Philosophy

Nyaya Darshana’s View of Pramana Nyaya darshana believes that soul is the knower,
who gets knowledge through the chain consisting
Nyaya darshana has a very important of the object - the sense-organs - the mind.
place in the Indian understanding of pramanas.
The concepts such as dnyana, prama, aprama, We get the sensations of perceptible
pramana etc. were very systematically put objects and their characteristics like colour,
forth initially by the Nyaya philosophers. Let appearance, texture, taste, smell etc. through
us try to briefly understand their views about specific sense-organs. It is necessary to be
pramana. attentive to or be aware of the object that
we want to know directly. There can be
According to Nyaya view, knowledge no knowledge if our mind does not pay
illuminates the objects of knowledge in the attention to the object. For example, when
manner in which a lamp illuminates objects we study with full concentration, though we
in the world. At a gross level, knowledge hear certain sounds that fall on our ears, we
is divided into two types viz. experience do not understand them, because we are not
or presentative cognition (Anubhava) paying attention to them. That is, a contact
and memory or representative cognition between the ears and the sound takes place,
(Smruti). We have a direct awareness or but our mind is elsewhere. It is not connected
understanding of the object in experience, with the ears in the real sense. Thus it is
while understanding through memory is in the function of the mind to pay attention to
the form of remembering the experience. the specific object of knowledge. Knowledge
Both these types of knowledge are further through sense-experience is a matter of
classified into ‘Yathartha’ (true and valid) common experience for us.
and ‘Ayathartha’ (erronous). Knowledge
which is presentative and valid is called Let’s do!
prama. Non-valid presentative knowledge is
called aprama. Nyaya darshana propounds
that prama is gained through four means,
namely, perception (pratyaksha), inference
(anumana), comparison (upmana) and
testimony (shabda). Let us get acquainted
with these four pramanas now.

Perception (Pratyaksha) Prepare the chain of the connections
in the process of knowledge for the
Pratyaksha or perception refers to the object ‘book’.
sensations that we receive through our sense-
organs. We receive the sensations of colour, Nyaya darshana has systematically
sound, taste, smell and touch, respectively classified pratyaksha pramana, in its in-depth
through the five sense-organs namely, eyes, exposition of the same. The main classification
ears, tongue, nose and skin. We also receive the of pratyaksha is made into two types, namely,
sensations of pleasure and pain through the mind. ‘ordinary’ (laukika) and ‘extraordinary’
This is called perception. Of all the pramanas, (alaukika). Ordinary perception consists of
this is the primarily important pramana which all the knowledge of objects that we attain
is accepted by all the darshanas. As per one through our five sense-organs and the mind.
of the definitions that Nyaya darshana offers, The knowledge of the objects that do not
pratyaksha dnyana is a determinate, non- fall within the range of the experience of the
erroneous and true knowledge attained through sense-organs is gained by way of extraordinary
the contact between sense-organs and the object.

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means. That is why it is called extraordinary through sense-perception, it is equally true that
perception. Ordinary perception is further all our knowledge is not acquired through it.
classified into the external and the inner or That is why, there is a need for other means
mental perception. External perception is the of knowledge too! One of the important
perception through eyes, nose, ears, skin and means among these is logical reasoning. By
tongue; while the knowledge attained by the using logical reasoning in our day-to-day life
mind is inner perception. The mind according as well as in science, we attain knowledge
to Nyaya, is an internal organ. We get the of the things that cannot be experienced by
knowledge of pleasure, pain, attachment, the sense-organs. In a closed auditorium,
aversion etc. through this inner organ. when a door is opened a little, we smell
the fragrance of the soil and tell the person
Extraordinary perception is divided sitting next to us that it has started raining,
into ‘Samanyalakshana pratyasatti’, without actually seeing the rain. When we
‘Dnyanalakshana pratyasatti’ and ‘Yogajlakshan observe that the particles of iron are being
pratyasatti’. An attribute that is commonly attracted by an object, we conclude that there
present in many objects of the same type is magnetic power in that object. Inference
is called a commonality or a universal or anumana is the logical judgement about
(samanya). Nyaya darshana believes that when that which cannot be directly experienced,
we experience a flower, we do not merely on the basis of that which can be directly
know that particular flower, but also the experienced.
universal ‘flowerness’. Through this universal,
we acquire a universal knowledge of flowers The term ‘Anumana’ literally means
in the form ‘I know what a flower is’. Nyaya “knowledge that follows some other
darshana believes that this knowledge is knowledge”. What we experience, is a mark
attained through samnyalakshana pratyasatti. or indication of what we do not experience.
Similarly, when we see the half-ripe tamarind, The pug-marks that we find on the trails in
we know that it would taste sweet and sour, the forest indicate which animals have earlier
without actually testing it. We, of course, walked on those paths. The famous example
cannot come to know the taste of anything of inference that Nyaya darshana offers is
using our eyes, yet we have such knowledge as follows : When we see smoke on a hill,
due to dnyanalakshan pratyasatti. In a like we infer that “there is fire somewhere on the
manner, it is believed that a ‘Yogi’ has hill”, because smoke is an indication of fire.
knowledge of the past, the present and the In short, we can say that inference is the
future. Obviously, it is not possible to have knowledge of the unknown on the basis of
this knowledge by way of sense-perception. the known.
It is said that the yogi has this knowledge
through yogajlakshana pratyasatti. There are three constituents of the process
of inference, namely, paksha, hetu and sadhya.
Let’s do! That which we infer or reason about, is
called the sadhya. The place or the site with
Find out the examples of reference to which we derive the existence of
extraordinary perception. Prepare posters the sadhya, is called the paksha. That on the
of these examples in groups. basis of which we prove the existence of the
sadhya, is called the hetu. Hetu is the link
Inference (Anumana) that connects the paksha and the sadhya. In
the example above, the hill is the paksha,
Though, it is true that a large part of where there is smoke which is the hetu. We
our knowledge consists of knowledge gained prove the existence of fire on the basis of

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the hetu ‘smoke’. Fire is the sadhya in this Pararthanumana
example.
Nyaya darshana has systematically
‘Pakshadharmata’ is the existence of analyzed Pararthanumana into five
the hetu in paksha. The relation of being elements. These five elements are
associated with one-another that exists ‘Pratidnya’, ‘Hetu’, ‘Udaharana’,
between the hetu and the sadhya is called ‘Upanaya’ and ‘Nigmana’. In order to
the ‘Vyapti’. We will not be able to infer the prove that “there is fire on the hill”,
existence of the sadhya from the existence pararthanumana is used in the following
of hetu, if the hetu is not always associated manner :
with the sadhya. Smoke is generated through
fire. Smoke cannot exist without fire. There is (1) Pratidnya : There is fire on the
a relation of universal concomitance (vyapti) mountain.
between the smoke and the fire. “Wherever
there is smoke, there is fire” is a statement (2) Hetu : Because there is smoke on
indicative of the vyapti relation. the mountain.

Let’s think ! (3) Udaharan : Wherever there is smoke,
there is fire, as in the kitchen.
Find out other examples of inference
and identify the paksha, hetu and sadhya (4) Upanaya : There is smoke on the
in those examples. mountain.

(5) Nigamana : Therefore there is fire
on the mountain.

If you minutely consider the process of Upamana (Comparison)
inference, you will realize that it is a complicated
process. It begins with knowing through Upamana pramana refers to the
pratyaksha that the hetu is on paksha. Then, knowledge gained with the help of
we remember the relation of vyapti between the resemblances. We use upamana pramana
hetu and the sadhya that we have experienced when we come to know a new i.e. previously
or known previously. We infer the existence of unknown object on the basis of the way it
sadhya on the basis of the actually experienced resembles some other already known object.
pakshadharmata and the memory of the vyapti What is important here is not the number of
relation between the hetu and the sadhya. aspects that resemble each-other but whether
the existing resemblance is significant or not.
The Nyaya darshan has a very extensive
as well as indepth understanding of inference. ‘Upamiti’, that is the knowledge attained
One of the points that needs to be noted through upamana is based on comparison.
amongst its reflections on inference is that it According to the Nyaya understanding,
views inference both as a source of knowledge upmana is a comparison between a term or
as well as a way of argumentation. When a word and the object that it refers to. Do
a person himself or herself comes to attain you remember the description of the giant
prama with the help of inference, it is called squirrel that you have read in the previous
the ‘inference for the self’ (‘Svarthanumana’). year? When a person who knows that a giant
Here, inference is obviously a source of squirrel is an animal which is like a squirrel
knowledge. We also use inference as an but is bigger than the squirrel, see the giant
argument in order to prove our conclusion squirrel for the first time, that person will
to the other person. This type of inference know that the animal being percieved is a
is called ‘inference for the sake of the other’ giant squirrel. That person will have this
(‘Pararthanumana’). knowledge through the coming together of
various factors such as the description of a

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giant squirrel by a knowledgeable person, knowledge consists of the knowledge acquired
the animal perceived, recollection of that by way of the words that are heard and read.
description and the comparison based on However it must be remembered that we do not
all these. It is not possible to have such attain prama through every sentence that we
knowledge merely on the basis of perception have read or heard. We have already seen that
or memory. That is why Naiyayikas consider prama is true knowledge.
upmana to be an independent pramana.
Let’s do!
Let’s write!
Collect the examples of the incorrect
Collect different examples of or false news or information given by
upamana like the one of gaint squirrel the media and discuss the bad
and classify them into groups. consequences that it has on the society.

Shabda (Testimony) Obviously, if the words that present
falsehoods to us, cannot be called ‘pramana’,
We constantly use words while speaking i.e. means of prama. It is for this reason that
and writing. But have you ever thought what Nyaya darshana has propounded that shabda is
exactly is a ‘word’? We all know that a word the statement of an ‘Apta’. The word apta here
is made from letters. But, is the word merely does not mean a relative as it ordinarily means
a group of letters? Is the word the sound that in Marathi or Hindi, but it means a reliable
the ears hear when it is pronounced or the person. ‘Apta’ is a person who is knowledgeable
marks/figures that are seen on the paper while and trustworthy. Such person is neither ignorant
reading? Of course not. If, somebody starts nor a liar. That is why this person is reliable.
speaking to us in a language not known to us, One can attain prama on the basis of the words
we do ‘hear’ the words, but say that we have of such a person. In this era of the tremendous
not ‘understood a word’. You must have ‘seen’ influence of media, especially social media, it is
the pictorial script of the Chinese language, but extremely important to remember the definition
can you ‘read’ it? Not really, right? This is so of the term ‘apta’. It is necessary to check
because a word is not just a sound or a mark. whether whatever reaches us through the media
Word is that important element of language, is trustworthy or not and it is equally necessary
which is meaningful. Mere sound or a mark is to think whether we ourselves are reliable and
not a word - word has meaning. A sentence is knowledgeable as users of media. We would
generated when many meaningful words come learn to use the media responsibly if we keep
together in a specific manner. A great part of our these points in mind.

The conditions of meaningfulness of a meaning cannot be expressed through a
single word. For that a word has to get
sentence: connected with other words. Suppose, the
teacher tells you in the class, “Write”, you
Although, a sentence is generated would naturally ask, “What should we
through meaningful words, this is not enough write?” When the teacher says, “Write what
for the meaningfulness of the sentence itself. is the relation between a word and its
The Nyaya philosophers present four meaning”, then it becomes a complete,
conditions that need to be fulfilled by a meaningful sentence. In order to be
sentence for it to be meaningful. These four meaningful, the anticipation that a word has
conditions are as follows :

(1) Akanksha : Generally, complete

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for other words is called ‘Akanksha’. are fulfilled. Similarly, if we write words
separately in different lines, they will not be
(2) Yogyata : There is not only a need able to generate meaning.
for many meaningful words to form a
meaningful sentence, the words must be (4) Tatparya : Sometimes some words
properly related with each-other. Meaning have more than one meaning. In order to
cannot be produced through contradictory determine what such a word means in a
words. The sentence, “The fire is cool like particular sentence, one has to take into
ice” does not mean anything as it does not account what is the intention of the speaker
bring coolness and fire together in an or what meaning is expected by the speaker.
appropriate manner. The context in which the word has to be used
is important for this purpose. For example, if
(3) Sannidhi : Sannidhi means nearness, somebody says ‘this is not fair’, then the
proximity. In order for meaning to be word ‘fair’ has to be taken as ‘just or right’ in
generated through many different words; this context. Fair also means lighter colour of
they must be spatially and temporarilly near hair or skin or a country celebration. But
each-other. If, while conversing with each- these shades of meanings do not apply in the
other we pronounce the words with the gaps above-mentioned sentence.
of a few minutes, meaning cannot be
produced even if the earlier two conditions

Let’s write! Let’s find out!

Write a critical essay on “Reliability Think - Share - Pair
of the media” and present it in the
class. Find out sentences which fulfill the
conditions of meaningfulness. Ask your
Naiyayikas have also offered some friend to examine them and then together
classifications of shabda. The words that give present the examined sentences in front
us knowledge of the perceptible objects are of the class.
called ‘Drushtartha’. The words that give us
knowledge of that which cannot be seen are In the previous year, we had noted the fact
called ‘Adrushtartha’. According to another that every darshana accepts different number of
classification, words are classified into two pramanas. Let us briefly get acquainted with the
kinds, namely, ‘Vaidika’ and ‘Laukika’. two more pramanas that Mimamsa darshana
According to Nyaya darshana, the words accepts apart from the four accepted by Nyaya.
in the vaidika literature are ‘Apaurusheya’.
They are not written by any human being. Postulation (Arthapatti)
They are true and infallible. Laukika words
are the words of the human beings and they Sometimes there is an inconsistency
can be either true or false. That is why all between two known things. For example, we
words cannot be treated as pramanas. Only may have never seen one of our friends studying
the words in the Veda and the laukika words during the entire day. We think that she is going
of apta are called pramana. to score very low marks in the examination.
Actually, she gets very good marks. There
is apparently an inconsistency between not
studying and scoring high marks. But, this
apparent inconsistency can be explained

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by saying that she must have been studying turn to the question how do we know it?
regularly in the night. After knowing this, the
inconsistency is removed. The knowledge that In the course of the development of Western
we attain by way of removing the inconsistency Philosophy, it was only in the period of modern
between two known things, thus, is the way of Philosophy that epistemology occupied a
‘Arthapatti’ as a means of knowledge. central place. However, the reflection over the
sources of knowledge had begun in the pre-
Non-perception (Anupalabdhi) Socratic era. Parmenides propounded that ‘the
universe is permanent and eternal and that
All the pramanas seen so far give us the change is an illusion’, while Heraclitus insisted
knowledge of the existing things or about that ‘impermanence is the nature of the universe
the existence of certain things. However, the and permanence is an illusion’. However, both
pramana known as Anupalabdhi gives us the of them agreed on one point : the knowledge
knowledge of the non-existence or the absence based on sense-perception is illusory, reality can
of some object. For example, we go in the college be known only by way of reason.
canteen to meet a friend, but after reaching there
realize that he is not there. If he would have The scepticism that the sophists advocated
been there, we would have seen him. But, we was a consequence of the mutually inconsistent
cannot ‘see’ his not being or his absence. Yet, views about the nature of reality presented by
we know it because of the pramana known as the philosophers. The sophists did not believe
anupalabdhi. in the potential of human capacities to gain
knowledge. That is why they propounded
Let’s do! scepticism, which is a theory that doubtes
the very possibility of objective knowledge.
Collect more information about The argument of the sceptic is that due to
pramanas and discuss whether upmana, the inherent limitations of human perception
arthapatti and anupalabdhi should be and reason, the nature of what is real cannot
considered independent sources in a be known as it is. They not only believed
Vadasabha. that human beings can know the world only
within the limits of their capacities but also
The discussion of pramanas is at the center that every individual can know the world
of Indian epistemology. Considering the fact that within the limits of his or her own individual
the prameya, can be known through pramanas, capacities. For this reason, they also accepted
it is important to reflect over pramanas even in relativism which says that ‘knowledge is
order to know what does the universe consist relative to the individual who knows’. It is
of. We can see here the inter-relation between in this context that Protagoras’ quote “Man
epistemology and metaphysics. We find that is the measure of all things” is famous.
there is inter-dependence between how many
and which pramanas a particular darshana It should be remembered that Western
accepts and its metaphysical position. epistemology is by and large constituted in and
through the attempts to refute scepticism and
Epistemology in the Western Tradition relativism.

