianapolis, IN.
Manufacturing Division, Garrett Corporation], Los Angeles, CA.
Figure 16-17 — Turbodyne Technologies, Incorporated, Woodland Hills, CA.

Chapter 6
Figures 2-11 — Boeing Company, Long Beach, CA.
Figures 12-25 — Boeing Company, St. Louis, MO.

Chapter 7
Figures 1-4f, 4h, 6-8a, 25-26, 31, 34, 36-43 — Magnaflux Division of Illinois

Tool Works, Glenview, IL.
Figures 8b, 8c — Sherwin Incorporated, South Gate, CA.
Figures 9-15 — Boeing Company, St. Louis, MO.
Figure 17-24 — Northrop Grumman Corporation, Los Angeles, CA.
Figures 33, 35a-35b — Spectronics Corporation, Westbury, NY.
Figures 35c — Ely Chemical Company, Aurora, IL.

Chapter 8
Figures 2-4 — Sherwin Incorporated, South Gate, CA.
Figures 5-7, 9-12 — Boeing Company, St. Louis, MO.
Figure 13 — Turco Products, Incorporated, Long Beach, CA.

Chapter 9
Figures 1-7 — D&W Enterprises, Limited, Littleton, CO.

Chapter 10
Figures 1-6 — Westinghouse Hanford, Hanford, WA.
Figure 7 — Magnaflux Division of Illinois Tool Works, Glenview, IL.
Figures 8-10 — Sherwin Incorporated, South Gate, CA.

Chapter 11
Figures 1-13 — Magnaflux Division of Illinois Tool Works, Glenview, IL.
Figures 14-15 — Robert L. Crane, Air Force Research Laboratory,

Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio.

493

Movie Sources

All video is copyrighted by ASNT or reproduced by permission of the Chapter 6
copyright holders. The following list indicates copyright ownership at time of
submittal. The participation of ASNT Past President Charles N. Hellier, III as Movie. Postcleaning — American Society for Nondestructive Testing,
narrator and instructor in many of these movies is gratefully acknowledged. Columbus, OH.

Chapter 2 Chapter 12

Movie. Bleeding suggests discontinuity severity — Hellier Associates, Movie. Rejectable discontinuity — Hellier Associates, Incorporated, Niantic, CT.
Incorporated, Niantic, CT. Movie. Porosity in casting — American Society for Nondestructive Testing,

Movie. Fluorescent liquid penetrant — Hellier Associates, Incorporated, Columbus, OH.
Niantic, CT. Movie. Fluorescent bleedout reveals shrinkage — ASM International, Materials

Movie. Liquid penetrant seeps into discontinuity — ASM International, Park, OH.
Materials Park, OH.

Movie. Solvent removes excess liquid penetrant from part surface — ASM
International, Materials Park, OH.

Movie. Nonaqueous wet developer enhances visible dye contrast — ASM
International, Materials Park, OH.

Movie. Hydrophilic prerinse — Howmet Castings, Whitehall, MI.
Movie. Dip in hydrophilic emulsifier; dwell — Howmet Castings,

Whitehall, MI.
Movie. Water wash — Howmet Castings, Whitehall, MI.
Movie. Developer application — Howmet Castings, Whitehall, MI.
Movie. Viewing of developed indications — Howmet Castings, Whitehall, MI.
Movie. Developer is applied — American Society for Nondestructive Testing,

Columbus, OH.
Movie. Wipe part — American Society for Nondestructive Testing,

Columbus, OH.
Movie. Visible red dye liquid penetrant bleeds out — American Society for

Nondestructive Testing, Columbus, OH.
Movie. Indication in root pass of weld —Hellier Associates, Incorporated,

Niantic, CT.
Movie. Water wash — Howmet Castings, Whitehall, MI.
Movie. Developer application — Howmet Castings, Whitehall, MI.
Movie. Nonaqueous wet developer enhances visible dye contrast — ASM

International, Materials Park, OH.
Movie. Shake the spray can — Hellier Associated, Incorporated, Niantic, CT.
Movie. Nonaqueous wet developer enhances visible dye contrast — ASM

International, Materials Park, OH.

Chapter 3

Movie. Visible red dye liquid penetrant bleeds out — American Society for
Nondestructive Testing, Columbus, OH.

Chapter 5

Movie. Fluorescent bleedout reveals shrinkage — ASM International,
Incorporated, Materials Park, OH.

Movie. Quenching cracks — Hellier Associate, Incorporated, Niantic, CT.
Movie. Linear discontinuity — American Society for Nondestructive Testing,

Columbus, OH.
Movie. Open and partially open cracks — American Society for Nondestructive

Testing, Columbus, OH.
Movie. Pitting and porosity — American Society for Nondestructive Testing,

Columbus, OH.
Movie. Porosity in casting — American Society for Nondestructive Testing,

Columbus, OH.
Movie. Process control can mask discontinuities — American Society for

Nondestructive Testing, Columbus, OH.
Movie. False indications — Hellier Associates, Incorporated, Niantic, CT.
Movie. Nonrelevant indications can mask relevant ones — American Society

for Nondestructive Testing, Columbus, OH.
Movie. Nonrelevant indication from part geometry — American Society for

Nondestructive Testing, Columbus, OH.

494