Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management

Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 57 (2023) 1–12 Available online 1 September 2023 1447-6770/© 2023 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. on behalf of CAUTHE - COUNCIL FOR AUSTRALASIAN TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY EDUCATION. All rights reserved. An examination of event Volunteer’s motivation, self-efficacy and empowerment on volunteer outcomes Lakshi Senevirathna a,* , Xin Jin a , Emily Ma b a Department of Tourism, Sports and Hotel Management, Griffith University, Gold Coast, Australia b School of Hospitality and Tourism Management, University of Surrey, Stag Hill Campus, United Kingdom ARTICLE INFO Keywords: Event volunteers Volunteer motivations Self-efficacy Empowerment Organizational citizenship behaviour (OCB) ABSTRACT Event volunteers are a significant asset for event organisers as they contribute to the successful execution of events. However, organisers face challenges when recruiting and retaining volunteers due to the lack of understanding of factors contributing to volunteering outcomes. Building on the Motivation, Ability and Opportunity (MAO) model, the current study aims to deepen the understanding of antecedents of event volunteer outcomes (satisfaction, intention to volunteer again and Organisational Citizenship behaviour). An online survey distributed via event organisers collected 320 responses from event volunteers in Queensland, Australia. The Structural Equation Modelling underlined the positive effect of event volunteers’ motivations on satisfaction. The analysis revealed that event volunteers’ perceived opportunities are an antecedent of their satisfaction and intention to volunteer again. Finally, the study found that abilities positively impact event volunteers’ organisational citizenship behaviour. Theoretically, the study contributes to the episodic event volunteer literature by systematically identifying the interrelated antecedents of event volunteer outcomes. Managers should consider the impact of MAO elements on volunteering outcomes when attracting and retaining event volunteers. 1. Introduction The rapid growth of the event industry has created an increasing demand for event volunteers’ valuable services (Aisbett & Hoye, 2015; Cain et al., 2021; Kim et al., 2020). Events of all scales and forms, from small-scale community events to large-scale international mega-events, heavily rely on volunteers’ contribution to event operations (Lachance et al., 2021; M. Kim, Kim, & Lee, 2019; Mykletun & Himanen, 2016). The recent Birmingham Commonwealth Games 2022 engaged over 14 000 volunteers for its event operations (Birmingham, 2022). Similarly, The Tokyo Olympics enlisted over 70 000 volunteers (International Olympic Committee, 2021). Event volunteers undertake pivotal event operation roles and responsibilities to form most of an event’s workforce (Lachance et al., 2021). Volunteers undertake activities otherwise performed by paid workers and significantly reduce an event’s operational cost (Aisbett & Hoye, 2015; Dickson et al., 2014). Thus, event organisers rely on intrinsically motivated and experienced event volunteers for successful event hosting (Kim & Cuskelly, 2017; Wollebæk et al., 2014). The vital services these volunteers provide in event operations have caused event organisers to compete for this prised resource, creating a requisite to understand the antecedents and outcomes of event volunteering better (Kim et al., 2020; Lachance & Parent., 2021; Vetitnev et al., 2018). Event volunteer recruitment and retention are the main challenges event organisers face. A recent Volunteering Australia study discovered that one of the biggest pressure points for event organisers is meeting volunteers’ expectations to ensure retention (Holmes et al., 2022). This issue is echoed throughout the literature (Compion et al., 2022; Kim et al., 2020; Won et al., 2021), creating a need for extending the understanding of the antecedents of event volunteer outcomes. Generally, event organisers recruit all volunteer applications. While this does not raise significant issues in one-off events, recurring events expect volunteers to return in the next year to eliminate the need for costly annual recruitment and training programs (Compion et al., 2022). Similarly, volunteer management and retention are essential for volunteer-run events, such as grassroots community events, where establishing a skilled group of volunteers for access over time is imperative for hosting successful events (Kim & Cuskelly, 2017). The proposed solution to event volunteer management issues can be drawn from the paid-employment sector, which recommends focusing on the job role design and adapting Human Resource Management (HRM) practices (Pak et al., 2019; Walker et al., 2016). * Corresponding author. Department of Tourism, Sports and Hotel Management, Business 2 (G27), Griffith University, Gold Coast, QLD, 4215, Australia. E-mail address: [email protected] (L. Senevirathna). Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jhtm https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhtm.2023.08.021 Received 5 October 2022; Received in revised form 13 July 2023; Accepted 29 August 2023

Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 57 (2023) 1–12 2 Volunteer literature is gradually integrating HRM practices to approach volunteer management issues (B. J. Kim, Kim, & Lee, 2019; Alfes et al., 2017; M. Kim, Kim, & Lee, 2019; Saksida et al., 2017; Walker et al., 2016). However, when transferring these established HRM practices, the differences between the paid employees and event volunteers, such as the lack of formal monetary rewards, the episodic nature, and the altruistic volunteer motivations (Alfes et al., 2017; Compion et al., 2022; Studer, 2016), should be considered. In an effort to advance the current event volunteer management literature, this study takes an HRM perspective to investigate the antecedents of event volunteer outcomes. The application of these HRM practices in an episodic event volunteer context is limited. Owing to this gap in the literature and the calling from the industry, this research aims to investigate the antecedents of event volunteers’ outcomes. The current study addresses a call for research examining the management of episodic event volunteers (Compion, 2022; Lachance & Parent., 2021). The findings could help address volunteer management and retention issues. Grounded on the Motivation Ability Opportunity (MAO) model, the study examines the role of event volunteer motivations, Self-Efficacy (SE) and empowerment in predicting volunteer outcomes. In addition to commonly reviewed volunteer outcomes of satisfaction and retention (Cho et al., 2020; Dickson et al., 2014; Vetitnev et al., 2018), this study extends beyond the volunteer literature to draw from Human Resource Management (HRM) and includes Organisational Citizenship Behaviour (OCB) as an outcome. OCB, termed extra-role behaviour, plays a vital role in service industries, where service, production and consumption co-occur (Wen et al., 2023). The hospitality literature supports the positive effect of service employees’ OCB behaviour in creating friendly customer interactions, which fosters customer satisfaction (Ma et al., 2021; Qiu et al., 2019). The study’s findings can assist in developing strategies that promote positive event volunteer outcomes and contribute to advancing the episodic event volunteer literature by adapting HRM practices to understand volunteer outcomes. Theoretically, the study discovers the antecedents of event volunteers’ outcomes using a means-and-end model of MAO. Finally, the study recommends event volunteer management and retention strategies for event organisers. 