The complex inter-relationship between Let’s talk!
epistemology and metaphysics can be seen in
the Western tradition too! The metaphysical Present scepticism and relativism in
question ‘what is’ was central in this tradition the form of a dialogue in the class.
at the beginning. However, in order to know
what is or what is not, one has to inevitably An excellent example of this is Plato’s

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position about knowledge. Knowledge must contradictory to say that I know that there are
be true i.e. it must be of ‘what is’. Plato rings around Saturn, but I do not believe it. It
firmly believed that knowledge has to be can be said that though knowledge is objective,
objective, infallible, universal and true at all belief is the subjective aspect of knowledge.
times. His epistemological position is closely
connected with his metaphysical theory of You, of course, know that to believe in
the world of forms. Plato’s awareness of the something, is not to know it. If, someone believes
fact that unless the objects of knowledge are that Saturn is the planet nearest to earth, it is not
unchangeable and eternal, knowledge cannot knowledge, since it is not true. Knowledge can
be true for all times, is at the root of this never be false. Therefore, the second criterion of
theory. The definition of ‘knowledge as knowledge is truth. We will consider the criteria
justified true belief’ was established through on the basis of which we determine whether a
Plato’s scrutiny of knowledge in which he particular proposition is true or false in the next
asserted that knowledge is not just perception, section.
nor an opinion or a mere belief.
Note the difference between the way
The Concept of Knowledge in which the term ‘Knowledge’ is used in
the Indian and the Western tradition. We
When a person claims to know something, use the word ‘Dnyana’ in Marathi, as a
that claim should be examined before being substitute for the word ‘Knowledge’ in
accepted. The definition of knowledge English. Dnyana can be either true or false
mentioned above provides the criteria with according to the Indian tradition. As per
which such a claim needs to be examined. the Western tradition, a belief can be true
Knowledge is expressed through propositions. or false, but knowledge has to be true. The
A proposition is a sentence which has truth term ‘false knowledge’ is contradictory. The
value. The sentences that can be either true western concept of knowledge is similar
or false are said to have truth value. The to the Indian concept of ‘Prama’. Prama
criteria that the definition of knowledge has to be true. There is nothing like ‘false
includes are applied to a proposition that prama’ (Asatya prama).
expresses knowledge. If the proposition
fulfils those criteria, then, it gets the status Justifiability, the third criterion of
of knowledge, otherwise, it is treated as a knowledge indicates that in order to accept that
mere belief or conviction. a person knows something, it is not enough that
the person believes in it and that the belief is true.
Let’s find out! It is essential to justify that belief. It should be
possible to provide evidence for the truth of the
Find out the sentences that are not belief. Suppose, we ask the person who believes
propositions i.e. that do not have truth that there are rings around Saturn, how does he
value and classify them. Take the help know it and that person says that he has seen
of rules of grammar for the classification. it in a dream, then we are definitely not going
to say that he has knowledge. A knowledge
The claim of knowledge is put forward claim is unacceptable, if a true belief cannot
by saying, “I know P’. Here, ‘P’ is a symbol be justified properly. A justification is proper if
of a proposition. For example, “I know that it follows an objective method. If one’s reason
there are rings around Saturn”. Let us see for considering one’s belief to be true is one’s
when this knowledge claim can be accepted dream, this reason is subjective or personal. This
as being appropriate. We must firmly believe is not an objective justification. A justification is
in something that we claim to know. It is self- objective when it provides evidences which can

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be examined by anyone. theories propose three different criteria in order
to answer this question.
When we are considering the issue of the
justification of konwledge, it is not sufficient to The Correspondence Theory of Truth
merely observe the relation between a fact and
a statement expressing knowledge but it is also According to this theory, a proposition is
necessary to take into account the interrelation true, when there is a correspondence between the
among the statements expressing knowledge. proposition and the state of affairs it describes.
For a system of knowledge both the truth and The proposition ‘Gangtok is the capital of
validity are important. If a statement in a Sikkim’ describes the actuality correctly, so this
system of knowledge is inconsistent with the proposition is true. The truth of a proposition
other statements in the same system then the is related to the situation it describes. The
construction of a system of knowledge would proposition is false if it does not describe the
become difficult. In logic, therefore, the process situation as it actually is. The proposition ‘Venus
of thinking is presented in a form of argument. is a star’ is false according to this criterion, as
Argument is further divided into premises and Venus is actually a planet.
conclusion.
Knowingly or unknowingly, we use this
In a sense, the discussion about objective criterion in our daily life many a times. Someone
justification is a discussion of the sources of comes and tells us that ‘there is a notice on the
knowledge. It has to take into account what notice board that tomorrow is a holiday for the
is the source or means through which one college’. Since, you have a suspicion, you go and
comes to know something and whether that check the notice board and find out that there
source is appropriate or not. Before taking up is no such notice put up. You get angry at the
the discussion of the sources of knowledge in friend for lying. In the fields of science also the
the Western tradition, let us discuss the three criterion of correspondence is very important.
theories of truth that offer criteria for truth. Science uses the methods of observation and
experimentation precisely in order to know
Let’s do! whether the proposition describes the reality
accurately or not.
Considering the criteria of
knowledge, prepare a concept-map of Let’s discover!
the criteria with examples in groups.
Organize an exhibition of these in the Find out the examples of the
class. correspondence criterion of truth from
daily life.

Theories of Truth This criterion is quite close to the ordinary
understanding of when should a proposition be
You must have noted that the concept of accepted as true. However, due to certain lacuna
truth is central in the definition of knowledge in the theory, some objections are raised against
that we have seen above. Although, knowledge this theory.
is expressed through propositions, every
proposition does not express knowledge. A It is not every time possible to check the
proposition is an assertive sentence. If the relation between the proposition and the state
assertion is correct, then, the proposition is of affairs. The propositions about the past or
true and only true propositions can express the future cannot be checked in this way, as
knowledge. Since, truth is a pre-condition of what they describe does not exist in the present.
knowledge, the question ‘What is truth?’ is very We cannot tell today, whether a proposition
important for epistemology. Three different such as ‘After hundred years there will be an

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ice age on the earth’ corresponds to the state it to our notice that consistency or coherence
of affairs it describes. Similarly, it is not is a significant criterion of truth.
possible to say whether general propositions
are true or false. The proposition ‘All men Some problems arise with respect to this
are mortal’ is applicable to all humans in criterion too. Even if a system of mutually
past, present and future. We cannot examine coherent propositions is created, how can we
its truth using this criterion. The laws in be assured that it is true? Have you read stories
science are general statements which are of Harry Potter or seen movies based on them?
true. But, their truth cannot be established Fictitious stories like these, whether they are
with this criterion. The propositions in logic fairy tales or science fictions, are internally
and mathematics are said to be formal. They coherent, yet not true. Why is this so? Because,
do not describe the empirical world, but these stories do not fit to reality or actuality.
express logical or mathematical relations. In empirical sciences alongwith consistency,
Obviously, the criterion of correspondence is correspondence to reality is also important.
not applicable to them. Without such correspondence, the propositions
that claim to describe reality can never be true.
Coherence theory of truth
Let’s watch!
According to correspondence theory of
truth, the truth of a proposition depends Watch movies based on completely
on its relation with reality. In contrast, the consistent but untrue fantasy stories and
coherence theory of truth propounds that discuss them with reference to the
the truth of a proposition is dependent on correspondence and the coherence theory
the relation it has with other propositions. of truth.
The system of knowledge is constructed by
putting together many true propositions. The Pragmatic theory of truth
knowledge of any particular subject is not just
an aggregate or a group of true propositions. This theory of truth is quite different
Knowledge is a system of those propositions. from the other two. According to this theory,
All these propositions are consistently related a proposition is true, when an action based
to each-other. A proposition, the truth value on it is successful, when it attains its desired
of which is to be tested, is said to be true if effect. That means the truth of a proposition
it is consistent with other accepted truths in is not dependent on the relation it has to
that particular field of knowledge. If there is reality or to other propositions. It is dependent
a proposition which says that if a number ‘X’ on the consequences of the act based on
is multiplied by zero, the number you get is the proposition. If, the action brings forth a
‘X’, then this proposition is false. This is so useful or beneficial result then the original
because, it is not consistent with the accepted proposition is true. But, if the action based
truth in mathematics that if you multiply on the proposition is unsuccessful then the
any number by zero, the resulting number proposition is false. On observing a bottle full
is always zero. If someone tells us that the of a colourless liquid if someone says, ‘This
birth year of my mother is 1995 and that of is water’, one way of determining whether this
my father is 1993 and I am born in 1990, statement is true or false is to drink that liquid.
then, we will obviously conclude that the last If it quenches thirst, only then the proposition
statement is false. It is not consistent with is true, not otherwise. Knowledge is used in
the earlier two statements (which we assume the actual process of living. Pragmatism gives
to be true), as no one is born before the birth importance to this usefulness of knowledge.
of his or her parents. These examples bring The experimental method of science is also

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based on this perspective that if a proposition consistent with each-other and they give rise to
is true, it must be possible to perform the action successful actions too. That is why rather than
based on it successfully. For example, in order focusing on any one aspect, one must reflect
to assess the truth of a statement that this liquid over truth in a holistic manner.
is an acid, a litmus paper is put into it. If the
expected effect of the liquid changing its colour Sources of knowledge
is obtained, then, the proposition is judged to
be true. Having understood the concept of
knowledge and theories of truth in the Western
The main problem that arises about this tradition; let us get acquainted with the sources or
theory is that even if a belief can lead to an means of knowledge discussed in this tradition.
action giving rise to the expected result, the As we have noted earlier, epistemology was
success of an action does not assure the truth truly established in Europe after renaissance.
of the proposition. When a group of students This was the period of a stunning growth and
goes for mountaineering, a novice gets tired and development of science. Science had established
starts saying, ‘I cannot walk any further and I new standards of a knowledge of the empirical
will wait here’. If someone tells him that it is world. Prior to this period, no theory, opinion
dangerous to wait on this spot as the wild animals or viewpoint was unanimously agreed upon in
come here frequently, then, that student walks the field of philosophy. The truths discovered by
till the destination out of fear. However, the science were however universal, true for all times
proposition ‘wild animals come here frequently’ and objective. There was no room for relativity
cannot be judged to be true on the basis of the in them. The philosophers, while acknowledging
effects of the action based on that proposition. this new type of knowledge, undertook a deep
It can be a lie that is expected to motivate the study of the process of knowledge and its means.
student to keep walking. Of course, such a trick
may not be successful every time. So, when this Reason, sense perception, memory,
proposition results into expected consequence, it intuition, testimony all can be considered as
will have to be judged as true and when it fails sources of knowledge, as we have observed last
to obtain the desired consequence it will have year. In the Western tradition, however, reason
to be judged as false. That means, if, we accept and sense perception have a central place in
the pragmatic theory, truth cannot be objective, the period of modern philosophy. In fact the
it will be relative to the person or the situation. two main trends of modern philosophy are
known as rationalism and empiricism. These
Let’s do! two trends are generally considered as being
opposite to each-other. There are fundamental
Present in the class the events in differences between them with respect to the
which propositions cannot be proved to question whether the basic source of knowledge
be true in spite of getting the desired is reason or sense-perception. What is the
effects, in the form of a drama. exact place/ precise role of reason and sense-
perception in the process of knowledge? Which
It is clear from the consideration of the one of them is primary? What is the nature of
theories of truth that although each theory brings the knowledge that emerges from them? These
to light one important aspect of truth, none of types of questions were discussed during this
them is perfect and flawless. That is why none period. All this discussion took place on the
of the theories offer a complete understanding of background of the progress of science as well
truth. In reality, different systems of knowledge as that of scepticism which was popular at that
that exist in different fields, correspond with time. The philosophers in this period were trying
reality, the propositions that they consist of are to refute scepticism. They wanted to establish

51

the possibility of objective knowledge by way of primacy of the source of knowledge. Both
analyzing the process of knowledge. A critical these trends accept that reason and experience
analysis of the source of knowledge that can both have a significant place in the process of
produce objective knowledge was therefore knowledge. Rationalists think that knowledge
important. In this context, one of the major begins with reason and experience starts
points of difference between rationalism and functioning after that, while the empiricists
empiricism was whether all knowledge can be propound that knowledge emerges through
obtained through sense-experience or whether experience and then reason processes it.
reason can attain knowledge without being
associated with experience. Rationalism

Let us understand this point with reference Rene Descartes, Benedict Spinoza and
to a particular classification of knowledge. Goftfried Wihelm Leibniz are known as
The classification was used primarily in this the rationalists. While being introduced to
very period. Knowledge that can be gained Descartes’ method of doubt last year, we have
prior to or before any experience, is called noted that Descartes wanted to prove that
“a priori” knowledge. Knowledge that is scepticism is completely wrong. He tried to
attained after experience or on the basis of discover an indubitable truth for this purpose.
experience is called “a posteriori” knowledge or Descartes himself was a scholar not only of
empirical knowledge. According to rationalism, Philosophy but also of mathematics and science.
knowledge primarily emerges from reason. The method of mathematics had influenced him
Knowledge begins with reason. Reason has a lot. The truths in mathematics are objective
the capacity to know certain truths prior to or and universal. These truths do not change with
without sense-experience. Due to this belief respect to place, time, culture or individual.
rationalists accept the possibility of a priori Rationalists considered mathematics to be an
knowledge. Empiricists however completely ideal kind of knowledge. They believed that
deny such a possibility since according to them if the method of mathematics is used in other
all knowledge of the empirical world is based branches of knowledge, it would be possible
on sense-experience. Reason cannot know to attain the same kind of knowledge in these
anything independent of sense-experience. For branches also.
them knowledge is a posteriori or empirical.
One of the peculiarities of mathematical
Before getting better acquainted with these truths is that they are not derived from experience.
two trends, let us note that the word ‘experience’ They are not based on experience. Their truth
in this discussion denotes sense-experience. cannot be proved on the basis of experience.
Experiences can be of various kinds. But the The source of mathematical knowledge is
type of experience that is discussed as a source reason and it can be justified only on the basis
of knowledge is the experience that we get of reason. In contrast, the knowledge gained
through sense-organs. through experience is often relative to time,
situation and person. In the previous year, we
Let’s talk! have seen many examples of this. Empirical
knowledge cannot be certain and universal
Discuss the instances of that which due to this relativity. That is why, as a source
we call experience, but which are not of certain, universal and objective knowledge
sense-experience in the class. the rationalists attributed greater importance
to reason. Let us understand the view of the
Another point that has to be kept in the rationalists regarding the precise role of reason
mind is that the difference of opinion between in the process of knowledge with reference to
rationalism and empiricism is regarding the

52

Descartes’ views on the same. Let’s Talk!

Descartes was of the opinion that there Find out in group discussion the
are some inborn, ideas in the mind of all examples of propositions that are
humans. These ideas are called ‘innate ideas’. indubitibly true like the proposition “I
This means that these ideas are not obtained think therefore I am” and discuss them
from sense-experience. Therefore their truth in the class.
is not dependent on experience. They give us
knowledge that is certain. The three major ‘I think, therefore I am’is such a self-evident
examples that Descartes gives of such ideas are truth. We know this and other such truths through
those of one’s own existence, the existence of intuition. Descartes believes that a system of
God and the existence of matter. We have seen knowledge consists of truths known by way of
how Descartes proves the existence of the self intuition and the ones that can be demonstrated
by using the method of doubt. We understand on the basis of such truths. Descartes does
the truth of the statement ‘I think, therefore not wish to indicate any mystical or spiritual
I am’ in a clear and unambiguous manner. capacity or experience by the term ‘intuition’.
Clarity and distinctness are the characteristics For him intuition is a sort of direct revelation
of true statements. The proposition, ‘All sides or knowledge that reason has. Knowledge
of the square have equal length’; makes the is produced on the basis of such intellectual
concept of a square very clear and at the same intuition and deductive proof. Sense-experience
time makes us realize that a rectangle cannot be is always of a particular object, characteristic,
called a square. That is, it clearly explains the relation or event. But, it is reason that provides
distinctness or the difference of a square from a general or universal principles necessary for
rectangle. making sense of it. Descartes believed that
reason starts functioning before experience
Let’sdiscover! of any kind, on the basis of the innate ideas
and thus, we acquire knowledge in an a priori
Find out the examples of concepts manner.
used in day to day life, which would
help us to identify and comprehend the Descartes’ views were supported and
original and at the same time will point further substantiated by Spinoza and Leibniz.
out its difference from other concept, Spinoza argued that in principle, all knowledge
e.g. when we understand the concept of is attained through reason. He of course did
the colour red, we also comprehend that acknowledge the limits of human reason. But
red colour is neither pink nor blue. he was of the opinion that if these limits would
not have been there, everything could have
The method that Descartes proposes for been known through reason alone. Leibniz put
attaining such truths is similar to the geometrical forward the view that it’s not only the ideas of
method. Just as theorems are proved on the basis the existence of the self or God that are innate,
of the axioms in geometry, every proposition but all mathematical or logical principals are
must be proved to be indubitable and certain in also innate to the human mind. He believed
other fields of knowledge too. However, for this that if this would not have been the case, then
purpose, one must not begin with axioms, since it would have been impossible to think in a
the axioms are assumed to be true. It is necessary logical manner. He thought that in a sense all
to begin with noncontroversial, indubitable knowledge is innate.
truths themselves. Such truths are self-evident.
They do not require an external justification. In this entire tradition of rationalism, a

53

subordinate place has been given to experience. At the beginning of the process of knowledge,
mind is inactive or passive. It only receives the
Let’s think !
ideas from these sources. Once, the ideas are
Do you find any problem with received, the mind becomes active and starts
Leibhiz’s view, ‘All knowledge is in a processing them. It understands the inter-relation
sense innate?’ Discuss in the class. among the ideas. The external and the internal
sensations as if provide the raw material needed
Empiricism for the production of knowledge. Knowledge is
produced after reason processes them. Locke’s
John Locke, Bishop Berkeley and David view that the knowledge attained through
Hume are the three philosophers who advocated experience must be justified on the basis of
empiricism. Empiricists deny the possibility experience itself, is consistent with the method
of a priori knowledge, as they firmly believe of science today.
that knowledge cannot be produced without
experience. Knowledge is produced from the Another very significant point regarding
data or information that is provided by the Locke’s epistemology is his opinion that we
sense-organs, afterwards reason processes it. can know the qualities, relations and actions
Without experience, there is nothing available of objects, but we can never have a direct
for reason to process, that is why reason alone knowledge of the substance underlying all of
cannot give us knowledge of the world. They these. If, we analyze the experience of the pen in
are of the opinion that sense-organs connect front of us, we realize that the actual experience
our consciousness to the external world and is of the colour, shape, texture etc. of the pen. We
unless such a connection is established, it is not do not experience anything called ‘pen’ beyond
possible to know the world. all these. Of course, we do believe that all these
are the characteristics of the pen, but there is no
Locke rejected Descartes’ notion of innate empirical ground for this belief. We believe it on
ideas completely. In his opinion there are no the basis of reasoning.
ideas that are present in the minds of all human
beings at the time of birth. For example, the idea Locke divides the qualities of the object
of God does not seem to be inherent in the minds into primary qualities and secondary qualities.
of the children. They learn it in the process of Since, the existence of colour, form, smell,
socialization. Atheists deny the existence of God. taste, texture and sound is dependent on their
Moreover, those who believe in the existence of being experienced, Locke calls them secondary
God, differ from each-other about his nature. qualities. The knowledge of these qualities also
changes from person to person. As against this,
Locke argues that at the time of birth, prior the qualities such as size, solidity and mass are
to any experience mind is a ‘tabula rasa’, that in the object. Therefore, he calls them primary
means a clean slate. It is that kind of slate on qualities. These primary qualities can be known
which no letters/alphabets have left their marks. in an objective manner, since their existence
It is only through experience that alphabets does not depend upon their being experienced.
start appearing on it. This means that all ideas However, the primary qualities can be known
found in the mind originate in experience. through the secondary qualities only. This means
Ideas about the surrounding world are created that whatever knowledge of the world we have,
through the sensations that we receive from the we can have a direct experience of secondary
five sense-organs, whereas the ideas about the qualities only.
inner world are created through the experiences
of the mind. Sense perception and introspection
are the fundamental sources of knowledge.

54

Let’s do! and creates a new idea. An excellent example
of this is the idea of a ‘golden mountain’. We
Prepare a concept-map based on do experience gold and mountain, but none of
the characteristics of an object. Consider us has ever seen a golden mountain. Yet, the
different objects as examples. mind can imagine a golden mountain. Through
such examples, Hume explains that there need
The ideas produced from this experience not always be something corresponding to or
alone are the objects of our direct experience. We denoted by the ideas in our mind. That is why, it
can never directly know the substance which is is essential to examine the ideas in the mind in a
supposed to be beyond all the qualities, as we do rigorous manner.
not directly experience it any time. In spite of this,
Locke accepts the existence of the substance. Hume has classified objects of knowledge
into two kinds - Relations of ideas and Matters
The second empiricist philosopher of fact. The first type consists of the ideas
Berkeley goes a step ahead of Locke and states created by reason itself. Their truth is not based
that to accept the existence of anything that on experience but is justified by reason. This
cannot be experienced is not consistent with kind of knowledge is necessary, universal and
the epistemological position of empiricism. certain. Its truth is not dependent on any external
Berkeley argues that since the knowledge of the conditions and is accepted by everyone at all
primary qualities is also through the secondary times. Mathematics and Logic are the examples
ones, the knowledge of primary qualities is also of this kind of knowledge. The second type of
subjective. Only the ideas that are experienced knowledge is about the facts in the external
and the mind that experiences them are real. world. Experience is the fundamental source
There is no epistemological support to accept of this knowledge. The nature of experience
the existence of what cannot be experienced. changes with relation to place, time and person.
Berkeley therefore rejects the existence of the Therefore this knowledge is not certain. Its truth
material substance. In his opinion, the objects is not necessary, but only probable. Scientific
that we experience are nothing but a collection knowledge is of this type. Scientific truths are
or group of ideas. A material substance which is probable not necessary.
supposed to be the basis of all the characteristics
that we experience does not exist. The idea of causation and the idea of self,
fall under the category of matters of fact. It has
We have acquainted ourselves with some to be examined whether all the ideas in this
of the ideas of the third empiricist David Hume category originate from experience in order to
in some of the earlier lessons. Now, let us assess the truth and justifiability of this kind
understand his epistemological point of view of knowledge. Hume is of the opinion that if
which is the foundation of those ideas. Like those ideas do not emerge from experience,
Locke and Berkeley, Hume also argues that they should not be given any place in the
all ideas are generated through experience. system of knowledge. Hume firmly asserts that
He classifies our experience into impressions if there are no corresponding impressions in
and ideas. Through sense-perception different the mind for certain ideas, then, such ideas
impressions are created in our mind. The mind are epistemologically worthless and must be
generates ideas on the basis of these impressions. discarded. You should understand Hume’s
However, mind does not use only experience critical analysis of the idea of causation and that
for generating ideas. Many a times, it is also of self, on this background. Hume goes one step
influenced by the power of imagination. Using ahead of Berkeley and rejects reality not only of
this power, mind combines two or more ideas the material substance, but also of the spiritual
which are never actually experienced together substance i.e. the soul. He also denied that there

55

is a necessary relation between cause and effect. empiricism Kant proved that knowledge cannot
Hume is called a sceptic because he has raised be produced unless reason and experience are
doubts about the possibility of the knowledge conjoined in a proper manner. Reason provides the
of certain and necessary truths pertaining to the form or the pattern /structure of knowledge, while
external world. Of course, Hume’s scepticism is experience fills it up with content. Knowledge is
called mitigated or sober since Hume accepts created through the inter-connected constitution
the mathematical and logical truths as certain; of form and content. It is true that mere sense-
which means that he does not totally reject the perception cannot generate knowledge unless it
possibility of certain knowledge. is arranged in a pattern provided by reason, but
it is also equally true that reason cannot know
The limits of rationalism and empiricism the universe without being provided empirical
content by sense-experience. This is how Kant
The journey of epistemology that started explained the interdependence of reason and
with Descartes in modern philosophy, reaches experience. Kant’s analysis of the process of
a certain stage in Hume. Hume’s sceptical knowledge is quite close to the research that is
position brings it to our notice that though this going on in this connection in neurology today.
journey began with the objective of eliminating
skepticism permanently, it is very difficult to The Scientific perspective
reach that objective. The inter-connections
between epistemology and metaphysics that we We saw how epistemology has been
observed in the context of Indian Philosophy discussed in philosophical tradition. It must
are seen here too. Rationalism puts forth the be noted, that when philosophers were
possibility of certain and indubitable truths contemplating epistemological issues, they
but it could not successfully explain how the were doing it without the tools that present
truths gained through reason alone can give us day science uses to investigate. Their
the knowledge corresponding with the external reflections stemmed from personal experience,
world. As we have seen, the examples of such introspection and broader knowledge of the
truths are mathematical and logical truths. But, world. Science is the study of objective
these truths do not tell us anything about the reality that is verifiable to anyone and
world. This observation in a way supports the everyone who wishes to verify. What does
empiricist’s view-point that the knowledge of science tell us about how we gain knowledge?
the external world has to be attained through
experience. However, the development of When we look at the process of acquiring
empiricism once again led to scepticism. It knowledge in scientific manner, we see that
was firmly established because of Hume’s knowledge for individual and knowledge for
critical analysis of knowledge, that empirical society are two different things. Science is a
knowledge is only probable and it cannot be collective effort of studying the laws of
necessarily true. Knowledge gained through nature that govern objective reality by using
reason is certain but there is no guarantee that tools and instruments. From the point of view
it corresponds with the external world and the of scientific knowledge, it is immaterial how
knowledge of the external world that is gained a person understands it with his senses. For
through experience can never be certain. Such example, our sensory knowledge would never
was the predicament that was generated in tell us about the behaviour of an atom.
epistemology. Collective knowledge and tools of
experimentation helped us to overcome the
Immanuel Kant’s ‘Critical philosophy’ was limitations of individual capacity to gain
developed through the attempt to respond to this knowledge.
crisis. By offering critique of rationalism and
How do biology and neuroscience study

56

the process of knowledge acquisition? They The same principle also applies to
study how sensations are received and what accuracy in measurements with the help of
follows in the body with the help of tools and instruments. Accurate measuring
experiments and instruments. It is also requires calibration and standardization. Since
important to note that since life has emerged we do not know anything faster than the
from the non-living world, the laws of physics speed of light, we have to accept the limits
which govern the material world are also of the tools of measurement of its speed.
applicable to the living world. How is
knowledge acquisition explained at the level With referance to the method of science,
of physical sciences? The answer is: It is one sees that, science does not claim to know
through sense-organs that we receive the ‘ultimate reality’ as it is. Science adopt
sensations of different particles. We see the language of probability while accepting
because of photons. (photon is a name of a any proposition or system as ‘knowledge’. For
particle) Hearing, smell, taste, and touch; all example, when we say gravity is a law we
the senses are dependent on particles. Since are actually saying that it is highly probable
particles are always dispersing from each- that such a force exists. It is only when we
other, theoretically they do not reach us accept this highly probable statement as a
without any loss or distortion. Thus any reality that it becomes possible to conduct
claim of exact knowledge of reality is objective experiments with it or to develop a
unscientific. technological application based on it.

Prama - प्र्मा Glossary
Dnyana - ज्मान
Pramata - प्र्मातमा Sadhya - समाध्य
Pramana - प्र्माण Pakshadharmata - पक्षध््तम मा
Prameya - प्र््े य Vyapti - व्यमाप्ी
Dnyata - ज्मातमा Svarthanumana - सवमा्मा्मन्ु मान
Anubhava - अनुभव Pararthanumana - परमा्मा्नम ्ु मान
Smruti - स्तमृ ी Pratidnya - प्रवतज्मा
Yathartha - ्य्मा्म् Udaharan - उदमाहरण
Ayathartha - अ्य्मा््म Upanaya - उपन्य
Pratyaksha - प्रत्यक्ष Nigamana - वनग्न
Anumana - अन्ु मान Upamana - उप्मान
Upmana - उप्मान Upamiti - उपव्ती
Shabda - शबद Apta - आप्
Laukika - लौवकक Akanksha - आकमांक्षमा
Alaukika - अलौवकक Yogyata - ्योग्यतमा
Samanyalakshana - समा्मान्यलक्षण Sannidhi - संवनधी
Dnyanalakshana - ज्मानलक्षण Tatparya - तमातप्यम्
Yogajlakshana - ्योगजलक्षण Drushtartha - दृष्मा्म्
Pratyasatti - प्रत्यमासतती Adrushtartha - अदृष्मा्म्
Yogi - ्योगी Vaidika - वैवदक
Paksha - पक्ष Apaurusheya - अपौरूष्े य
Hetu - हते ू Arthapatti - अ्माप्म तती
Anupalabdhi - अनपु लबधी

57

EXERCISES

Q.1 Fill in the blanks choosing the Q.4 Explain the following statements with
correct option from the bracket. examples.

(1) In Indian Philosophy, knowledge that (1) Clarity and distinctness are the
qualifies the test of truth is called attributes of true proposition.
...........
(2) Without sense-experience knowledge is
(Dharana, Prama, Smruti) not possible.

(2) According to Nyaya Darshan human (3) Belief is not knowledge.
........... is the knower.
Q.5 State with reason whether the
(Atma, Jiva, Experience)
following statements are true or
(3) According to relativism knowledge is
........... . false.

(real, subjective, illusionary) (1) Only human beings can be called as
Pramata.
(4) Descartes wanted to prove that ...........
is wrong. (2) An inference which is used as argument
for others is called Swarthanumana.
(Rationalism, Pragmatism, Scepticism)
(3) According to correspondence theory of
Q.2 Give philosophical terms for the truth all the propositions are consistent
with one-another.
following.
(4) According to correspondence theory of
(1) That which is known. truth all statements are coherent with
each-other.
(2) A person who is knowledgable and
trust-worthy. (5) Berkeley denies the existence of matter.

(3) Determinate, non-erroncous and true Q.6 Distinguish between the following.
knowledge attained through the contact
between sense-organs and the objects. (1) Swarthanumana - Pararthanumana.

(4) Inference/Argument used in order to (2) Rationalism - Empiricism.
prove a conclusion to someone other
than oneself. (3) Primary and secondary qualities.

Q.3 Complete the concept-map/flow-chart. Q.7 Discuss in detail ‘Inference’ in Nyaya
Darshan.
(1)
Q.8 State the pragmatic theory of truth and
explain its drawbacks with examples.

Q.11 Write a dialogue on the following.

Criteria of Write a dialogue on the following-
knowledge logical consistency in fictional works
such as a movie or a fairy tale viz a
vis objective reality

(2) Activity

Conditions of Collect additional information
meaningfullness of about ‘how do we learn’ and present
a poster exibition offering information
a sentence about theories of learning.

PPP

58

5. What to do and why?

l Introduction you literally lie that you are going for study.
l The nature of Ethics At that point at least you do not feel that
l Ethical thought in Indian tradition you have done anything seriously wrong.
l Ethical thought in Western tradition Sometimes, we wonder exactly what would
l The Scientific perspective be the right thing to do or whether what our
friend is doing is right or wrong.

Introduction When during the exam your closest
friend asks you to show an answer of some
From morning since we wake-up till question, you face a dilemma about what has
night when we go to sleep, all the time we greater value; the friendship or the rules of
keep doing something or the other. Only in the exam ? When your friend lies to her ill
sleep we are completely inactive for some mother, that she has passed the exams even
time, otherwise we are constantly doing though she has failed we wonder whether it
something. But what are we exactly doing? is right or wrong to do so. How should one
Why are we doing it? How are we doing it? exactly think in such situations? Ethics
We rarely think of this consciously. Some of provides us with a guidance regarding the
our actions are just done habitually; some basis on which right decisions can be made.
are as told by others, while some are the
results of our decisions. Sometimes our The nature of Ethics
natural instincts are responsible for our
behaviour, whereas sometimes our emotions The function of ethics is to explain how
are responsible. In the previous year, we to evaluate whether an action is morally
have seen the difference between involuntary good or bad, right or wrong. Ethics examines
action and voluntary action. Involuntary the criteria for evaluating our actions or the
actions are mechanical, we do not have actions of others. There are mainly two
complete control over them. However, criteria that are considered in this regard.
voluntary actions are prompted by free will One is the purpose/intention with which an
and they are based on values. That is why, action is performed and the other is the
they can be good or bad, right or wrong. consequence of the action. Every consciously
Most of the times we try to perform actions performed action is performed with some or
following the rules taught to us about what the other objective/purpose and every action
is morally right and what is wrong. We have
already studied the need for moral laws.

If, you take a closer look at your own
behaviour, you will notice that at times your
behaviour is determined by the teachings you
have received or by the conditioning that has
happened over the time. For instance, while
travelling in a bus if you see an old man
standing by, you would quickly get up and
give him your seat. But, occasionally, when
you have to go out for a movie with a friend

59

produces some consequences. These intentions must save a life whenever it is possible to
and consequences are not necessarily do so. But, in an exceptional case, the
interconnected. In case, if, they are related, question arises as what to do if one cannot
then one may say that the desired consequences save one’s life without lying.
are achieved. But, sometimes there are
consequences that are unforeseen and Let’s do!
unexpected to the doer/agent.
Write dialogues on such situations
For example, when some people witness where two moral laws suggest contrary
an accident they run to help the accident actions and present them in the class.
victims, but if they do not know what is
exactly to be done in such a situation, they The laws that are made for a particular
might unintentionally harm the injured through society, in a particular period, for the benefit
their actions. If, we evaluate this example on of the society have a historical context. In
the basis of intentions then the action taken every period, following these laws in specific
would be considered right but if we consider circumstances is beneficial for an individual
its consequences then it would be wrong! and the society. But, at times even if the
circumstances change drastically, the laws
Let’s talk! remain unchanged. At that time they do not
prove to be beneficial. The traditional
Share and discuss in class any practices and customs, the Do’s and Don’ts
similar incident as mentioned above that of religion (the rules regarding what should
you have experienced or that you know. be done and what should not be done), the
laws made by the government, all these are
Many times mostly made for the betterment of the society.
we answer the From time to time they need to be critically
question, ‘What discussed from an ethical perspective.
should be done ?’ Accepting these laws blindly may be
with the help of detrimental to the society. The study of ethics
moral laws. These provides guidance about how to examine
laws are derived actions, rules, values and what factors are to
from years of be considered in this regard and why. For a
experience and good life, critical contemplation related to
from the reflections ethics is as important as the moral conduct.
based on them. Such contemplation and discussion is the
But, sometimes a peculiarity of philosophy. The study of ethics
situation arises is very important for all of us, since, we all
where it is right desire a good life. For this purpose, let us
to make exceptions now get introduced to the ethical concepts
to the law, while sometimes we find that two and doctrines that have been presented in
laws have recommend two opposite actions. Indian and Western philosophy.
The law states that you should feed the
hungry, but in certain cases of treatment of Ethical thought in Indian Tradition
a specific disease not feeding him/her is
beneficial for the patient even if he/she is As you all know the Rig-Veda is
hungry during the treatment. Due to this, one considered to be the first treatise/text in the
has to make an exception to the law. The known traditions. The concept of Ruta is one
laws state that one should never lie and one of the most fundamental concepts in Indian

60

ethical thought. We find its mention in this concept of Ruta can be seen in
Rigveda. Derived from the root ‘ॠ’ this word Karmasiddhanta or the theory of Karma.
is formed from a verb and is an indicator of
motion or movement and order. The Ruta Let’s do!
concept suggests that there is a motion in
this universe and in this motion there is a Write a note on, the people that
sort of order or sequence. The cycle of you believe you are indebted to and the
seasons found in India i.e. summer-monsoon- ways in which you will repay them.
winter or the cycle of day and night are
examples of Ruta. However, the concept of Law of Karma (Karmasiddhanta)
Ruta is not merely related to the order of
nature. Alongwith this, the concept of Ruta You know that the word ‘karma’ literally
also suggests existence of a moral order. means action. We have also studied last year
According to this notion, there is an implicit that ethics is concerned with voluntary actions.
order in human behaviour and its According to the law of karma, such
consequences. That is why good deeds result intentional, that is voluntary actions inevitably
in good consequences, while bad deeds lead lead to some consequences. These consequences
to bad consequences. Man must perform are called ‘fruits of actions’ (karmaphala).
actions keeping this in mind. Although, in The karma theory states that every person
this context there is no clear discussion someday has to enjoy/suffer the fruits i.e. the
regarding what is good or bad, still it is clear consequences of his/her actions. In a way, the
that the intention is to encourage man to relationship between karma and its fruit is an
perform good actions. The culmination of extension of the cause - effect relationship
found in nature, to the realm of human
Concept of Runa : Runa is a valuable
concept of Indian ethics. The term ‘Runa’ the given instructions is a way to become
literally means ‘debt’ or ‘loan’. Indian free from the Divine debt. By attaining
tradition believes that our life and many knowledge in a proper way one becomes
things that we enjoy in our lives are given free from the debt towards sages. By
to us by someone, therefore we owe them a begetting children the individual becomes
debt. It is stated that one should become free free from the debt of ancestors. Apart from
from debts by repaying them in a proper these, Indian tradition also mentions
way. The thought of expressing our gratitude Manushya Runa that is debt towards other
towards those who have benefited us is at human beings. The society contributes a lot
the root of the idea of becoming debt free. in making us whatever we are or in whatever
we achieve. Charity and co-operation are
Indian tradition mentions three main the suggested ways to repay this debt.
types of Runas, these are - Deva Runa
(debt towards deities/ divine debt), Rishi The concept of Runa is important
Runa (debt towards sages/ teachers), Pitru because the feeling of gratitude makes the
Runa (debt towards ancestors). The natural relationship amongst people more and more
forces/are considered as Gods-Goddesses. friendly and meaningful. Such relations are
The tradition believes that we get life and beneficial for both, the individual as well as
everything that is necessary for survival from the society. It is possible to extend the range
these forces. Our parents and our ancestors of our gratitude beyond the traditionally
are responsible for our birth. We get stated debt. Today, if we believe in the debt
knowledge from our teachers. That is why towards nature and show gratitude towards
we should be grateful to all of them. it, then would it not help in reducing the
Performing sacrifices and other rituals as per issues pertaining to human-nature
relationships?

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conduct. Karma is the cause whereas the fruit According to Indian intellectual tradition,
is the effect. The relationship between cause the two main motivations behind voluntary
and effect is inevitable. The law of karma actions are ‘Raag’and ‘Dvesha’. It should be
says that just as the cause inevitably produces noted that the word ‘Raaga’ here does not
an effect, similarly, the fruit will be produced mean anger or rage. Raaga here means
from the karma. It further states that the doer/ attraction, temptation, desire. Dvesha means
agent gets the fruits of the action whether he/ aversion/dislike. All of our actions are based
she desires it or not. The proverb ‘Reap as on the basic motivations of ‘wanting’
you sow’ is nothing but practical version of something and ‘not wanting’ something.
the karma theory. The common man too
expresses the understanding that he/she has of The relationship between the action
the karma theory while stating, ‘you have to performed by the doer and the fruits it
bear the fruits of your actions’. Although, this produces can be explained in detail. Proponents
awareness is embedded in the minds of all of karma theory believe that this relationship
those who have grown-up in the Indian works in two ways. It is from the present
tradition, everyone does not necessarily have karma to the fruit that follows, as well as
information regarding the types of karma and from the present fruit to the previous karma.
their significance and regarding the types of As per the first relation, good or bad
karma essential for a good life. Let’s know consequences of whichever actions one
about them. performs are to be enjoyed/ suffered by the
doer. As per the second relation, the pleasure
Action / Cause and sorrow that we experience in the present
must be the results of the past good or bad
deeds.

Good actions Bad actions y the doer/agent doer/agent action produced the potentiality of Karma to produce fruit Fru

Good Bad
consequences consequences

(Fruits) (Fruits)

Effect

Classification of Karmas Experience of fruits b its produced

The most basic types of karma is the In Indian tradition, karma theory has
one between voluntary action and involuntary always been associated with the concept of
action. You have studied the meaning of re-birth. Let us try to understand the reason
these terms in the previous year. behind it. According to the law of karma, the
fruits of good actions are good and bad
Let’s do! actions are bad. If a person enjoys a lot of
happiness and satisfaction then it is believed
Take examples of various actions that his/her meritorious actions (punyakarma)
performed and classify them in the
above mentioned types.

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have born these fruits. Similarly, when a Though we use only one word i.e.
person has to face pain and suffering it is ‘Indian tradition’ with reference to India, it
believed that it must be due to the sins or actually consists of a rich and diverse
bad actions committed by the person. In heritage as is proudly stated in the pledge.
reality it is often seen that those who perform This tradition consists of darshanas like
evil, wrong or immoral acts enjoy pleasures, Charavaka that denies the existence of soul,
while those who perform good, righteous or God or re-birth. In the same way there are
moral actions suffer. According to the law of darshanas like Sankhya, Yoga, Nyaya,
karma this would be impossible. The notion Vaisheshika and some Vedanta schools that
of re-birth offers explanation for this. believe in soul, God and re-birth. It includes
According to this belief, if the cause of Bauddha darshana that believes in re-birth
happiness and suffering that people experience even if it rejects the existence of soul and
in the present is not found in their existing God and also the Jain darshana that rejects
lives, then, they are believed to be the results God but believes in soul and re-birth. Except
of the actions performed in the previous the materialist philosophy of Charvaka, all
births. At the same time, this view encourages other darshanas have endorsed re-birth and
individuals to do good deeds by assuring law of karma. All these schools of Indian
them that if good deeds are performed in the philosophy also agree that the soul is bound
present, then, they will certainly bear good to be born again and again in different bodies
fruits in this life or in the next life. and that the highest goal of the soul is to
get rid of this bondage, that is, from the
In a way, we notice, that the belief that cycle of re-birth. This liberation or freedom
the result of good action is good and the is ‘Moksha’ or ‘Nirvana’! All these darshanas
result of bad action is bad is found regard liberation as the ‘Parampurushartha’
everywhere. But, generally we do not find i.e.highest goal of human life. The concept
the notion of re-birth in the traditions other of Purushartha is important in Indian ethics,
than the Indian tradition. So how do these now let’s understand it.
traditions explain the discrepancies that we
have just mentioned? The answer to this is, Purushartha
according to Christianity and Islam, even if
the body dies, the soul does not perish. God The word ‘Purushartha’ is analyzed as
keeps an account of all our good and bad “purushaihi arthyate iti purushartha”. The
deeds. As per this account, on the final Day word ‘artha’ has several meanings. Here, it
of Judgment, the good souls/spirits are sent means a goal or a purpose. The term
to heaven and sinful souls to hell. These ‘Purushartha’ means the goal or the end that
traditions believe that even if there is no re- every human being (man or woman) ought
birth, the consequences of the actions have to seek in order to lead a better life. In the
to be borne. But, the different ideas presented early period, three goals were suggested viz.
by them in this regard are in accordance Dharma, Artha and Kama. This is known as
with their cultural beliefs. the ‘three-fold’ (‘Trivarga’) theory. In the
later period, Moksha was added to these
Let’s find ! three goals and this version is known as
‘Chaturvarga’ theory. Let’s get introduced to
See if you can find examples of these four purusharthas / goals of human life.
‘actions and suffering the consequences
of the actions’. Kama

Semantically speaking, the word ‘kama’
refers to man’s desires or wishes. In the

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framework of purushartha the word kama is sense, Dharma is the principle that holds the
related to the physical pleasures. It includes whole universe together. This meaning of
sexual pleasure, other sensual pleasures as Dharma is closely related to the word Ruta.
well as appreciation of art and beauty. Since, Like the word Ruta, the meaning of the word
the desire for these pleasures is natural it is Dharma too has significant ethical dimensions.
considered to be one of the purusharthas. Dharma is essential in order to maintain the
society. The function of the above-mentioned
Artha laws, rules, norms etc. is to keep the society
together, hence, in a broader sense they are
Although, the word ‘artha’ refers to included in Dharma. In order to hold the
money, wealth, possessions, the broader society together, each person must perform
meaning it has is that it is the material his/her duties honestly. What are these duties?
means necessary for the fulfillment of the What are the Do’s and Don’ts for an
desires of physical pleasures. It means artha individual? Directives in this regard are found
has an instrumental value. Without this in the Dharmashastras. Dharmashastra gives
means kama cannot be satisfied, therefore information about what rules an individual
artha has been included in the purusharthas. should follow in personal and social life. The
text / treatises of Dharmashastras can be said
Dharma to be the books of law of ancient times. In
Indian tradition, morals, law, customs, beliefs,
The word ‘Dharma’ is very rich in rituals have all been discussed together.
meaning. Let us first understand different
shades of its meaning and then we shall The duties that Dharma dictates are
consider its nature as a purushartha. First of divided into Sadharan Dharma (general
all, it should be noted that the connotation duties) and Vishesha Dharma (specific duties).
of ‘Dharma’ is not as limited/narrow as it The duties that individuals of any age, race,
seems to be when applied to the religions gender or class are supposed to perform are
like Hinduism, Islam, Christianity, Judaism, called Sadharan Dharma. Satya (truth),
Sikhism, Zoroastrianism etc. Today, we often Ahimsa (non-violence), asteya (non-stealing),
use the word ‘Dharma’ as an alternative to patience, non aggression, temperance etc. are
the English word ‘religion’. Here, by Dharma included in Sadharan Dharma. This Dharma
we mean a community of people that shares is social in nature. The duties that a particular
similar conduct, beliefs, values, practices of person is supposed to perform on the basis
worship etc. In fact, the concept of Dharma of his Varnashrama, which means the duties
has several shades of meaning like community, based on his or her social position and the
customs, mores, laws, rules, morals, duties particular stage of his or her life, are called
etc. Moreover, when we make statements like Vishesa Dharma. You have studied the varna
‘the dharma of fire is to burn’ or ‘the dharma system and the ashram system in school.
of water is to flow’, we are talking about
the natural or essential attributes of objects.

Let’s write! Let’s do!

Make a concept-map of the several Draw a table consisting of the four
shades of meaning of the term ‘Dharma’. Varnas , the four Ashram and the duties
associated with them.
The word Dharma is derived from the
root ‘Dhru’. ‘Dhru’ means to hold, to support Indian tradition seems to have given a
or to hold together. According to this basic lot of importance to varnnashrama Dharma.

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You must be familiar with the story from and again is to suffer again and again; hence
Mahabharata, of war between the Kauravas birth is a constraint and being released from
and the Pandavas. Right at the beginning of the cycle of re-birth is the supreme goal of
the battle, after seeing his own relatives, a human being. Dharma, artha, kama are the
teachers, friends in front of him in the goals to be attained in this birth, but Moksha
battlefield, Arjuna faced a moral dilemma is the highest purushartha that liberates an
whether it is right to kill all these people individual from the cycle of birth and death.
who are mine, just to establish the Pandavas’ From this perspective, the first three
right over the kingdom. In this moment, Shri purushartha are kind of material goals, while
Krishna asks Arjuna to follow his svadharma moksha leads to spiritual well-being. This
that is the varna dharma. According to role of moksha purushartha is consistent with
Krishna, being a Kshatriya, it was Arjuna’s the metaphysical idea, according to which
duty to fight. man’s ‘self’ is not material but spiritual.

Let’s discuss! As we have seen in the second chapter,
ignorance regarding our real nature is the
Conduct a discussion on the topic main reason of getting trapped in the cycle
‘The present times and varnaashrama of birth and death. Naturally, knowledge is
dharma’. necessary in order to attain liberation. But,
moral conduct is as important as knowledge.
The Dharma purushartha mainly The combination of spirituality and morality
comprises of sadharana dharma and vishesha made by the tradition is noteworthy. Lust for
dharma. The goals of artha and kama, are material pleasures, unethical means used to
to be fulfilled in the framework of Dharma. acquire these pleasures, deception, hypocrisy,
Violation of the principles, values and duties the craving for fame are not the signs of true
stated by Dharma in order to earn money or spirituality. An unethical person cannot gain
to enjoy pleasures is not acceptable to the knowledge because this person’s thought-
tradition. The principles of Dharma, that is process is greatly affected by the motives of
the principles of morality provide guidance raaga and dveshas i.e. likes and dislikes.
regarding what should be the relation of man With such a polluted thought process neither
with nature and the society. There is harmony the nature of the universe nor the nature of
and balance in the relationship between man, self can be known. Obviously, due to the
nature and society if dharma is followed, lack of knowledge, moksha too remains
whereas if the control of dharma is violated unattained. There is an inter-dependence
while pursuing artha and kama it causes between a person’s knowledge and morality.
hindrance to the well-being of the individual To behave ethicaly and according to dharma
and the society. Performing actions in is to regulate our desires, intentions, feelings,
accordance to Dharma leads to material emotions and doing what is beneficial for
prosperity and is also essential for spiritual one’s own self and for others. By doing so,
well-being. one liberates the intellect from the prejudices,
pre-conceptions and increases its ability to
Moksha gain knowledge. In the same way, as the
depth of knowledge increases, the foundation
While studying the theory of karma, we of morality becomes stronger.
have seen that all other schools of philosophy
except Charvaka accept the idea of re-birth.
The tradition believes that being born again

65

Ignorance and which action is to be performed. Ethical
thought of Indian tradition has developed
cycle of majorly in this context.
birth &
According to one of the classifications
death of karma, there are three types of karma,
Sanchita, Prarabdha and Sanchiyaman or
Moral person Immoral person Kriyaman. All the actions that we have done
in the past (not only in this life, but also in
Thoughts are free Thoughts are the previous lives) and are yet to bear fruits
from prejudices polluted by Raag are called Sanchita karma. The actions, the
and pre- fruits of which we will necessarily receive in
and Dvesha the present are called Prarabdha. The actions
conceptions due to that we are performing at present are
controlled and Sanchiyaman or Kriyaman karmas. Once,
these actions are performed, their fruits/
beneficial conduct consequences get determined. If, these actions
are performed wisely, dutifully, they will bear
Attainment of Knowledge is good results. However, there is no escape
knowledge not gained from the fruits of prarabdha karma. The
potentiality of prarabdha karmas to bear
Attainment of Liberation/moksha fruits is fully developed, so they are to be
liberation/moksha is not attained enjoyed/ suffered. Since, the potentialities of
(freedom from the the sanchita karmas are not yet fully
cycle of re-birth) (continuation of the developed we can get rid of them. The Vedic
cycle of re-birth) tradition has suggested various ways of
getting rid of them. According to one view,
The most important question related to if one acquires knowledge one does not have
moksha purushartha is how to attain to bear the fruits of sanchita karmas
liberation. As long as the person is alive, he (accumulated deeds). According to the
or she has to perform some or the other Mimamsa school of Indian philosophy, the
action. According to the theory of karma if proper way is to perform the Nitya karma
the karma is performed, its fruits have to be (regular, daily) and Naimittika karma (to be
borne. If so, then, the question arises as to performed occasionally) as stated in the
how is it possible to get released from the scriptures.
cycle of re-birth. In this regard it is important
to consider how an action is to be performed Let’s write!

Make a list of nitya and naimittika
karmas.

Bhagavadgita has propagated the path
of Nishkama Karma, the path of performing
an action without the expectation of some
fruit. Whatever action we perform, is
performed due to some desire. You expect
some outcome from it, that is, such karma

66

is performed with the desire of getting its given the status of duties.
fruit. Nishkama karma means action
performed without any expectation of fruit. Non-Vedic Traditions
According to the teachings of Bhagavadgita
such actions do not generate the fruits/ results The heterodox, non- Vedic traditions like
which are binding to an individual. If we Buddhism and Jainism also believe that the
perform all our actions without expectation cycle of re-birth is bondage and in their
we get liberated from the cycle of birth and opinion too, liberating oneself from this
death. bondage should be the highest goal of human
life. Like the Vedic traditions, these traditions
Now, you may wonder why anyone too consider knowledge and moral conduct
would perform any action if one does not as essential for attaining this goal. However,
want to get any fruit or result from it. Is as we have studied earlier their understanding
it possible to do karma/ perform action regarding the nature of the world and self is
without expecting its fruit? To this Gita different from that of the Vedic tradition.
replies, such actions are possible. These are
the actions that we perform out of the sense Jaina Ethics
of duty and we do not expect any fruit/result
from them. This is nishkama karma. If you According to Jaina metaphysics, jiva or
look back at the example that we took at soul has the potentiality to attain four-fold
the beginning of the lesson, while travelling perfection, namely, infinite knowledge, infinite
in a bus if, you give a seat to an elderly faith, infinite power and infinite bliss. But,
person with an intention of following your because of the limitations of the body, these
duty, then, it would be a Nishkama karma. potentialities are not actualized/ realized. It
But, if you offer the old man a seat in the is due to the passions and desires of jiva that
bus with an expectation of being rewarded the pudgala that is the material particles are
by him in return, it would be sakama karma. attracted towards it and the jiva gets bound
Then, you will have to bear its fruits. It with the body. That is why in order to get
should also be noted here that whether the freedom from the body, it is not only
fruits of sakama karma are good or bad, in important to eliminate the particles of matter
both the cases they are binding and must be that have already accumulated, but stopping
borne. That is why performing nishkama the influx of new matter into the soul is also
karma is the only right way to attain Moksha/ equally important. These two processes are
liberation. called Nirajara and Samvara respectively. It
is true that the soul is bound with the body,
Although, the theory of karma states the but basically this bondage is created only
relation between karma and its fruit, it does because of desires, cravings and motivations.
not provide guidance regarding which actions This bondage is an internal bondage, while
should be considered good or bad. From the the bondage of the body is an external one.
given explanation, by now, you must have In order to be freed from this bondage, one
realized that it is the function of dharma, i.e. must keep faith in the teachings of the
morality to provide such guidance. Dharma liberated beings, and gain knowledge of the
tells us about our duties. Performing these world and of one own self. But, as long as
actions only because they are our duties is this knowledge does not reflect in the conduct
Nishkama karma. At the same time, it is to of an individual, it may not lead to liberation.
be noted that only those actions which are When a person controls his thoughts, desires,
moral and are considered to be desirable for feelings, speech, behaviour through with
the individual and the society have been moral conduct, the process of Nirjara begins
and the Asrava that is the influx of pudgala

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(new matter) comes to an end. In the Jaina ‘self’. Moksha cannot be the goal of life
tradition right faith, right knowledge and for Charvakas, who denied all the
right conduct are known as the Triratnas concepts like soul, re-birth, heaven, hell
(three - jewels). etc. Since they believed that ‘I am my
body’, the attainment of pleasures of
Ethics is indeed related to right conduct. the body is the goal of human life
In this the Panchavratas (five great vows) according to them. Since with the death
are central. Ahimsa (non-violence), Satya of body the human existence gets
(truth), Asteya (abstinence from stealing), destroyed, Charvaka thinks that it is not
Brahmacharya (celibacy) and Aparigraha wise to deny the materialistic pleasures
(abstinence from attachment) are the five of this life in the hope of attaining
great vows. Aparigraha means not storing imaginary pleasure in next birth or in
more than what is required, carrying only order to attain moksha. Similarly, they
necessary things with oneself. Ahimsa has a also believe that pleasure and pain are
very important place in Jaina ethics. Any inevitable aspects of human life.
kind of harm to any being at any level of Therefore, the complete cessation of
body, speech or thought is unacceptable to suffering that Buddhists speak of is
Jainas. According to Jainas, every jiva (living possible only after death. While struggling
being) has the right to attain liberation and to gain pleasures in life one may have
it is not moral to cause any kind of hindrance to face miseries, but to turn one’s back
in it’s path of liberation. to happiness simply because of this
reason, is like throwing away the whole
These vows are necessary for those who grain because it comes with the husk.
are not on the path of renunciation and are
house holders, ordinary lay persons, as well This ethical standpoint of Charvaka
as for the ascetic monks and nuns. The vows is described as ‘Hedonism’ as per the
of the lay person are less stringent, so they terminology of Western ethics. Hedonism
are called Anuvratas. In case of the monks believes that an action which gives you
and nuns the rules related to these vows are pleasure is a right action. Pleasure is the
rigorous, hence they are called Mahavratas. only objective of human life. Although
By adhering to these vows and other moral pain cannot be completely avoided, man
rules, the conduct, knowledge and faith must try to gain as much pleasure as
become impeccable and perfect and the possible. The hedonist Carvaka states
fourfold perfection is attained. Jiva is liberated that a good life is a happy life. They
from the cycle of re-birth. believe only in two purusharthas, kama
and artha. Therefore, they believe that,
Let’s find it! gaining pleasure and collecting the
wealth and other means for attainment
Find examples of Anuvratas and of pleasure are the only two goals of
Mahavratas. human life.

Charvaka’s views on Ethics Buddhist Ethics

Charvaka’s ethical position is One of the important goals of Buddhist
considered to be unique. Like other philosophy is cessation of the suffering in
schools of Indian philosophy, Charvaka’s human life. The four noble truths stated by
ethics too is consistent with its
metaphysics and its understanding of

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Gautam Buddha are related to the existence Arya Ashtangika Marga
of suffering and its cessation. These noble
truths are : (1) Life is full of suffering. (2) (1) Sammaditthi or Samyakdrishti
There is a cause of this suffering. (3) (Right views) : Correct knowledge of the
Cessation of suffering is possible. (4) There four noble truths.
is a path which leads to cessation of suffering.
This path consists of eight components (steps) (2) Sammasankalpa or Samyaksankalp
and is therefore, called the eightfold noble (Right resolve) : Right resolve includes,
path (ashtangika-marga). The ethical giving up ill-feeling towards others,
contemplations of Buddhist philosophy are desisting from any harm to them and
primarily woven in this eight-fold path. Here, renouncing worldliness (attachement to
the emphasis is on the knowledge of the world or renunciation)
noble truths, efforts to live life by constantly
remembering them and moral conduct. One (3) Sammavacha or Samyakvak
of the aspects of this conduct is appropriate (Right speech) : Right speech consists of
use of language or speech. One must abstain abstention from lying, slander, unkind
from lying, slander, unkind words and words and frivolovs talk.
frivolous talk. One should earn one’s
livelihood by honest means. It is not right to (4) Sammakammanta or
earn money through forbidden, wrong,
unethical means. Our normal behaviour Samyakkarmanta (Right conduct) :
should be in accordance to ‘Sheela’. The Right conduct, following Panchasheela.
basic meaning of ‘Sheela’ is conduct,
behaviour. Here the word ‘satsheela’ is used (5) Samma-Ajiva or Samyakjivika
which means good moral conduct. Buddhist (Right livelihood) : Choosing right means
philosophy mentions the Panchasheela that of livelihood, honesty, avoiding forbidden
is the five vows/rules of right conduct. Lying, means of earning livelihood.
stealing, killing or hurting, enjoying
unrestricted bodily or sexual pleasure and (6) Sammavayama or Samyakvyayama
any type of intoxication are prohibited acts. (Right effort) : Constantly making right
One must not perform them. In other words efforts,filling the mind with good and right
one must observe satya, asteya, ahimsa, thoughts, taking efforts to keep it away
brahmacharya and apramada. By doing so, from evil thoughts, conduct and feelings.
the body and the senses are kept under
control and the mind remains stable and (7) Sammasati or Samyaksmrti (Right
calm. This discipline of the body and mind mindfulness) : Constantly remembering the
is very essential for the attainment of nirvana. knowledge that is learnt. Never forgetting
In Buddhism the state in which the chain of impermanence,non-existence of the soul.
re-birth completely ceases is called ‘Nirvana’.
Nirvana means cessation of all sufferings (8) Sammasamadhi or Samyaksamadhi
and utmost peace. In this state all the (Right concentration) : By way of living
impressions (samskaras) of the previous birth the life in the right way as per the
are destroyed and hence the body that is a teachings, getting rid of craving, evil
collection of five fleeting aggrigates thoughts etc.,experiencing the state of
(panchaskandha) is not born again. being free from suffering.

Ethical thought in Western tradition

Ethics is one of the major branches of
western philosophy. What is? How do we
know it? How does it affect our actions?
These are the three prominent questions in

69

philosophy that we have discussed in the Immanuel Kant has tried to answer this
previous year. The branch of ethics deals question in a completely rational manner.
with the third question. We have already
taken a brief account of the virtue ethics of Before Kant, David Hume had
Socrates and Aristotle. The medieval ethics propounded that man’s desires, motivations,
was mainly theocentric and influenced by passions determine his wants and reason only
Christian ethics. In this chapter we shall get tells how to achieve them. According to
acquainted with the two major theories of Hume reason is the slave of these passions
modern philosophy. and motivations. Kant did not agree with this
view. Like Socrates and Plato, he believed
As we have seen earlier, the two main that the moral laws, duties should be universal
criteria for evaluating an action are the and equal for all. Our evaluation of what is
intention behind the action and the right and what is wrong should be impartial.
consequences of the action. Accordingly, two He insisted that the moral values of an action
major theories have been put forth in western had nothing to do with the agent. If Hume’s
ethics, namely, deontology and teleology/ view is considered valid, then ethics will not
consequentialism. Deontology states that an remain objective. It will become subjective
action is morally correct, when it is performed and will no more be universal. According to
only with an intention of performing a duty. Kant, ethics must essentially be universal.
On the contrary, according to Therefore he rejected Hume’s view.
consequentialism, that action which produces
good results is an ethically good action. As long as morality is determined on the
basis of emotions, motivations, desires, it
Kant’s Deontology cannot be free from being subjective/ relative,
because emotions, desires etc. change from
According to the deontological view it is person to person. Therefore what is right for
more important for an action to have moral one person may be wrong for another. This
value and status rather than being good on causes a threat to the objectivity and the
the basis of the consequences it produces. universality of ethics. Hence, Kant constructed
Deontology believes that an action performed his ethics with reason at its base. All human
with a sense of duty is morally right rather beings are rational and everyone has to agree
than an action performed with an expectation with the truths and facts discovered by the
of specific result. You must have noticed that reason. Likewise, Kant argues that everyone
the significance of nishkama karma mentioned will have to accept whatever command
in Indian philosophy lies in its deontological intellect gives regarding the human behaviour.
perspective. For this perspective the question Suppose one finds someone’s mobile on the
‘what is duty?’ is important. It is answered college playground, one may wish to keep it
in various ways such as, the commandments to oneself, someone else may just avoid
of God, traditionally ordained rules, social picking it up in order to avoid the troubles
laws etc. Any action that is in accordance that follow, someone else may even wish/
with the law is considered to be ethical and want to sell it secretly. But their reason
any action that breaks the laws is considered would tell them, that the mobile should be
immoral. Indian tradition states that the deposited in college office. Whoever finds the
duties of an individual are determined by the mobile, whatever may be the wish or
varnashrama - by his/her aptitude (varna) circumstances of the person who finds it, this
and stage of life (ashrama). In the Western command of reason would be appropriate
tradition, the well-known German philosopher and beneficial to all.

70

What is good? Is an important question it. The will has the power of determination
in ethics. Kant’s response to this question is along with desire. Good will means a will
unique. Generally health, wealth, knowledge or determination to perform a duty. When
etc. are considered as good. Kant contends knowledge, power and wealth are
that these things and things like these that accompanied by good will, then they will
are considered to be good are not never be misused. Therefore, Kant believes
unconditionally good, because they can be that good will always reflects in moral laws.
misused. When knowledge, power, money are But how do we know what our duty is? Kant
used for wrong reasons, how can you call tells us a simple way to find this out. Now
them ‘good’? let’s see what it is.

Let’s think ! What should you do when your friend
asks you to show your answer paper in the
Discuss some examples where you find exam? Don’t you ask yourself, what is your
the misuse of knowledge, wealth and power. duty? At that point, you should think that, I
Think about the reasons behind such misuse. may feel that I should show my answer
paper to help my friend, but should everyone
Does this then mean that there is nothing help his or her friends in the exams in the
in the world that is inherently good or that same way? You may even ask, what is wrong
cannot be misused? Kant answers this in doing so? If we think a little deeper, you
question negatively. What he calls Good will, will realize that if this becomes a general
is good irrespective of the circumstances. The rule to help one another in the exam, then
Good will does not merely mean good wish/ the exam system would make no sense.
desire. The word ‘will’ is not only associated Because, the aim of the examination is to
with desire, but also with the resolution to evaluate, how far the student has learned, to
fulfill the wish. Desires are many. Every time what extent and in what way the student has
we may not give our best to fulfill each understood the subject. If the students copy,
desire. It is only when we are determined to the objective will not be achieved. This
get something; we work really hard and give means that there is an inconsistency between
our best to it. Many people wish to sing the purpose of the system of examination and
well, but the person who decides and states, writing the answers with the help of others
“I will certainly sing well” works hard for rather than writing them on your own. That
is why ‘everyone should help each-other in
this way’ can never be a general rule.

Kant gives a similar example of breaking
a promise. If you make a rule that ‘if it is
possible to break a promise, one should break
it’, then within a few days, the practice of
‘making a promise’ will disappear. From this,
Kant has concluded that if an action or the
rule on which it is based, cannot be
universalized,then that action cannot be our
duty. Only the action that can be universalized
is a duty. An action is universal and therefore
moral if It is an action that; not just me,
but whoever might have been in my place in
this situation should have done.

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When our actions are based on personal physique then one should exercise regularly’
feelings, desires, it is not possible to does not apply to someone who does not
universalize them. On the contrary, when wish to earn a good physique. On the
they are based on reason, they can be contrary, the command ‘everyone must
universalized. It is as if we decide what we exercise’ does not depend on an individual’s
should do, what we should not do, as per wish. It is a ‘categorical’ imperative. It is
the commands of our emotions or reason. applicable to all. Any person’s reason would
But the commands based on emotions, accept this rule. Any action based on it
motivations etc. are of the ‘if - then’ nature. becomes a moral duty because it can be
Kant calls these ‘hypothetical’ imperatives. universalized.
The command, ‘If one wishes to gain good
becomes necessary. This sense of duty is towards
Categorical Imperative the moral law. The laws of nature are universal
and they can not be violated. Moral laws are man
From the actions that are performed -made. Even then, Kant stated that the moral
according to the moral laws, man does not expect agent should see himself as the creater of moral
anything apart from morality. Performing a moral systems in human society. The universility and
action with a sense of duty is the objective of unavoidability of these moral laws would be the
moral action or ethics. The resolution such as “If base of the moral systems. Thus is every agent
I wish to get good marks in exam, then I must perfoms duty for the fake of duty, it will create a
study regularly”, is made with some expectation. universal and unavoidable system of moral laws.
Therefore it is of if-then nature that means it is The sence of duty that the moral agent has, is the
conditional or hypothetical. However the moral reverence that he has towards the moral laws or
imperatives are not intended towards any goal, the filling of honor. Thus even if these laws can
therefore they are categorical. be voilated, the reverence that the moral agent
has for the moral laws would endow them with
Kant has suggested four formulations of the status of inviolable laws.
these moral imperatives. These are described as
Categorical Imperatives. As the law of nature is 3. A moral agent should not use any
universal and necessary, similarly Kant expected
moral laws to be universal and necessary. The person including oneself merely as a means.
formulations of Kant’s imperative are as follows :
Every individual is an end in itself. In order
1. Act according to that maxim, which to achieve the universality and necessity of moral
laws, every individual must uphold the value of
you at the same time can will to be a universal human dignity. An individual should not use
another individual as a means but should respect
law. the dignity of every individual of being a human.

In this imperative Kant suggests that while 4. Act according to that maxim, by which
performing a moral act an individual should
consider oneself as the representative of the whole the life goals of the individuals do not come in
human community. Any person irrespective of his
/her state, religion, family, caste, gender etc. conflict with each-other, the freedom and
would choose the same action that I have chosen.
That means, one should choose that action which behaviour of the other does not prove to be
goes beyond state, religion etc. and can be
universalized. restrictive but is complementary to one another

2. Act only on that maxim, by which the and helps in building a society where the

action becomes a universal law of nature. dignity of every individual is upheld.

In the first rule Kant explains how to attain In a sense this imperative is a summarised
universality. In the second rule Kant expresses version of the other three imparatives. While
how an action becomes necessary. When every pursuing one’s own ideals or ends one has to take
moral agent performs an action free from care of the fact that it will not bring any harm to
emotions, passions or selfish desires and with a others. If this happens, then there will be an ideal
sense of duty for duty’s sake then the action order of human ends in the society.

72

Let’s do! An important question for consequentialists is
which consequences are to be considered as
Make a list of the actions that can be good? What is the criterion of goodness? The
universalized and perform an act based on responses that we get to these questions are
such an incident. (For example, always classified into the hedonists and non-hedonists
speak truth) theories. Utilitarianism is a form of hedonism.
There are again two subtypes of hedonisms.
Kant says that the categorical imperative They are psychological hedonism and ethical
is a moral law. The unique feature of this hedonism. Psychology is a descriptive science
law is that it is not imposed on us externally. describing the human behaviour and the
This law is not given to us by any external factors related to it, while ethics is a
person or power. This law is a law one normative science that evaluates human
creates for oneself. Reason as it gives this behaviour and critically discusses the criteria
command to control our desires, emotions and theories of evaluation. According to
and motivations. To obey this law is to act psychological hedonism, while performing
rationally. Man is rational. That is why he any action man naturally aims at attaining
can be moral. No beings other than humans pleasure. Man does everything with an
can control their natural instincts, because intention of gaining pleasure. This description
according to Kant they do not have the of the natural tendencies of human behaviour
capacity to reason. Human existence has
dignity due to rationality. The idea of human Hedonism
dignity is very important to Kant.
}
Kant’s ethics honors human rationality
and it is based on it. In his ethics the place Psychological Ethical
and status he gives to universality and Hedonism Hedonism
impartiality is important. Likewise, his
standpoint of treating every individual as an
end in it-self and preserving an individual’s
dignity gives valuable guidance for the social
life.

Let’s Talk! Man naturally Man ought to
seeks pleasure seek pleasure
Analyze the relationship between
two individuals from the perspective of is very close to today’s science. Ethical
means and ends. Discuss why it is hedonism propounds that attaining pleasure
wrong to treat a human being merely ought to be the aim of every action performed
as a means. by an individual. Any action that gives
pleasurable consequences, any action that
Utilitarianism creates pleasure is a moral action. This is
what the Charvaka’s hedonism states as well.
In Kant’s deontological ethics the
consequences of the action, whether they It is not enough to say that the purpose
were good or bad, do not have any of the action is pleasure, because immediately
significance. As utilitarianism is a kind of
consequentialism, according to utilitarianists
the moral value of an action depends on
results, i.e. the goodness of the consequencess.

73

the next question arises, whose pleasure? Therefore, the universalistic hedonism, which
One’s own? Of others? Or of everyone? states that the universal happiness i.e. the
According to these three alternatives hedonism happiness of all those who are affected by
can be classified into three sub-types, Egoistic the action has to be considered as more
hedonism, Altruistic Hedonism and practical and desirable than the other two
Universalistic Hedonism. The ego-centric alternatives. Utilitarianism advocates
view which thinks of one’s own happiness Universalitstic Hedonism.
while performing an action, challenges the
common sense understanding of ethics. In the Jeremy Bentham
same way, it is not always possible for a
common man to always think and act Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill
considering the happiness of the others only. are the two major proponents of utilitarianism.
According to Bentham, human behaviour/

Bentham’s Hedonistic Calculus : We which is immediately followed by pleasure.
measure a shape of a thing with he help of E.g., the pleasure that one gets by going for
its length, width and height. According to a trip that is planned on the immediately
Bentham in the same way with the help of following holiday is better than the pleasure
some qualities we can measure pleasure. We that one gets by going for a trip that is
alway notice these qualities when we compare planned after a month.
two actions or pleasures.
First four qualities demonstrate the value
Qualities of pleasures stated by Bentham of pleasure.
to measure pleasure are as follows:
5. Productivity : That pleasure is
1. Intensity : The action from which superior, which leads to other pleasures too.
we experience more intense pleasure compared If I book a stall in the exhibition then
to other actions is considered superior. As for certainly my products will be sold there.
a singer the pleasure of singing is more Those customers might even continue buying
intense compared to the pleasure of reading products from me. They will tell others about
a book then for him the quantity of pleasure products and the sale of my products will
gained from singing is definitely more that increase. As a result, several goals will be
the quantity of the pleasure gained from achieved such as; economic stability, growth
reading of a book. Similarly, in winter season of business etc.
sitting near a bonfire is more pleasurable
than sitting near the flame of a candle. As 6. Purity : The more the pleasure is
the earlier one would certainly gives more devoid of pain the more it is pure. E.g., while
warmth. eating delicious rice, if one happens to find
stone in it, the best thing to do is remove the
2. Duration : That action is considered stone and continue relishing the rice.
an ethically better action which produces long
lasting pleasures. As the fragrance of the These two above mentioned qualities/
perfume stays longer if applied on clothes characteristics bring to light the consequences
instead of applying it on the skin/hand, that are produced from the pleasures.
similarly the pleasure should be long lasting.
7. Extension : That action is a good
3. Certainty : Any action of which we action which gives pleasure to not just me
are certain that it will lead to pleasure is but many people. Organising of a concert
ethically good. This quality is well explained gives pleasure not only to the singer but also
in the proverbs like, ‘Better an egg today to all the music lovers. The principle of
than a hen tomorrow’, ‘A bird in the hand is ‘greatest number of pleasure of greatest
worth two in the bushes’ etc. number of people’ propounded by the
utilitarianists distinctly appears in the quality
4. Propinquity (nearness or of extension.

remoteness) : That action is a good action

74

action is governed by two masters namely, political or economic status of an individual
Pleasure and Pain. That is, human action is is, everyone’s pleasures and pains have equal
regulated only by the desire to gain pleasure value. No matter however high a person’s
and to avoid pain. Bentham’s peculiarity lies position is, that does not change the value
in his view that even animals have sensations of his/her pleasures and pains.
of pleasure and pain. This view of Bentham
has been foundational for the discussion of John Stuart Mill
animal rights. He Bentham’s this view According to Bentham there is no
becomes the base for animals’ rights. qualitative difference between various
pleasures. Therefore, he believes that pleasures
He suggests that even if it is true that can be distinguished by merely measuring
human beings naturally act with the desire them. Since pleasure is an abstract emotion,
to gain pleasure; yet ethically that action is it is obviously very difficult to measure
right which creates maximum happiness of pleasures systematically.
maximum number of people. This principle
is well known as ‘the greatest happiness of Moreover, there is a general understanding
greatest number’. Most actions lead to both that pleasures have qualitative differences.
kinds of consequences, pleasurable and Mill agrees with this standpoint. He believes
painful. Several alternative actions are that pleasures differ not only quantitatively
available at the same time. Bentham believes but also qualitatively. He is known for his
that one must choose the alternative that quote that, “It is better to be a person
creates more happiness and less suffering. If dissatisfied than a pig satisfied; better to be
the available options are just the ones that a Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied.”
would cause pain, then obviously one must From this proposition, it is clear that Mill
choose the action that is less distressing. believes that a hierarchical order of pleasures
can be built based on their superiority or
Bentham was influenced by mathematics inferiority.
and science of his time. He proposed that
although happiness is subjective, it can be Like Bentham, Mill accepts psychological
measured. Due to the possibility of measuring hedonism. Not only that, he also presents
pleasure hedonism can help in objective arguments for ethical hedonism on the basis
selection of pleasures. Bentham created of psychological hedonism. According to
Hedonistic Calculus in order to make such Mill, a man always desires pleasure. The
measurements. The criteria are as follows:
(1) Intensity (2) Duration (3) Certainty (4)
Proximity (5) Productivity (6) Purity and (7)
Extension. Using these seven criteria, we can
have a comparative study of different actions
from the hedonist point of view. Of these the
first six criteria are related to individual’s
happiness; whereas the seventh criterion is
concerned with the number of people affected
by the action. This is why Bentham’s
utilitarianism becomes universalistic rather
than egoistic. Since Bentham adheres to the
principle of equality, he asserts that the
pleasure and pain of every person has equal
value. This means no matter what the social,

75

only subject of man’s desire is pleasure. practical life. Ethics has evolved by assessing
Although superficially it appears that man the rightness and wrongness of the doctrines
wants many more things other than pleasure, by applying them to the actual situations
but ultimately all these are desired either as confronted in the practical life and by
means to pleasure or as a part of pleasure. contemplating on these over and over again.
Only pleasure has intrinsic value. All other
things that are valuable only have instrumental The Scientific Perspective
value. Mill goes further and asserts that
everyone desires pleasure; this itself proves So far, we have been introduced to the
that pleasure is good and desirable. Since deliberations made by the historical traditions
pleasure is desired by all, in that sense it of philosophy, on how to behave and why.
must be something good. Just as the pleasure This introduction gives information regarding
of a person is good for that person, similarly different theoretical perspectives that provide
the happiness of the society is good for all. guidance regarding what is good and what
That means, Mill believes that it is good for is bad in a person’s life. We must consider
every individual. Although it is normally that these theoretical standpoints have a
believed that there is a difference between history of a few thousand years. In the course
Egoistic Hedonism and Universalistic of history, human life has kept changing. But
Hedonism, through this argument Mill the changes were gradual and the primary
indicates that, there is no such difference. problems that humans had to face were of
same nature.
Let’s Talk!
With the emergence of agriculture,
Discuss in group the similarities classes were created and man-woman
and dissimilarities in Mill and Bentham’s relationship also changed, in accordance with
Hedonism. Present the important points agriculture. It was during this period that the
of your discussion in the class. religious framework started becoming rigid.
Religion provided guidance regarding how to
You must have noticed, that both the act in the prevalent situation. The industrial
theories, namely, deontology and era began two centuries ago. Even at that
consequentialism suggest different but useful time things were not very different. Hunger,
standards for the ethical evaluation of actions. disease, war were the major problems that
We must evaluate our actions by applying man had to face. He had no cure for old
these criteria. It is not the function of ethics age and death.
to give specific orders regarding what one
should do and what one should not do in Nevertheless, today in the 21st century
particular circumstances. As we have seen the situation is changing rapidly. Even today,
earlier in this lesson, ethics guides us about hunger, disease, war are the major problems,
how should we think while taking moral but their intensity has reduced compared to
decisions and evaluating actions. We have last few centuries. Even today, the old age
briefly taken an account of the contemplations and death have remained mysteries for us,
made in both the traditions considering their but now technology does not look at them
culture. Of course it is our job to select our as something that is beyond human reach,
actions with respect to the beliefs, doctrines but as ‘solvable problems’.
and criteria available. Although ethics is a
subject matter of theoretical contemplation Through the theory of evolution it
and discussion, it is also equally related with became possible to objectively understand,
how was life generated and how did it
evolve. It was also understood that humans
are a product of evolution. It was also

76

realized that what humans are today, that is, Let’s find it!
not only their bodily structure but also their
behaviour, are influenced by the history of Collect more information about the
evolution. Later, with the study of brain it functioning of human brain which offers
was known that the interconnections analysis human behaviour.
concerning human behaviour are found in the
structure of the nervous system and in the to the choice of profession; religious and
peculiar working patterns of the brain. After traditional perspectives were used so far. The
realizing that the functioning/working patterns alternative that is available now of solving
of the brain must be examined in order to these problems is that of considering the
understand why humans behave as they do, biological inheritance and person’s likes-
investigations began to accelerate in that dislikes, capabilities and limitations. Instead
direction. of using the religious and traditional
perspectives one can refer to this recent
This was a significant change. If we alternative.
view history we discover that so far
philosophy and religion have discussed moral All these developments also raise some
issues concerning human actions. However questions. For example, recent research has
now, the study of human behaviour itself has shown that the emotion of pleasure, happiness,
become important. Through this study some is important for human beings, for making a
significant facts were noticed. For example, decision regarding action. This idea is not
if we look at the structure of the brain there new to philosophy. It has also been challenged.
are two parts, viz. the one that has evolved In Buddhist philosophy it has been said that
initially is Amygdala and the other that has the more we desire pleasurable experiences,
evolved later is Cortex. Amygdala is more the more stressed and dissatisfied we become.
influential in the initial stage of the growth. In order to find the true satisfaction, man
It was found out that the functions like, should not run behind the pleasurable
thinking about the past and the future; experiences. Even if it is so, what we see is,
comprehensive thinking, are the functions of everyone is in the pursuit of instant and
the neo Cortex which grows gradually. The greater pleasures. The technology that is
brain nerves cannot be regenerated and in developing around us is as if created with
old age the function of brain slows down. this purpose. This has given rise to several
Such observations helped to understand why questions. We will discuss them in the chapter
a person behaves in a particular way. But of science and technology.
now this science can explain in an objective
manner the subtleties of human nature or at
least the study seems to be oriented towards
it. Efforts are also underway to find objective
answers to the traditional questions like,
whether the inborn qualities are more
important or the upbringing.

The answers to these questions regarding
how to behave and why; can now be found
in the light of laws of evolution. For solving
the problems ranging from the choice of food

77

Ruta - ॠत Glossary
Karmasiddhanta - क््मवसदमांत
Runa - ॠण Nirajara - वनजम्रमा
Deva runa - दवे ॠण Samvara - संवर
Rish runa - ॠषीॠण Asrava - आस्रव
Pitru runa - वपतृॠम ण Pudgala - पुद्गल
Manushya runa - ्नषु ्यॠण Triratna - वत्रतने
Karmaphala - क्मफ् ल Panchavrata - पंचव्रत
Punyakarma - पणु ्यक्म् Brahmacharya - ब्रमहच्यम्
Trivarga - वत्वगम् Aparigraha - अपररग्रह
Kama - कमा् Anuvrata - अणुव्रत
Artha - अ््म Mahavrata - ्हमाव्रत
Dharma - ध््म Ashtangika marga - अष्मांवगक ्माग्म
Moksha - ्ोक्ष Sheela - शील
Dhru - धमृ Satsheela - सतश् ील
Dharmashastra - ध्श्म मासत् Panchasheela - पंचशील
Sadharan dharma - समाधमारण ध््म Aprmada - अप्र्माद
Visheshdharma - ववशषे ध््म Nirvana - वनवमामण्
Satya - सत्य Samskara - संसकमार
Ahimsa - अवहसं मा Sammaditthi - सम्वद्ी
Asteya - असते्य Sammasankalpa - सम् सकं लप
Samyaksankalpa - सम्यक सकं लप
Svadharma - सवध््म Sammavacha - सम्वमाचमा
Samyagvak - सम्यकवमाक्
Raag - रमाग Sammakammanta - सम्कमा्तं मा
Dvesha - द्ेष Samyakkarmanta - सम्यकक्मंतमा
Sanchita - सवं चत Samma-Ajiva - सम्-अजीवमा
Sanchayiman - संच्यी्मान Samyagajive - सम्यगजीव
Kriyaman - वरि्यमा्माण Sammavayam - सम् व्यमा्यमा्
Sanchitakarma - सवं चतक्म् Sammasati - सम्सती
Prarabdha - प्रमारबध Samyaksmrti - सम्यक स्ृमती
Nityakarma - वनत्यक््म Sammasamadhi - सम्स्माधी
Naimittikakarma - नैव्तत्यकक्म् Samyaksamadhi - सम्यकस्माधी
Nishkama karma - वनषकमा्क््म

78

EXERCISES

Q.1 Take the odd word out. (3)
(1) Right-wrong, good-bad, voluntary-
involuntary, customs- mores Jaina’s
(2) Devruna, Mitraruna, Pitruruna, five
Rishiruna. vows
(3) Truth, pleasure, non-violence, non-
stealing. Q.4 Write a short note on the following.
(1) Evolution and morality
Q.2 Write the answers in 20-25 words. (2) Bentham’s hedonism and hedonistic
(1) What are the two motivations, viz., calculas
Raag and Dvesha behind voluntary (3) Buddhist Ethics
actions? (4) Purushartha
(2) When does the process of nirjara
begin? Q.5 In Indian tradition why has karma
(3) What are the noble truths of theory always been associated with the
Bauddhas? concept of re-birth?
(4) What are the main criteria of moral
evaluation of an act? Q.6 Why did Kant not agree with David
Hume’s view that reason is the slave
Q.3 Complete the concept map/flow- of passions and motivations?
chart.
Q.7 Discuss in detail ethics in Jain Darshan.
(1) Q.8 Write a dialogue on the following.

Purushartha Can a happy person be a moral
person?
Q.9 State the contribution of Technology
in search of pleasure.

Activity
Have a conversation with the
(2) Triratnas
elders in your family about the

challenges they face in corelating

Morality with the problems in day-to-

day life. PPP

79

6. Following the path of art

l Introduction is a very special one. This does not mean that
they are absent in other organisms. Weaver-
l Aesthetic/Artistic perspective bird builds a fine nest, spider knits an intricate
web, birds chirp, insects crawl on sand to leave
l Aesthetic experience a pattern behind them, but are they capable of
appreciating this as beauty? Can’t say! We
l Does beauty really exist or appear? can, however, say at the moment that human
consciousness is more evolved than other
l The nature of Art organisms and humans have ‘awareness of
awareness’. Thus, their perception of beauty
l Artistic processes and forms of Arts might be different than other beings. It opens
a whole new world of aesthetic and artistic
l Objects of Art experience to them. Humans can experience
happiness beyond the satisfaction of basic
l The Scientific perspective needs, in the form of pleasure or joy.

Introduction A blossoming, delicate, fragrant flower,
the colorful sky at the time of sunset, deep
It is known that the idea of happiness is roar of the sea, sweet chirping of birds,
different for everyone. We would never have thundering and lightening that illuminates
an unequivocal answer to the question, what is darkness, storms that make treetops bend and
happiness and where it comes from. However, touch the ground; we witness many such
majority would agree that everybody seeks attractive forms of nature. We are delighted
pleasure. Pleasure, happiness, joy, bliss, by these experiences, sometimes feel excited,
contentment all these words describe the sometimes astonished, sometimes speechless!
experiences and states of mind we would like We call these experiences as aesthetic
to have. What makes it possible for us to have experience. They include the experience of
such experiences or be in such state of mind?
Leave aside the question of a universal
definition of pleasure, but are we even aware
about our own idea of happiness? How we get
it and when? Have you ever thought about it?
Perhaps, we have to give it a good thought if
we want to be happy.

We attain pleasure in many ways, in many
forms. It is always pleasing to relish tasty spicy
snacks in the chill after a drizzle. Our happiness
knows no bounds when Indian team wins the
world-cup. It brings great joy to us when we
meet an old friend after a long time. What a
great fun it is to help a young lad in the
neighbourhood to ride a bicycle. We help a
person with special needs to cross the road and
that is a special joy! It is a gratifying feeling
when we see our parents happy with our
success. In other words, our idea of happiness
is related to our abilities and our qualities.
Human ability to appreciate and create beauty

80

both natural as well as man-made beauty. Later, beauty did not remain a central
concept of this discourse. It turned more
Let’s watch! towards art and the questions related to art.
Thus this branch is now known as ‘philosophy
Visit a beautiful natural sight/ of art’. In this chapter, let us get introduced to
Museum/Art gallery near by your area. a few important concepts discussed in this
branch.
Art and art related practices depict human
love for beauty and their capacity to create too. Aesthetic/Artistic Perspectives
Aesthetics is a branch of philosophy that
studies aesthetic and artistic experience in Our relationship with the surrounding is
depth. manifold. We relate with it through many
channels such as sensory experience, feelings
Last year, we already had a brief and emotions, intellect, thoughts, reasoning,
introduction to this branch. It studies many imagination, action, evaluation etc. Our
questions and issues related to beauty, artistic relationship with the world is rooted in three
creation and appreciation such as - what is different perspectives. Cognitive perspective
beauty? What is the nature of aesthetic highlights the nature of man as a knower.
experience? What is the importance of art in This knower wants to know about the origin
human life? What is the nature of work of art? of the universe, its nature and function. The
What are the elements of art process and the knower is interested in knowing - how many
interrelationship among these elements? It also types of things are there in the world? What
reflects upon concerns such as impact of art are they made-up of? What kind of changes
on society, relationship between art and ethics, do they go through? Which laws/principles
evaluation criteria of art and the relationship govern these changes, and such more. As we
between art and craft. saw, science and philosophy originate from
the same sense of wonder. Systems of
The concept of beauty and art have been understanding the world evolve. Development
a part of philosophical discourse since a long of technology enables us to create instruments
time. However, aesthetics as a branch of that reveal the unknown aspects of the world.
philosophy emerged only in 18th century. The knower uses these instruments as a
German philosopher Baumgarten used the neutral observer. There is no place for
term, ‘Aesthetics’ for the first time for such feelings and emotions, imagination, sensitivity
study. The word has its roots in Greek term and values in this exercise. When you conduct
Aesthanomai. Aesthanomai means sensory an experiment in the laboratory, your personal
experience, whereas aesthetics means sensory like-dislike, emotions, mental state have no
experience and feelings, emotions created value there. All that matters is the subject of
through it. Baumgarten defined aesthetics as a experiment. Likewise, individual has no
branch which studies aesthetic experience. importance in the knowledge-centric
perspective. The subject matter, that is objects
Immanuel Kant differentiated ethical and phenomena and interrelationships among
experience and experience of sensory pleasures them, are important.
from aesthetic experience. This provided
philosophical basis to aesthetics. Second perspective focuses on what is
useful in life. We can call it the utilitarian or
Let’s discover! practical perspective. Organisms have a basic
instinct to live and flourish and so do humans.
Find more information about Kant’s Thus, we are constantly in search of what is
views on aesthetics.

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useful to us and what is not. It is not just a whereas identifying them as objects made
sense of wonder or quest of knowledge that from wood and thus, categorizing them
inspires us to do so. It is a basic biological separately from objects made up of plastic
instinct. In the process of evolution and in or metal is a knowledge-centric perspective.
socio-cultural development, this instinct is also
linked with the development of science and Let’s do!
technology. Technological efficiency increases
manifold when it is coupled with scientific Take different moulds such as those
knowledge. Accordingly, comfort goods also used for making cakes, cookies etc. and use
increase. Knowledge-centric and utilitarian them on different types of materials such
perspective complement each-other. Useful as wax or clay; for making various objects.
instruments enhance knowledge and enhanced
knowledge develops our understanding of what Yet another perspective that is different
is useful and what is not. from the above-mentioned perspectives through
which we not only experience objects but also
Both these perspectives classify objects the world is an aesthetic perspective. This
and phenomena in nature in their own way. perspective does not enquire into what the
There are innumerable objects in the universe. object (of experience) is made-up of, which
Several phenomena occur in it. They are laws govern it, what is its function, what is its
classified on the basis of the similarities use etc. Significance is given to the object of
among them. Knowledge-centric perspective experience and the persons experiencing it.
tries to seek the connection between objects Object classification is immaterial for this
and phenomena and the laws that govern perspective. This perspective makes it possible
them. The laws are applied to every object to experience nature and objects without
and phenomena in its purview. Such having any specific purpose to begin with. It
typological representation is more important lets the sensations and images emerge in the
to knowledge-centric perspective than the mind in the way in which they actually emerge.
actual existence of the object with all its What is significant in this experience, is the
peculiarity. Utilitarian perspective classifies specific nature of the object that is experienced
objects on the basis of their utility i.e. the and of the person who is experiencing.
functions they perform. According to this Aesthetic perspective is interested in
perspective, objects are basically instruments. experiencing various forms/types of nature,
In order to make an object, first, its use is particular objects, individual and social life
determined, then, it is decided how to make with their peculiarities.
that object with what material and form etc.
Multiple types of objects are made from the Utilitarian
same basic substance. perspective

Let’s do! The knowledge
perspective
Prepare various objects from paper
in Origami style and arrange an Aesthetic
exhibition of these objects. perspective

Many things are made from wood, but
their patterns are different. A chair, a table,
a bench classifying all these objects according
to their usage is a utilitarian perspective,

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This perspective has a special significance friends is on a picnic and they find a pile
in philosophy. We have studied metaphysics, of stones. What kinds of responses would it
epistemology and ethics as branches of generate? ‘Who laid these stones here?’
philosophy. The qualities such as human Somebody may get curious. A Geology
sensitivity, imagination, creativity, emotionality student may recall what he has studied about
and other such remain on the perifary in all rock, its type and its genealogy. Some may
these branches. Aesthetics studies these qualities find the stones as an obstacle on the trail.
and enriches our understanding of being human. Some may use the rock to sit on. Some may
It does not study the non-human aspect of start thinking about what can be made with
existence merely for its bearing upon human the stones. Some may spot a beautiful pattern
existence but also reflects upon sheer experience in the rocks. A light and shadow play may
of existence and its impact on individual’s state interest a few. Glaze of rock particles may
of mind. Aesthetics presents a very different dazzle somebody. Its soft touch might be
view of objects, people, relationships, appealing to some. An artist may think of
phenomena that we experience. Thus, we are making a sculpture out of it.
able to connect with pure existence of things,
recognize their peculiarities, and value which When a sculptor works on a stone or an
are beyond human utilitarian perspective. architect designs a structure or a monument,
Through this, we indirectly learn to acknowledge we realize the potential in stone, its ability to
and appreciate the existence of the particular withstand extremities of seasons. We also
objects. experience how rock manifests itself in bright
light, twilight, light percolating through clouds,
In aesthetic perspective, non-human darkening evening etc. Through the feelings
existence, nature does not remain an isolated expressed by the image/idol created by the
existence. It becomes an integral part of human sculptor, the material in inanimate stone as if
sensitivity, imagination and thought. Human acquires a living, dynamic and positive
sensitivity and creativity bring out novel existence. This is how, existential value of
aspects of nature and also inspire us to nature, of every phenomenon in nature, of
understand the manifested existence beyond objects like stones are revealed through works
what is generally known. Aesthetic perspective of art. This awareness is an important aspect
generates a possibility of experiencing nature of culture.
not as a mere study object or a useful resource.
It enables man to understand that things have
their own existential value. In present times,
when nature and humans are looked at as
mere ‘resource’; this awareness is of immense
importance. It gives us a different view-point
to look at ourselves, our society, living and
non-living world beyond ego-centric or human
centric understanding of things. The aesthetic
experience of a common man and the artist’s
creation on an art object stem from this very
view point. Let us understand this with the
help of an example.

A walk in nature brings many different
things to our notice. Imagine, a group of

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Like stone, which is a natural object, we us to have aesthetic experience. Aesthetics or
also take man-made objects such as a table philosophy of art discusses the nature of
for granted in our day to day life. An artist aesthetic experience in which we enjoy nature
makes us aware of them too, through or works of art. Sensory experience of a
impressions and images related to these. particular person is at the base of aesthetic
Imagine, you are looking at a painting. A table experience. However, it is not confined to
is drawn on a canvas. There are few papers sensory experience. It affects our emotions,
on the table and eye-glasses removed from the thoughts, imagination etc. The memories of
eyes. these experiences linger in our mind. Sometimes
it invokes old memories, unravels the
This image might subtly stimulate your relationship between these experiences. We
memory of your grandfather or your mother tend to find out something new about ourselves,
getting up from the table just after scribbling the society and the world we live in. You
something. You may also recall your favorite might have had such experience while watching
author, a philosopher or even a leader. The a film or a play. We can actually feel how
images of table, papers and glasses will invoke sensory experience, emotions, thoughts and
memories and emotions. imagination connect with one another with
subtlety and tenderness. Aesthetic experience
Let’s do! provides a magic touch to our daily monotonous
and somewhat mechanical life.
In the class, some students will draw
pictures and other students will speak about The peculiarity of aesthetic experience is
the images and feelings that the pictures such that it is always pleasurable. However,
give rise to in their minds. this pleasure is quite different than the
pleasure we otherwise get through sensory
Aesthetic Experience experience. This difference provides a key to
know the peculiarities of aesthetic experience.
Aesthetic or artistic experience is an The joy of observing a beautiful landscape,
outcome of a developed sense of beauty in reading a poem that touches our heart, a
humans. This awareness makes it possible for deep satisfaction of watching a beautiful
play…have you tried to understand the nature
of these experiences? Can you compare it
with the joy of eating your favorite food to
the heart’s content? Or with the joy of
getting something as a gift that you dreamt
of having or with the joy of winning a
tournament? If not, do try. Let us try and
understand how this comparison is possible
with the help of following examples.

Let’s do!

Arrange in a classroom, programmes of
poem recitation, play reading and enjoy the
experience.

Imagine, an orange colored, fresh, sweet
smelling mango is placed in front of us. The

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sight would make us feel happy. We would Are you wondering why we are not
also feel like having it. Just a sight of mango discussing beauty while talking about aesthetic
would not be sufficient, we would be happy experience although aesthetic experience is
only if we get to eat it. In contrast to this, a basically an experience of beauty? You are
sculpture or a painting would make us happy right. But it is not an easy task. Generally,
even with a sight. The ownership of the when we like a particular person, an object,
painting or the sculpture would not be the only a scene, we may call it beautiful. But we do
condition to make us happy about it. not use the word beauty every time to
describe our feelings. In everyday life many
a times, we say this is nice, this is good or
I liked it very much. Adjectives also change
with time and generation. Do you not say,
awesome, epic, amazing as synonymous to
beautiful many a times?

Works of art are preserved in art museums. Let’s do!
Maharashtra has many rock cut caves and
temples of artistic design with a rich collection Make a presentation in the classroom on
of sculptures. They give us joy in the same ‘manifestation of art in day to day life’, e.g.
way. The sight of breathtaking valleys from different forms, types of decoration including
the mountain tops, deep forests, gushing both traditional and new forms concerning it.
streams give us pure joy. We are blown by
sweet calls of birds. Does ‘Beauty’ really exist or appears?

Let’s visit! Philosophy discusses many problems and
issues related to the concept of beauty. When
Collect information about ancient art, we use the adjective ‘beautiful’ for a
artifacts, monuments etc. If possible, visit old particular object we believe that beauty lies
caves, temples, architectural structures. in that object. Does this quality exist in the
object like its other qualities as color, form,
These examples reveal that aesthetic smell and weight? We would be able to
experience is not dependent on individual’s ‘show it’ if the answer to this question was
wants, desires, inspirations and expectations. affirmative. We would not have engaging
German philosopher Immanuel Kant calls debates on whether a particular thing is
aesthetic experience as ‘disinterested delight’. beautiful or not. At least we would be able
According to Kant, the joy that we find in to resolve the issue in an objective way.
aesthetic experience is not dependent on the Whether a particular thing is heavy or
practical, utilitarian or ethical value of a lightweight could be a matter of subjective
natural object or a work of art. Thus, this experience, its weight, however, can be
joy is disinterested, pure. The experience that measured in an objective way. Beauty can
brings such joy is called aesthetic experience. not be judged in such objective and
impersonal manner.

85

Let’s do! Let’s talk!

Take some water in a glass and hold Discuss ‘whether beauty merely
it in your hands. Tell others how you find appears or is it really there?’, try to
the glass, heavy or light in weight. Hold present your opinions with the help of
it in the same position for ten more sound arguments.
minutes.
The other questions related to the
Let others know when your hand objectivity and subjectivity of beauty are, can
starts aching. The glass even though it we define beauty? Can we fix the criteria of
weighed just the same as it was in the beauty? You have learnt many definitions in
beginning (objective reality) is first felt Science and Mathematics. Definition explains
light weight and then heavy (subjective the meaning of a term/concept with precision.
reality). Experience it yourself. This activity A definition talks about the quality that is
can be done in groups. present in all the objects denoted by that
term. For example, definition of a triangle
In the history of Western philosophy, in – a triangle is a closed figure of three
Greek and medieval era, beauty was believed straight lines joining at three different points.
to be an objective quality, that is, as a This definition of triangle summarizes,
quality inherent in the object. They analyzed essential quality of any given triangle and at
it on the basis of structure of an object. An the same time, it also highlights that a
object is made up of many elements. They triangle is distinct from any other geometric
give rise to different qualities of the object. figure. If all the things that we call beautiful
If, these elements are structured in a proper essentially possess a particular property, we
manner, meaning, if there is harmony, may be able to define beauty. Some
balance, proportionality, symmetry and philosophers have made such an effort.
rhythm in them; the object would be called However, according to many philosophers
beautiful. Thus, these elements were and thinkers such a definition is not possible.
identified as elements of beauty. Since, these If we agree that beauty is not an objective
elements were in the object, beauty was quality, it becomes impossible to define
though of as an objective characteristic. beauty, as definitions have to be objective. If
the idea of beauty changes from person to
David Hume, a well-known philosopher, person, one cannot come up with an objective
challenged this view in modern era. Hume definition of beauty.
propounded that beauty does not lie in the
object. It is not an objective element. It It is clear that if aesthetic experience is
depends upon the person who experiences it. a subjective term, there would never be
A statement that something is beautiful is not criteria of beauty that are acceptable to all.
an objective statement. It is very much You must have had such an experience, that
subjective. As the saying goes - ‘Laila is your friends do not like the story that you
beautiful only in eyes of Majnu’. It implies, liked immensely. A building or a structure
that beauty lies in the eyes of beholder, not that you did not like at all receives great
in the object. So the question arises,is beauty appreciation by others. These examples
really there or does it appear? Some indicate that it is very difficult to determine
philosophers after Hume tried to argue that the criteria of beauty and to define it. The
beauty is both subjective as well as objective. diversity in art forms makes the task of
objective definition even more difficult.

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Every art form has its own peculiarities, man-made. An artist has the ability to create
which are different than others. Beauty of a the things that may not be found in real world.
work of art can only be discussed within the Art is thus an expression or manifestation of
framework of properties of a given art form. human creativity. The same quality also makes
Can we have the common criteria to discuss it possible to make other goods, instruments
the aesthetic worth of an abstract painting, a and objects. If we look at human history we’ll
musical note, a novel and a movie? find that initially these two types of creations
went hand in hand. Just as humans have been
Let’s write! knowers and doers, they also have been artists
and receivers since ancient times. Researchers
Try to appreciate a picture, a story, have found evidences of human craftsmanship
a movie and make a list of criteria and art making right from stone-age.
of appreciation.
Remember the painting from Bhimbetka
Cultural history teaches us that the that we saw last year? We call it a painting, a
criteria for beauty change from time to time work of art, but we do not call the tools found
and from place to place. Fairness was in the same era as artwork. It implies that in
regarded as a mark of beauty once. However, order to be called as a work of art it is essential
now we do not think so. There is beauty in but not sufficient for an object to be manmade.
every color. We now believe that folk art It also takes certain other qualities. It is evident
forms are aesthetically as valuable as classic that a rainbow is not a work of art because it
art forms. There was a tradition in Sanskrit is not manmade. But we can not call a bow
literature to end a play on a happy note. that is used in hunting a piece of art just
Many playwrights followed the same. because it is manmade. Suppose a bow is made
However, playwrights like Bhasa and with flowers and petals. It could be then
Bhavabhuti challenged this tradition. qualified as a work of art because it is not only
Aesthetically their plays are considered as man made but it has no real practical use. It
equally valuable. is made only to please the artist and for those
who appreciate. We have talked about such
The other important aspect of beauty is pleasure when we discussed aesthetic
that the things that we do not find beautiful experience. The point to be additionally noted
in real life appear beautiful when we find here is that every art experience need not only
them in works of art. We would not find a limit itself to the experience of beauty.
roadside garbage pile beautiful! However, its
painting can be beautiful. We can evaluate Philosophy of art discusses different forms
such painting on the basis of aesthetic norms. of art, commonly referred to as fine arts. Fine
Aesthetics discusses art, aesthetic experience arts include every art form such as literature,
related to work of art and in general the music, dance, drama, painting, sculpting etc.
nature of artistic experience. Before we get
into this discussion let us get acquainted with Let’s do!
the nature of art and history of art.
Collect the information about Falk art
The nature of art in your area and arrange an exhibition of
the same in your class.
While thinking about art, it is essential to
think about the work of art, the artist who Where appreciation is the main motive
creates it and the recipient who enjoys it. Its behind creativity and not the utility of things,
important to note here that art is essentially such art forms are called as fine arts. Humans

87

make various objects. Many of them are useful various phenomena and processes in the
and artistically appealing at the same time. We universe.
buy cloths, vehicles, cell phones. We not only
see the utility aspect in them, we see their Human sensitivity, reason, emotionality
aesthetic appeal too. However, their utility is and imagination resulted in the rise of
their primary value. civilizations. We have seen it last year that in
the initial stages of cultural development
As against this, we appreciate a poem, a humans responded to the surrounding nature in
song, instrumental music, painting etc. which many different ways as myth, philosophy,
basically have artistic value. They may also religion, art and science. Artistic expression
have utilitarian value but their primary value was coupled with creativity. Art flourished with
is artistic. We may use a beautiful vase as a development of culture. Along with nature,
paperweight. Vase may be useful in this respect, society, and societal patterns and events also
but, its primary value is its aesthetic worth. became a subject matter of art. For a long time
There is also an exception such as the art artistic creation was associated with religion.
called architecture. For example, a building is This association of art with life, nature, religion
designed taken into account its use. Even then and morality continued almost till 18th century.
famous monuments like Tajmahal, Vatican Rapid growth of science and technology
Church, Kailas – the rock cut temple of Ellora affected every field of life, art too was not an
are considered as great works of art. exception to it. Art became more independent.
Criteria for artistic evaluation no longer came
Our artistic inspirations are rooted in our from religion and ethics. Art determined its
manifold experience of nature. Early humans own criteria. Art revealed itself in many forms
were not only capable of receiving various as realistic, symbolic, entertaining etc.
sensations as form, color, smell, sound, texture Technology started playing a major role in
etc. but with the help of reason they could also artistic creation.
understand underlying patterns in various
natural phenomena. It also shaped their Let’s search!
emotional association with nature. Nature
provides means to survive, nature can also Collect information about realistic,
abolish life. Nature can be attractive as well symbolic and recreational art.
as scary. It can be astounding as well as
bewildering. Man’s relationship with nature Earlier, there wasn’t a major distinction
has a contrast character of dialogue and between art and craft. The gap between the
conflict. The artistic creations of early humans two increased later on. Utility has a prime
depict the forms of nature as they understood importance in craft. Handcrafts are used
them and the feelings they give rise to. Art has mainly for decoration. Creativity has limited
also been an effort of making sense of universe, scope in craftsmanship. Patterns are repeatedly
used. Patterns are beautiful, attractive but it is
not an independent creation of an artist. That
is why Mehendi or Rangoli are called as craft.
It takes skill to draw the pattern in exactly
same manner from printed format but it doesn’t
take much of creativity. It takes both creativity
and skill though to create a new pattern. In
reality, art also needs some kind of
craftsmanship and crafting too is incomplete
without artistic touch.

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Artistic processes and forms of art reviews or critique in the newspapers.

As we saw earlier, the artist, the work of Let’s talk!
art and the receiver are the main components
of art. The process of art involves the process Discuss Harry Potter as a novel
of creation, the actual presentation of work of and a movie with reference to different
art and it’s receiving. Creation of art is a media.
complex process taking place in the inner world
of an artist. Many elements are functional An artist experiences different forms of
there. Psychology and neuro science studies nature, society and life with its peculiarities.
these processes; but so far we can not say much He tries to face and understand the life and
about what exactly happens here and how. the world with all its multiplicity, diversity
Generally speaking, everyone is blessed with and peculiarity . He is in search of the essence
an eye for appreciation. A work of art is an of the experience. An artist experiences the
external manifestation of an internal process. nature of reality that remains untouched by
Artist uses mediums like color, lines, forms, scientific or utilitarian perspective. This
sound, words, facial expressions and movement experience is not confined only to beauty.
for presentation. This is how the work of art Artistic awareness encompasses all the aspects
becomes available for appreciation. of life, be it good - evil or even - ugly. Art
Appreciation is the spontaneous response to the becomes one’s medium of expression of the
work of art. It matures with time. Some also meaning of these experiences. Thus artistic
go ahead and become art analysts, reviewers, experience is never about just beauty. When
critiques. You must have read such analysis, art became an autonomous field it revealed
the complexity of artistic experience and the
Some western thoughts related to art
nature. Like humans, gods too envy and fight
Philosophers, right from Greek period with each other. Such depiction would hardly
till now seem to have engaged themselves create a respectable image of Gods in human
deeply in discussions on art and beauty. minds. To nurture appropriate religious
What makes art possible? What is the mindset, the image of god needs to be
motivation behind creativity? What is the established as greater and superior. Humans
nature of the work of art? What are the will be inspired to act righteously out of
peculiarities of artistic creation? respect and fear of god. Because of this ethical
Philosophers and artists have tried to point of view Plato does not find the value of
tackle questions like these. art appreciable. He thought that art should
have no place in the education that a
Plato considered art to be imitation. philosopher king would receive to make an
Imitation as you know is a copy. Plato ideal state.
thought the work of art is an imitation of
objects and happenings in nature. It is also Art was always discussed with reference
an imitation of people and episodes in to truth, knowledge and morality in Greek and
human life. Plato argued that, natural world even in medieval period. Effects and
is an imitation of the world of forms and consequences of art remained the primary
man-made world is an imitation of natural concerns while discussing the importance and
world. Thus artistic creation is an imitation value of works of art. After Renaissance;
of imitation. If you want to know the true politics, economy and other fields became
nature of the world, art is insignificant. In free from the clutches of religion. Art and
plays or epics, Gods almost mirror human ethics were not far behind in this process.

89

Artist and work of art became central to the a bridge that connects artist and the recipient.
process of art. The thought that art is an
external manifestation of inner core of an According to Tolstoy, beauty is not a
artist started surfacing. This view is also central concept in the process of art. A work
known as expressionism. Croce’s thought of of art can be beautiful but beauty is not an
art as intuition and Tolstoy’s theory of art as ultimate objective of art. Art is important
communicative medium were the offshoots of because art connects minds. Art appeals to
the same perspective. the emotional world of humans. It brings
people together through emotions. True work
Croce thought art is not a rational act. It of art stands independent of space and time.
is the response of an artist to the world around It has a universal appeal. According to
him. Artistic response is often composed of Tolstoy creation and appreciation have great
abstract dynamic images. Art is pure. An importance in human life. Art is a distinctive
artist uses different media to express this aspect of social life. Excellent art work
response. This, in a way, hampers the pure depicts, and should depict, values and
nature of art. Expression augments art with struggles in human life and ways to deal with
the help of craft and skill. Receiver can them. A work of art should have an appeal
experience pure form of emotions through art. for every commoner. Thus Tolstoy describes
It is an enriching experience for the receiver. art as a fundamental, universal act that
For Croce external manifestation of art is like communicates human feelings and ethical
values.

need to evolve the criteria for the independent create works which are primarily visual i.e.
evaluation of art. Eventually, artistic analysis those which are enjoyed on the basis of
replaced aesthetic analysis and the branch of visual sensations, are called as visual arts.
philosophy that was earlier called aesthetics is Painting, sculpture, architecture are visual
now recognized as philosophy of art. arts. Music, be it vocal or instrumental, uses
sound as primary medium. We receive the
In the beginning, creativity manifested sound. Thus music is sound or audio art.
itself through the creation of different tools, Word is a medium for literature. Words can
wares, implements. Initially these objects were be read as well as heard. Literature is not
quite rugged and rough. Later they started technically audio or visual. Words are not
becoming more attractive, neat and well-made. just signs on paper or just abstract sounds.
Our ancestors used materials available in They carry meaning. Words are symbols of
nature such as clay, stone, twigs, bones etc. to meaning. Thus literature is also called as
make these objects. In the course of time utility symbolic art. Some art forms use mix-media.
did not remain the sole motivation behind the For example, dance, drama, films are audio-
creation. The concern with the attractiveness of visual forms of art.
objects, buildings etc. also started manifesting
itself. They also made use of materials like
stone, shell, ivory to make ornaments of
different sizes and shapes. The walls of caves,
houses, religious places were adorned with
paintings and drawings. Man started making
images of things found in nature.

The medium of art determines the
classification of fine arts. The art forms that

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Let’s do! Objectives of art

Create a mind map of performing arts Why art! The question has been discussed
on the basis of different art forms, their sub since time immemorial. Plato and Aristotle
forms or categories with the help of thought that art imitates nature or social life.
examples. According to this opinion art is an inferior
copy of the real or natural. This imitation can
The medium of art also has a particular be gross, macro and superficial as well as
relationship with space and time. Notes and abstract, micro and capturing the essence. This
rhythm in music relate with time. Music is opinion was held true even in middle ages.
called as temporal art. Painting connects with The post-renaissance thinkers believed that,
space. Human bodies become primary medium art is an expression of the inner emotional
in dance, drama, films etc. They have a core of an artist. Thinkers like Collingwood
frame of reference in space as stage backdrop and Croce supported this opinion. In 20th
etc. It also has a reference of time as a story century, Leo Tolstoy, a well-known Russian
unfolds in time. It connects past, present and author and thinker stated that communication
future. Literature also assumes space-time is the objective of art. According to him, art
framework. These art forms are called as creates a global society through the
spatio- temporal art. communication of emotions, sensitivity and
values.

Let’s talk! art or a
you have
Discuss a work of
performance/creation that
liked, in the class.

Perspectives of art in Indian literature. Bhamaha and Dandi both were
the proponents of ‘Alankarshastra’. Wamana
(Sanskrit) Tradition adopted ‘Riti’ as an essential aesthetic
element in literature and suggested that
Sanskrit literature has a rich tradition content and form both are equally important.
of discourses related to beauty and art. He highlighted the thought that beauty of
The tradition begins with Natyashastra, a poetry lies not only in the content but also
text from 1st century CE written by in its form. Anandvardhana is known for
Bharatmuni. The text elaborates upon play his theory of ‘Dhwani’. It is the suggested
writing and performing with utmost details. meaning, as against the straight delivery of
Bharata has propounded a theory of Rasa the message, that makes literature an art.
and Bhava with reference to dramatics Poet Magha uses the word ‘Ramaniya’ for
and appreciation. Rasa is an important beauty. The word implies novelty and
and fundamental theory in Indian aesthetics. entertainment. This is an essential element
Bhamaha, in 6th century, put forth some of art according to him.
important views on aesthetics that were
applicable to literature in general other Aesthetic thought in Sanskrit has a rich
than drama. Bhamaha used the term background of Sanskrit literature. Indian
‘Alankara’ with reference to aesthetics in aesthetics also discusses the purpose or
literature. Alankar literally means objectives of art. Bharata says, the objective
ornaments that augment the beauty of

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