2. Literature review 2.1. Event volunteers Volunteering means ‘to willingly give’ without receiving pay, a charitable activity often in the form of time, labour, or knowledge (Cnaan et al., 1996; Cuskelly et al., 2006). Volunteering is freely offering one’s time, skills, knowledge, and labour to benefit another individual, group, or organisation (Monga, 2006). The central element differentiating volunteers from paid employees is the absence of monetary rewards (Allen & Shaw, 2009; Cnaan et al., 1996). Nevertheless, caution must be exercised as all non-salaried workers cannot be defined as volunteers. Event volunteers differentiate themselves from others due to the episodic nature of their connection with the event organisation (Andersson et al., 2013; Compion et al., 2022; Monga, 2006). According to Holmes and Smith (2009), episodic volunteers provide a short-term service and have a flexible working relationship with the volunteering organisation. Literature has raised issues on the boundaries of event volunteer work, claiming event volunteering is a form of ‘serious leisure’ (Hallmann et al., 2023). While event volunteers perform a non-paid service, inheriting rewards for their service, either intentionally or unintentionally, is questionable, as these volunteers engage in a leisure activity while performing volunteer duties (Twynam et al., 2002). Thus, there are disputes in the literature on whether event volunteers fully comply with the volunteer dimension of an absence of reward. Event volunteer research has grown considerably to facilitate the rising demands in the industry. While earlier studies primarily focused on understanding the motivational drivers of event volunteers (Allen & Shaw, 2009; Grammatikopoulos et al., 2006; Monga, 2006), current studies examine event volunteers from an HRM perspective (Güntert, 2015; Walker et al., 2016), to address the difficulties of managing and retaining episodic event volunteers. Researchers have shifted from examining single dimensions to investigating interrelated antecedents to understand volunteer outcomes better (Kim et al., 2020; Lachance et al., 2021; Mykletun & Himanen, 2016; Walker et al., 2016). These learnings help volunteer managers to develop tools and strategies to increase volunteer commitment and retention. 2.2. Motivation ability opportunity (MAO) model Maclnnis and Jaworski (1989) first proposed the integrative MAO model to apprehend peoples’ information processing antecedents in predicting consumer behaviour. According to the model, motivation is the desire of an individual to act; ability is the lack of individual barriers to acting and opportunity is the existence of a supportive governance system and the lack of situational barriers to action (Jepson et al., 2013; Wiggins, 2004). The model has been adapted in different disciplines to examine work performance (Kundu & Gahlawat, 2018; Pak et al., 2019), extra-role performance (Li et al., 2019) and travel decision-making (Hung & Petrick, 2012; Jepson & Ryan, 2018). These studies highlight that motivation, ability and opportunity act as internal and external factors influencing an individual’s behaviour. HRM literature has moved to understand employee behaviour using “process” models such as the MAO model (Li et al., 2022), which connects the “means and ends” of employee behaviour in one process model (Hung et al., 2011). Kundu and Gahlawat (2018) ‘s study emphasised the positive relationship between MAO components and employee work performance. Organisations can positively influence their employees’ performance by ensuring that the required motivation and ability to perform are present and are supplemented by the opportunity to execute their roles (Pak et al., 2019). Motivation and ability are individual factors, while opportunity is an external factor organisation should facilitate (Li et al., 2019). Studies have conceptualised organisational support, training, recognition, and autonomy as opportunities to enhance employee behaviour (Kundu & Gahlawat, 2018; Li et al., 2022). Several studies have examined the use of the MAO model in examining employees’ extra-role behaviour. Extra-role behaviour is extra activities employees perform that are not in the formal job description (Organ, 1988). Studies suggest organisations should cultivate extra-role behaviour through leadership, support, and empowerment (Ullah et al., 2021). Thus, researchers have drawn links between the opportunity element of the MAO model and extra-role behaviour, arguing that the facilitation of opportunities can lead to extra-role behaviour. The recent study by Morales-Sanchez ´ and Pasamar (2020) examining OCB as an extra-role behaviour emphasised that perceived organisational support impacts OCB. The current research grounds its theoretical base in the MAO, adapted from the HRM literature. The study proposes that event volunteers’ motivations, personal skills (i.e., ability), and opportunities (i. e., empowerment) can predict their volunteering outcomes. By employing the MAO model, the current study expects to advance the literature on event volunteer outcomes from a combined perspective of individual and external antecedents. Event volunteer outcomes are not a function of individual factors such as volunteer motivations and skills alone. External elements such as event organisations also contribute to volunteer outcomes (Walker et al., 2016; Won et al., 2021). Much extant event volunteer research investigates volunteer outcomes from an individual or an external view, but not jointly. For example, studies such as Compion et al. (2022), Giannoulakis et al. (2015), Kim, Kim, Kim, and Zhang (2019), Lachance et al. (2021), and Vetitnev et al. (2018) investigated the effect of event volunteers’ individual factors such as motivation, in promoting positive outcomes. At the same time, studies L. Senevirathna et al.

Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 57 (2023) 1–12 3 such as Saksida et al. (2017), Walker et al. (2016), and Won et al. (2021) examined the external antecedents such as organisational support and training on volunteer outcomes. While these studies contribute to knowledge of volunteer outcomes, research examining answers to volunteer management issues from a combined perspective is limited. Hence, this study aims to systematically investigate event volunteer outcomes using the MAO model. The following literature discusses how MAO components can be applied to the event volunteer context. The study adopted some widely studied antecedents of work outcomes to examine event volunteer outcomes. While it does not provide a comprehensive list, it introduces commonly studied antecedents with theoretical and empirical support. The current research draws from the HRM literature and applies it to an episodical event volunteering context to investigate the applicability of the MAO model in the event volunteering context. 2.3. Motivation as an antecedent of volunteer outcomes As underlined in the MAO model, motivations set the intensity and direction of decision-making, subsequently impacting their outcomes. In volunteering literature, motivation continues to be a highly scrutinised topic (Cain et al., 2021; Clary & Snyder, 1999; J. Dickson et al., 2014; Lachance et al., 2021), as volunteer motivations lay the foundation and direction of event volunteer’s outcomes (Kim et al., 2020; Lachance et al., 2021), making it a key antecedent in understanding volunteer outcomes. Clary and Snyder (1999) defined volunteer motivation as the need for individuals to find opportunities to fulfil their voluntary helping act. Different individuals are motivated by varied reasons to perform the same volunteering act (Kim, Fredline, & Cuskelly, 2018; Vetitnev et al., 2018). Thus, understanding the effect of different volunteer motivations and their outcomes is vital for managing these episodic volunteers (Bang et al., 2019; B. J. Kim, Kim, & Lee, 2019). Research is required to advance the understanding of episodic event volunteers’ motives in order to design fulfilling volunteer experiences (Compion et al., 2022). Drawing from the HRM and volunteer literature, this study investigates event volunteer motivations under the motivation category of the MAO model as an antecedent of event volunteer outcomes. While all volunteers share the common altruistic motivation of helping others, event volunteers possess several unique motivations. Monga (2006) presented a five-dimension model of special event volunteer motivations: altruistic/normative/purposive, material/utilitarian, solidary/affective/social motives, affiliatory and egoistic motives. Despite the context of volunteering, altruism is considered the central motivational factor among event volunteers (Kim, Fredline, & Cuskelly, 2018). Hoffman (1981, p. 121) defined altruism as ‘the behaviour that promotes the welfare of others without conscious regard for one’s self-interest’. Event volunteers motivated by material/utilitarian motives anticipate personal rewards such as career enhancement and skill development through their event volunteering experience (Cain et al., 2021). Solidary/affective/social motives are derived from the need for social interaction, interpersonal relationships, group status, and group identification (Lockstone-Binney et al., 2015; Monga, 2006). Volunteering at events provides the opportunity to engage with similar-minded people with similar interests, fulfilling event volunteers’ need for socialisation. Numerous studies have highlighted affiliatory motives as a significant motivation among event volunteers. The perceived importance of an event and the attachment to it can act as the strongest motives to volunteer at events (Coyne & Coyne, 2001; Cuskelly et al., 2020). The final dimension is egoistic motives. Monga (2006) stated that egoistically driven people volunteer at events to promote their interests, and these personal motives are more prominent among youth volunteers (Cain et al., 2021). 2.4. Ability as an antecedent of volunteer outcomes Next in the MAO model is ability. Individuals’ abilities are crucial in fulfilling their motivations and performing well in given roles. Adapting from the HRM literature, the current study assesses event volunteers’ Self-Efficacy (SE) as their ability to volunteer. SE refers to one’s confidence in their ability to perform a specific activity (Wood & Bandura, 1989). According to Wood and Bandura (1989), individuals who feel a high level of SE are highly motivated and confident in facing their situational demands and achieving goals. These individuals with high levels of SE can quickly adapt to new situations through effective coping methods (Çetin & As¸kun, 2018). On the other hand, individuals who have low levels of SE fear challenges. Literature has underlined the positive effect of SE on employee job behaviour. Individuals with high levels of SE perform well in given roles and has positive behavioural outcomes as they see more opportunities rather than threats in their environments (Na-Nan et al., 2021; Ullah et al., 2021). In their longitudinal study, Carter et al. (2018) investigated the SE of Australian financial employees and found a positive relationship between SE and employee performance. Likewise, Albrecht and Marty (2020) underlined the positive effect of SE on role commitment and retention. Confident employees with high SE levels are essential in customer-facing roles (Carter et al., 2018), such as event volunteering, to face situational demands confidently. While HRM literature emphasises SE’s vital role in job performance, SE is scantly researched in the event volunteering context. Event volunteers face unforeseen challenges in their job roles, requiring them to adapt quickly to situational demands. Individual SE levels will determine how these event volunteers can be resilient in facing challenges. Thus, event volunteer SE is an interesting and important antecedent to research. SE can assist in event volunteer task performance that can promote positive volunteer outcomes. Therefore, the current study investigates the applicability of event volunteer SE in predicting volunteer outcomes. 2.5. Opportunity as an antecedent of event volunteer outcomes Next on the MAO model is opportunity, an external antecedent contributing to volunteer outcomes. Organisations should provide necessary opportunities for individuals to realise their motivations and abilities. HRM literature underlines the positive effect of organisational environment factors such as supportive leadership, training programs and empowerment on employee behaviour (Kundu & Gahlawat, 2018; Ukil, 2016). Among these organisational opportunities, empowerment is receiving increasing attention in the customer-service literature, mainly due to its benefits to both the employee and the customer (Hewagama et al., 2019; Limpanitgul et al., 2017). Thomas and Velthouse (1990, p. 667) defined empowerment as a “heightened level of intrinsic task motivation or internalised commitment to a task as evident in four assessments of that task: impact, competence, meaningfulness, and choice”. Randolph (1995) underlined three critical elements required for the successful implementation of empowerment in organisations: information sharing, proper autonomy through the structure, and replacement of hierarchy with teams. The unique characteristics of the service industry, such as inseparability and heterogeneity (Parasuraman, 1987), create unexpected challenges in service delivery. The frontline service employees, such as event volunteers, must have the authority to respond to customer demands/concerns without delays. To this end, hospitality researchers have proposed empowerment. Employee empowerment enhances service quality, especially in the service industries where service and consumption co-occur (Ma et al., 2021; Ocampo et al., 2018; Schumacher & Komppula, 2016). Empowerment has not been examined in the event volunteer studies as a possible antecedent of volunteer outcomes. One reason is that event volunteers’ episodic relationship with the organisations disrupts the L. Senevirathna et al.

Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 57 (2023) 1–12 4 proper empowerment implementations. However, instead of viewing empowerment as power redistribution, the current study assumes it as increased intrinsic task motivation. The study refers to the literature that identifies empowerment as increased task motivation (Thomas & Velthouse, 1990). As volunteers are already intrinsically motivated to perform volunteer roles, empowerment could be viewed as an extension of their motivation. Organisers can empower their volunteers by providing support to increase on-role task performance. 2.6. Motivation, ability and opportunity on volunteer outcomes The event volunteer outcomes are on the “ends” side of the MAO model. The current study views event volunteers’ satisfaction, intention to volunteer again and OCB as the outcomes of the MAO model. 2.6.1. Satisfaction A plethora of studies have examined volunteer satisfaction. Satisfaction results from a mix of antecedents and is a vital predictor of commitment and retention (M. Kim, Kim, & Lee, 2019; Vetitnev et al., 2018; Vetitnev & Bobina, 2017). According to Clary et al. (1998), “overall satisfaction indicates emotional state and fulfilment gained from serving within the volunteering activity” (p. 1524). The current study investigates volunteer satisfaction as an outcome of volunteer motivation, SE, and empowerment. The following section justifies these antecedent selections. Volunteer motivation and satisfaction. In the event volunteer context, the impact of motivation has been mainly studied as an antecedent of volunteer satisfaction. Numerous studies have underlined the strong positive effect of motivation on satisfaction (Kim, Kim, & Lee, 2019; Lachance et al., 2021). Volunteer satisfaction derives from fulfilling motives through the actual volunteering experience (Cain et al., 2021; Clary & Snyder, 1999; Vetitnev et al., 2018). The compatibility of the volunteer motivations with the designated role leads to satisfied event volunteers (Kim, Kim, & Lee, 2019). Thus, event managers must understand volunteer motives before the event service commencement to ensure that suitable opportunities are provided to assure satisfaction (Lamb & Ogle, 2019). Accordingly, the current study sets forth to support the positive impact of motivation on satisfaction, as stated in H1. H1. Event volunteers’ motivation impacts their satisfaction. Volunteer abilities (SE) and satisfaction. Claims supporting the contribution of SE to volunteer satisfaction are deficient in the event volunteer context. Nevertheless, HRM literature favourably supports the link between SE and employee satisfaction (Çetin & As¸kun, 2018). It could be argued that believing in oneself can enhance satisfaction as they are equipped with the confidence to face unexpected challenges arising while volunteering (Na-Nan et al., 2021). HRM literature suggests that employee performance increases when individuals demonstrate high levels of SE, resulting in high job satisfaction (Carter et al., 2018). Drawing from the established literature, the current study investigates the validity in an episodic event volunteering context. The study proposes the following hypothesis. H2. Event volunteers’ ability (SE) impacts their satisfaction. Volunteer opportunities (empowerment) and satisfaction. HRM literature underlines the positive impact of empowerment on job satisfaction (Amundsen, 2015). Especially in service roles, empowerment can contribute to employee satisfaction and improved service quality (Hewagama et al., 2019; Ma et al., 2021; Ocampo et al., 2018; Ukil, 2016). Empowering practices such as authority and feedback positively promote job performance, subsequently influencing job satisfaction (Gazzoli et al., 2012). Furthermore, Ugboro and Obeng (2000) stated that empowerment could be used as an effective tool to heighten employee task motivation, contributing to higher satisfaction. When conceptualising empowerment as increased task motivation in the volunteer context, it can be argued that the availability of necessary resources to perform well in their designated roles could lead to satisfaction. Thus, the current study contributes to the limited exploration of the effect of empowerment on satisfaction in an event volunteering context by investigating the following proposed hypothesis. H3. Event volunteers’ empowerment (opportunity) impacts their satisfaction. 2.6.2. Intention to volunteer again The intention to volunteer again is complicated to investigate in the event volunteer context. The rising number of events creates endless opportunities for event volunteers to provide their services; volunteers can choose to volunteer at the same event in the future or find other volunteering opportunities elsewhere depending on their motivations and experience (Lachance et al., 2021; Lamb & Ogle, 2019). However, retaining experienced event volunteers is essential, especially for recurring events (Compion et al., 2022). The experiences learned in the previous events advance volunteers’ event-specific skills and better prepare them for their next event. Thus, retaining experienced event volunteers is imperative (M. Kim, Kim, & Lee, 2019; Walker et al., 2016). Event volunteers are recruited ad hoc to assist in event operations, and the shorter interaction times with the organisation challenge the relationship-building process. Therefore, volunteer managers should facilitate their on-job experiences through proper role designing and on-role support to promote retention (B. J. Kim, Kim, & Lee, 2019; Walker et al., 2016). There are several volunteer studies examining the antecedents of volunteer retention. However, studies on the episodic event volunteer’s future volunteer intentions need further investigation. The episodic, adhoc nature of event volunteer roles makes their future volunteer intentions different to long-term volunteers (Compion et al., 2022). This study contributes by systematically assessing event volunteers’ future intentions through the MAO model. The current investigation will uncover whether event volunteers’ motivation, ability or opportunity impacts their future volunteering intentions. Volunteer motivation and future intention to volunteer. Volunteers’ motivations significantly predict their future intentions to volunteer (Compion et al., 2022; Mykletun & Himanen, 2016). Event volunteers are attracted to any opportunity where they can fulfil their volunteering motives (B. J. Kim, Kim, & Lee, 2019; Lamb & Ogle, 2019), making motivation a contributor of their future volunteering intentions. Drawing from the literature, the current study proposes the following hypothesis. H4. Event volunteers’ motivation impacts their intention to volunteer again. Volunteer ability (SE) and future intention to volunteer. HRM literature proposes that SE positively contributes to individuals’ work performances, making it a vital predictor of outcomes (Albrecht & Marty, 2020). As the above discussion highlights, SE is essential for frontline service employees to perform their roles confidently (Çetin & As¸kun, 2018). Nevertheless, event volunteer research is yet to examine how individual SE contributes to volunteer retention. When event volunteers display high levels of SE, the likelihood of any challenges encountered during event volunteering negatively impacting their experience is low. Conversely, individuals with low self-efficacy fear unpredictable challenges, which subsequently impact their confidence and experience. Thus, it can be postulated that high SE promotes positive volunteer experiences, which leads to event volunteer retention (Lachance et al., 2021). Understanding event volunteers’ SE can help volunteer managers assign roles to match different SE levels. Thus, the study will examine the role of SE on event volunteers’ intention to volunteer again. H5. Event volunteers’ ability (SE) impacts their intention to volunteer again. Volunteer opportunity (empowerment) and future intention to volunteer. L. Senevirathna et al.

Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 57 (2023) 1–12 5 The positive effect of empowering practices on employee retention is supported in HRM (Sergio & Rylova, 2018). It is argued that empowering practices contribute to a positive work environment by increasing employee retention. Few studies support this claim in the volunteering context (Lo Presti, 2013; Millette & Gagn´e, 2008); however, its applicability in the event volunteering context is hardly researched. Thus, the current study proposes to examine empowerment’s impact on event volunteers’ future intention to volunteer. The findings could guide volunteer managers in creating a supportive work environment promoting positive volunteer outcomes. Based on the extant literature, the current study suggests the following hypothesis. H6. Event volunteers’ empowerment (opportunity) impacts their intention to volunteer again. 2.6.3. Organisational Citizenship Behaviour (OCB) Organ (1988) defined OCB as employees’ self-initiated, positive behaviour. OCB comprises five dimensions: altruism, conscientiousness, sportsmanship, courtesy, and civic virtue (Smith et al., 1983). It is worth noting that OCB and volunteering share notable similar conceptual characteristics. Both volunteering and OCB involve altruistic, non-compulsory helping nature towards others (Finkelstein, 2006; Lavelle, 2010). It could be argued that volunteerism is a form of OCB and that volunteers are already engaging in OCB. While the HRM scholarship highlights OCB’s positive impact on employee performance and customer satisfaction (Ma et al., 2021; Ocampo et al., 2018), its applicability in the event volunteer context is lacking. With the guidance of the MAO model, the current study aims to understand the impact of event volunteers’ motivation, ability, and opportunity in promoting their OCB. The findings will contribute to the volunteer scholarship by highlighting the antecedents of event volunteer OCB. Volunteer motivation and OCB. HRM literature supports the positive relationship between employee motivation and OCB (Finkelstein, 2011; Morales-Sanchez ´ & Pasamar, 2020). OCB is not officially acknowledged in an organisation’s reward system; hence, only intrinsically motivated individuals, who are not driven by rewards perform extra-role behaviour (Organ, 1988). Thus, it can be argued that intrinsically motivated event volunteers will display high OCB. Therefore, the study proposes the following hypothesis. H7. Event volunteers’ motivation impacts OCB. Volunteer ability (SE) and OCB. Studies have highlighted the vital role of SE in predicting OCB (Choong et al., 2020; Kim, Fredline, & Cuskelly, 2018). Self-efficacious individuals are confident in performing extra-role activities to deliver the best service (Pavalache-Ilie, 2014; Ullah et al., 2021). The study presumes confident event volunteers will passionately engage in extra-role performances to make their services worthwhile and contribute to event attendee satisfaction. To validate this relationship, the current study proposes the hypothesis. H8. Event volunteers’ SE (ability) impacts OCB. Volunteer opportunity (empowerment) and OCB: Empowerment is identified as a contributor to OCB in the literature (Ocampo et al., 2018). HRM literature highlights empowerment’s critical role in promoting OCB (Jha, 2014; Ma et al., 2021). The trust and confidence organisations place in their employees through empowering practices aim to advance their in-role performance and behaviour. This is especially true for service industries where production and consumption occur concurrently (Ocampo et al., 2018). The organisational support volunteers receive to realise their intrinsic task motivation can lead to volunteers engaging in extra-role behaviour (Morales-S´ anchez & Pasamar, 2020). While studies supporting this in the volunteering context are limited, based on the HRM literature, the current study sets out to corroborate the impact of event volunteers’ empowerment on OCB. H9. Event volunteers’ empowerment (opportunity) impacts OCB. Fig. 1 provides a visual representation of the above-proposed hypotheses. 3. Methods 3.1. Sample selection The study adopted a quantitative method and employed a survey to collect data. The research population was drawn from event volunteers in Australia. Event volunteers who perform episodic event roles at leisure or sports events were selected. The study employed a convenience sampling framework characterised by accessibility, availability, geographical proximity, or participants’ willingness (Etikan et al., 2016) to reach five regional event organisers. These event organisers host single and multi-day leisure and sports events and recruit local volunteers. Episodic event volunteers engaged in leisure and sports events near the researchers were selected as the sample for the study. The required sample size was estimated using Christopher Westland’s (2010) method. This method recommends a minimum sample of five times the number of items. The current study has 44 items, leading to a minimum sample of 220 respondents. Considering the minimum sample, the study expected to collect 350 responses. Overall, 320 volunteers completed the survey, but only 210 surveys were used for analysis due to missing responses. To supplement the sample justification, the study used the guidelines of Hair Jr et al. (2021), who recommend a sample size between 200 and 500 for multivariate data analysis. Thus, the completed 210 responses were determined to form an adequate sample. 3.2. Data collection procedure An online questionnaire was distributed through five event organisers: Griffith University Student Association, Queensland community event volunteers, Leukaemia Foundation, Gold Coast Bleach Festival and Mater Foundation event volunteers. The Griffith University Student Association event volunteers service university events. The event volunteers are current Griffith University students generally involved in single-day event operations. Queensland Community event volunteers assist in organising and operating community events in their local area. Community volunteers ranged from high-school students to retirees, serving one-day community events to multi-day music and cultural festivals. Leukaemia Foundation event volunteers provide their services for the foundation’s fundraising activities. Volunteers of all ages provide their services for the foundation’s events. Gold Coast Bleach Festival event volunteers service the annual, multi-day arts festival on the Gold Coast, Australia. The Mater Foundation volunteers assist in the operations of the foundation’s events. These events are generally health and well-being related. 3.3. Data collection instrument The online questionnaire comprised two sections. The first section enquired about event volunteers’ demographic information, including gender, age, marital status, education level, employment status and income. The second section included variables of interest (motivation, self-efficacy, empowerment, satisfaction, intention to volunteer again, and OCB). All measurements were scored on a 5-point Likert scale (strongly disagree = 1, strongly agree = 5). The volunteer motivation scale was adapted from Farrell et al. (1998) ‘s Special Event Volunteer Motivation Scale (SEVMS), which investigates volunteers’ solidarity motivations, purposive motivations, external traditions, and commitment. Several studies (Cain et al., 2021; Grammatikopoulos et al., 2006) have adopted the SEVMS to examine event volunteer motivations. From the original scale of 28 items, nine items related to the current context were adopted. Only solidary, purposive and commitment statements were included, and no items from L. Senevirathna et al.

Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 57 (2023) 1–12 6 external traditions were adopted. The external traditions section had context-specific statements and duplicates from the solidary and purposive statements. Statements such as “A relative or a friend is involved in YMCA summer camps” and “I wanted an opportunity to meet the campers and see the activities” were discarded. The General Self-Efficacy (GSE) measure developed by Schwarzer and Jerusalem (2000) was used to measure event volunteers’ SE. All nine statements from the original measure were used in the current research. The empowerment scale was developed from the Development Scale of Roller (1998) and the Social Work Empowerment Scale of Frans (1993). The original empowerment scale of Roller (1998) included 15 items, and the current study adapted seven items from it. Some duplicate statements in the original scale, such as “I am responsible for the results of my decisions”, “I take responsibility for what I do”, and “I am responsible for the outcomes of my actions”, were condensed to form “when I volunteer, I am responsible for the results of my decisions”. Only two items were included from the 34 items in Fran (1993) ‘s instrument. Most of the statements which were context-specific were dismissed. For example, statements such as “My education prepared me for my job” and " I attend frequent conferences and training sessions to improve my skills” could not be adapted to the current research context. Satisfaction, intention to volunteer again and OCB were measured as outcomes of event volunteer antecedents. The satisfaction and intention to volunteer scales were developed from Clary and Snyder’s (1999) ‘s volunteerism questionnaire. Nine statements from the original 18-statement measure were adopted. Several statements that did not reflect event volunteer satisfaction, such as, “People I know best know that I am volunteering at this organisation” and “People I am genuinely concerned about are being helped through my volunteer work at this organisation”, were disregarded. OCB measurement developed by Ma and Qu (2011) to research hotel employees’ OCB was used in this research, and all five statements measuring “performance at work” from the original scale were used for the current research. 3.4. Data analysis and common method bias A descriptive analysis of frequency, means, and standard deviation was performed using SPSS to understand the sample’s demographics. SPSS AMOS was used to conduct Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) to assess the measurement model of 6 constructs: motivation, SE, empowerment, satisfaction, intention to volunteer again and OCB, and the model’s fit and reliability. Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) was performed to test the above-hypothesised relationships. Several procedures were undertaken to address Common Method Bias (CMB) impacting data validity. CMB can affect the validity of crosssectional studies such as the current one, which collects responses for independent and dependent variables from one survey (Kock et al., 2021). As recommended by Podasakoff et al. (2003), procedural remedies were implemented. Kock et al. (2021) highlighted the importance of ex-ante procedural remedies in minimising CMB. As a potential procedural remedy, the survey created a psychological separation between the predictor and criterion variables. The psychological separation aims to turn respondents away from casual responses (Podasakoff et al., 2003). Further, the survey cover letter stressed the protection of respondent anonymity and voluntary participation (Kock et al., 2021; Podasakoff et al., 2003). Harmen’s (1967) single-factor analysis was also conducted to validate CMB statistically. The single factor explained 36.7% of the variance, which is below the threshold of 50% (Podsakoff & Organ, 1986). Hence the threat of CMB was ruled out. 3.5. Control variables The study included three control variables: years of volunteering, volunteers’ age, and employment status. The reasons for these control variables are based on previous literature, which suggests that volunteers’ years of volunteering (experience) (Cnaan et al., 2017; Saksida et al., 2017; Walker et al., 2016), age (Bang. 2015; Won et al., 2021) and employment status (Piatak, 2016) impacts volunteer outcomes such as satisfaction and commitment. Control variables age and employment status did not show significant impact as control variables, thus were deleted. The control variable, years of experience, positively affected the intention to volunteer again (β = 0.176, P < .0.5). However, analysis controlling years of volunteering did not show any significant changes to the model’s casual relationships. Subsequently, the following analysis excludes these control variables. 4. Results 4.1. Demographics The demographic profile of the surveyed volunteers is as follows: 71.9% were females, while only 28.1% were male. Most volunteers were Fig. 1. Proposed hypothesis. L. Senevirathna et al.

Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 57 (2023) 1–12 7 below the age of 34 (77%) and were single (71.9%). The highest education qualification possessed by the volunteers is a bachelor’s degree (41.9%), followed by a school leaving certificate (28.6%). More than half of the sample were students (57.6%), with only 2.4% currently unemployed. The sample’s highest number of volunteering experiences is less than a year (41.4%). The details are provided in Table 1. 4.2. Measurement model: reliability, validity and model fitness Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) was conducted using SPSS AMOS to test the measurement model’s reliability and fit. Five items from the motivation scale, three from the empowerment scale, one from the satisfaction scale, and one from the intention to volunteer scale were deleted owing to factor loadings of less than 0.5 (Hair, 2010). Table 2 presents these findings. The overall model indicated a good fit with χ2 = 834.180, df = 508, χ2/df = 1.642, p < .000; CFI = 0.9273; TLI = 0.919; IFI = 0.927; RMSEA = 0.55; SRMR = 0.0561 (Hair, 2010). As presented in Table 2, Cronbach’s alpha values over the threshold of 0.70 and the composite reliability (CR) values above the cut-off of 0.70 proved the reliability of the measurement constructs (Hair, 2010). The standardised factor loadings ranged between 0.702 and 0.928, exceeding the cut-off value of 0.50, and the average variance extracted (AVE) values were over the value of 0.50, except for the empowerment measurement. Although the AVE of the empowerment construct was less than the cut-off of 0.5, as it was closer to the cut-off (0.481) and the CR > 0.7, the convergent validity was accepted. The discriminant validity of the model was assessed using the Fornell and Larcker (1981) method. As shown in Table 3, square root values of the AVE value of each construct were higher than the correlations supporting the model’s discriminant validity. The model appears reliable and valid to measure the current sample. 4.3. Structural model and hypothesis testing The structural model was assessed using AMOS SPPS. The goodness Table 1 Demographics. Characteristics Frequency Percentage (%) Gender Male 59 28.1 Female 151 71.9 Age 12–17 years 11 5.2 18–24 years 119 56.7 24–34 years 43 20.5 34–44 years 23 11 45–54 years 10 4.8 55–64 years 4 1.9 Relationship status Single 151 71.9 married 28 13.3 De Facto relationship 26 12.4 Separated 3 1.4 Widowed 2 1 Education level School leaving certificate 60 28.6 Diploma/Higher Diploma 40 19 Bachelor’s degree 88 41.9 Master’s degree or above 22 10.5 Employment status Full time employee 28 13.3 Part/time/Casual employee 56 26.7 Student 121 57.6 Currently unemployed 5 2.4 Years of volunteering 0–1 year 87 41.4 1–2 years 31 14.8 2–3 years 23 11 3–4 years 17 8.1 4+ years 52 24.8 Table 2 Measurement model. Item Loading Alpha CR AVE Motivation M6 I wanted to do something worthwhile .822 .811 .761 .519 M8 I wanted to give something back to the community .748 M5 Volunteering creates a better society .727 M7 I wanted to help make the event a success .595 Self-efficacy SE4 Thanks to my resourcefulness, I know how to handle unforeseen situations .825 .928 .929 .595 SE5 I can remain calm when facing difficulties because I can rely on my coping abilities .814 SE3 I am confident that I could deal efficiently with unexpected events .815 SE8 If I am in a bind, I can usually think of something to do .812 SE9 No matter what comes my way, I am usually able to handle it .798 SE7 When I am confronted with a problem, I can usually find several solutions .777 SE6 I can remain calm when facing difficulties because I can rely on my coping abilities .771 SE1 I can always manage and solve difficult problems if I try hard enough .683 SE2 It is easy for me to stick to my aims and accomplish my goals .612 Empowerment E5 I usually know what responses to take to situations that arise .774 .853 .847 .481 E6 If I don’t have answers, I always know where to get it .754 E8 I am responsible for the results of my decisions .700 E7 My ideas and inputs are valued .686 E2 I can be creative in finding solutions to problems .641 E9 I am personally responsible for the work I do .590 Satisfaction S6 My volunteer experience has been personally fulfilling. .872 .928 .930 .624 S8 The experience of volunteering has been a worthwhile one. .811 S7 Through volunteering, I am doing something for a cause that I believe in .808 S2 I enjoyed my volunteer experience .799 S9 I have been able to make an important contribution by volunteering at this organization. .764 S5 My self-esteem is enhanced by performing volunteer work .763 S1 As a volunteer, I feel better about my self .762 S3 I have learned how to deal with variety of people through volunteering .730 Intention to Volunteer Again R1 volunteering at this organization. .815 .702 .710 .553 R3 will volunteer .665 Organizational Citizenship Behavior OCB2 I am always exceptionally courteous and respectful to customers. .782 .871 .863 .559 OCB1 I always have a positive attitude when volunteering .761 OCB4 I help my co volunteers when they are struggling .741 OCB3 I perform duties with very few mistakes. .734 OCB5 I go out of my way to help first time volunteers .717 Note: CR = composite reliability, AVE = average variance extracted. L. Senevirathna et al.

Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 57 (2023) 1–12 8 of the model indices supported the model’s fitness for hypothesis testing (χ2 = 8.37.153, df = 509, χ2/df = 1.645, p < .000, CFI = 0.926, TLI = 0.919, IFI = 0.927; RMSEA = 0.56: SRMR = 0.56). Table 4 presents the results of the hypothesis testing. According to Table 4, motivation (β = 0.485, p < .001) and empowerment (β = 0.281, p < .01) has a significant impact on volunteer satisfaction. These findings confirm H1 and H3 and endorse the wellestablished positive relationship between motivation and satisfaction. The findings propose that event volunteers’ SE is insignificant in explaining their satisfaction, rejecting H2. It is evident that event volunteers’ empowerment (β = 0.311, p < .05) has a significant positive relationship with their intention to volunteer again, supporting H6. Contradicting the literature, the relationship between volunteers’ motivation and their intention to volunteer again was not supported, rejecting H4. The impact of SE on predicting event volunteers’ future volunteer intentions is not significant rejecting H5. Event volunteers’ SE (β = .573, p < .001) has a significant positive relationship with their OCB supporting H8. The impact of motivation and empowerment on predicting OCB is not significant in the current study rejecting H7 and H9. 5. Discussion and theoretical implications 5.1. Findings summary There have been increasing discussions in the event volunteer management field exploring answers to event volunteer retention and management issues. The current research aimed to provide some insights into these issues by empirically investigating the antecedents of event volunteer outcomes. The study proposed a conceptual model based on the MAO model to understand how event volunteers’ individual (motivation and SE) and organisational (empowerment) factors predict their volunteering outcomes. Based on the MAO model, the study concludes that both individual and organisational antecedents are essential in promoting positive event volunteer outcomes. The results underline the significance of assessing and understanding not one but multiple antecedents contributing to different volunteer outcomes. The results suggest a complex relationship between the MAO elements (motivation, SE, empowerment) and volunteer outcomes (volunteer satisfaction, intention to volunteer again, OCB). According to the study’s findings, motivations and empowerment are antecedents of volunteer satisfaction, SE is an antecedent of OCB, and empowerment is an antecedent of future intentions. While the majority of the study’s findings confirm and extend the extant event volunteer literature, some challenge the current knowledge. The following discussion provides a detailed discussion. The study concludes the positive impact of volunteer motivation on volunteer satisfaction. These results confirm the well-known positive relationship between volunteer motivation and satisfaction (Lachance et al., 2021; Lee et al., 2014; Mykletun & Himanen, 2016). The factor analysis suggests that the current group of event volunteers are altruistically motivated (“to create a better society, “to do something worthwhile”, and “to make the event a success”), similar to those identified among other episodic event volunteers (Kim, 2018). The actualisation of volunteers’ altruistic motivations through the event volunteering experience results in satisfaction (Finkelstein, 2008). Furthermore, event volunteers’ perceived empowerment positively influences satisfaction. This finding aligns with the HRM literature that underlines the positive impact of organisational empowering practices on job satisfaction (Amundsen, 2015). The current study is among the first to empirically test and validate the empowerment’s effect on event volunteers’ satisfaction. Event volunteers interact with the volunteering organisation in an episodic nature where their involvement does not extend to the decision-making context but to job performance. Thus, the empowerment practices for event volunteers should be aimed at the performance level by viewing event volunteer empowerment as increased intrinsic task motivation. Intrinsic task motivation is defined as “commitment to the task itself” (Thomas & Velthouse, 1990, p. 668). Event volunteers should receive resources to enhance their intrinsic task motivation. The study supports the notion that event volunteers empowering behaviour should be considered beyond the scope of power distribution. The findings confirm that event volunteers’ SE positively impacts their OCB outcomes. This aligns with Pavalache-Ilie (2014) and Na-Nan et al. (2021), who highlighted that employees’ SE predicts their OCB. Event volunteers face unexpected customer challenges in event service delivery, prompting them to go beyond their routine tasks to satisfy the customer’s needs. Thus, their SE, the event volunteer’s confidence in their abilities, is vital to go beyond their roles and to engage in OCB. As highlighted by Bandura (2006), individuals with high SE are persistent in reaching their goals and persevere at challenges. Similarly, volunteers with low SE levels will lack the confidence to perform extra-role behaviour and engage in OCB. Thus, it is crucial to consider the volunteers’ capabilities when assigning roles at the event. Challenging customer-facing tasks should be matched with highly self-efficacious volunteers, while routine tasks could be assigned to others. The study provides empirical evidence of the positive relationship between perceived empowerment and future volunteer intentions. These findings concur with previous HRM literature suggesting a positive relationship between empowerment and retention (Güntert, 2015; Moreno & Walker et al., 2016); however, the current study is one of the first studies to investigate the effect of empowerment on retention in episodic volunteering settings. The study findings extend this knowledge and highlight that organisational empowering practices positively affect Table 3 Measurement validity table. OCB M E SE S IVA OCB 0.747 M 0.582 0.721 E 0.537 0.464 0.694 SE 0.730 0.434 0.675 0.771 S 0.712 0.650 0.560 0.482 0.789 IVA 0.334 0.501 0.478 0.288 0.600 0.744 Note: OCB: Organizational Citizenship Behavior, M: Motivation, E: Empowerment, SE: Self-Efficacy, S-Satisfaction, IVA: Intention to Volunteer Again. Table 4 Path analysis. Hypothesis Relationship Standardized regression coefficients T value Supported H1 Motivation →Satisfaction .485*** 5.915 Supported H2 Self-efficacy →Satisfaction .081 .961 Not supported H3 Empowerment → Satisfaction .281** 2.947 Supported H4 Motivation →Intention to Volunteer Again .179 1.625 Not supported H5 Self-efficacy → Intention to Volunteer Again − .200 − 1.852 Not supported H6 Empowerment →Intention to Volunteer Again .311* 2.469 Supported H7 Motivation → OCB .110 1.1415 Not supported H8 Self-efficacy → OCB .573*** 6.394 Supported H9 Empowerment →OCB − .159 − 1.831 Not supported Note: *p < .05, **p < .01, ***P < .001. L. Senevirathna et al.

Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 57 (2023) 1–12 9 the intention to volunteer again. The organisational support volunteers receive to realise their intrinsic task motivations impels them to consider volunteering again. Managers should implement training and education programs to empower event volunteers (Cuskelly et al., 2006). Contradictory to the literature, the study did not conclude the relationship between volunteer motivations and intention to volunteer. The literature suggests that altruistically motivated event volunteers display future intentions to volunteer (Lockstone-Binney et al., 2015). However, the current study’s findings do not support this. Similarly, the relationship between SE and the intention to volunteer was not supported. This could be attributed to the type of event. The volunteers included in the current sample were local and grassroots event volunteers who were altruistically motivated. These volunteers do not necessarily need to volunteer at leisure and sports events to fulfil their altruistic motivations as they could volunteer at any other opportunity, such as charity organisations, to fulfil the altruistic motivations. Similarly, altruistically driven, highly self-efficacious event volunteers do not need to return to the event context to fulfil their altruistic motivations. The studies in the extant literature confirming the positive relationship between event volunteer motivations and intention to volunteer were highly driven by event-related motivations (Cain et al., 2021; Kim et al., 2020), displaying intentions to return to event volunteering. 5.2. Theoretical implications The study offers important theoretical implications regarding event volunteer outcome management and conceptual model development. The study’s main theoretical implications are twofold. Firstly, the study proposed and empirically tested an event volunteer outcome model guided by the MAO model, contributing to the episodic event volunteer literature. Grounded on the MAO model, the study assessed event volunteers’ motivation, abilities (SE) and opportunities (empowerment) in predicting their volunteer outcomes and extended the applicability of the MAO model. This research advances this theory in an episodic event volunteering context by taking an HRM perspective to address volunteer retention. To this date, the MAO model has mainly been used to understand employee outcomes in the paid-employment sector. The study contributes to the growing event volunteer literature by systematically assessing event volunteers’ motivations, abilities and opportunities using the MAO model and detecting areas of improvement (Kundu & Gahlawat, 2018; Pak et al., 2019). The study employed the MAO model to move away from an isolated view of event volunteer outcomes and proposed an interrelated HRM perspective to investigate the volunteer outcomes from an individual (motivation and SE) and an organisational perspective. These contributions advance the event volunteer retention literature. Secondly, the study concludes that event volunteers’ empowerment (intrinsic task motivation) should be viewed as an intrinsic task motivation which is an extension of their altruistic motivation. This is supported by Alfes et al. (2017), who stated that opportunity-enhancing practices such as empowerment can be implemented at three levels: volunteer task, support, and volunteer involvement. Intrinsic task motivation is the need to perform best at a given task and not be driven by external rewards (Gagne et al., 1997), which coincides with the volunteer dimensions. Both motivations share the common characteristic of not being driven by external rewards to achieve satisfaction. Event volunteers’ motivation is the need to do good, while intrinsic task motivation is the need to perform best at the given role making empowerment an extension of their altruistic volunteering motivations. Thus, the responsibility lies within the volunteer managers to extend event volunteers’ altruistic motivation by facilitating their task motivation during service to promote satisfaction. 5.3. Managerial implications There is heavy stress on volunteer managers to effectively recruit and retain event volunteers. Thus, the current study’s findings aim to shed light on the antecedents of promoting positive event volunteer outcomes. The key managerial implication of this study is on volunteer job role design. The results draw interferences between HRM practices and event volunteer context and underline the complex nature of event volunteer roles. Volunteer outcomes are not impacted by a single antecedent but rather by multiple antecedents. Managers must promote these positive volunteer outcomes as it helps them achieve their desired goals, such as hosting successful events, volunteer retention and event attendee satisfaction (Lachance et al., 2021). Event managers should carefully consider the complex function of these antecedents (motivation, SE, and empowerment) when designing volunteer roles. It was evident that event volunteers’ motivations impacted their satisfaction. Even though not present among the current event volunteer sample, event volunteers are driven by varying motivations (Kim, 2018; Lockstone-Binney et al., 2015). Volunteer managers should understand the diversity of volunteer motivations and carefully assign roles that match the volunteer motivations, ensuring that the suitable event volunteers are matched to appropriate positions. This can be undertaken during volunteer recruitment and onboarding. Managers can include questions in the volunteer application or use an onboarding survey. For instance, a question such as “What are you looking forward to the most in this experience” can be included with multiple-choice answers. The results of these surveys can assist managers in assigning job roles. The congruence of volunteer motivations and job roles leads to a positive event volunteering experience, which subsequently leads to satisfaction (Kim, Kim, & Lee, 2019). Therefore, event managers should make appropriate arrangements to complement volunteer motivations and their designated roles. Managers aiming to cultivate OCB in event volunteer services should focus on volunteer SE levels. Event volunteers’ abilities (SE) promote OCB. OCB plays an important in-service role in achieving customer satisfaction. This should be considered when assigning volunteer roles. For example, customer-facing, frontline roles such as ushers, information booth and guest service roles should be assigned to event volunteers with high SE as these volunteers have the confidence to face any unexpected challenges and will go beyond their job roles to perform OCB. Service employees’ OCB contributes to customer satisfaction (Ocampo et al., 2018). Similarly, behind the scenes, tasks such as event set-up and administration roles could be assigned to volunteers with low SE. Moreover, managers can provide training for volunteers with low SE levels to build confidence (Na-Nan et al., 2021; Pak et al., 2019), such as pre-event training with simulation workshops. Simulation workshops with different situational scenarios could be utilised to build confidence among the volunteers. The training activities to improve event volunteers’ skills are timeconsuming and expensive. Therefore, managers should focus on retaining their current event volunteers to build a skilled event volunteer force. According to the findings, only empowerment, that is, event volunteers’ intrinsic task motivation, influences future volunteering outcomes. Volunteer managers should provide the necessary resources to increase event volunteers’ task motivation. Managers can provide workshops and training to enhance volunteer skills, such as SE, required for task performance. Another strategy managers can use to increase task motivation is recognition (Alfes et al., 2017; Won et al., 2021). Event volunteers’ exceptional service performances should be recognised and acknowledged. This could be done using social media. Most event managers use social media pages to promote the event. These pages could also be a platform to recognise exceptional event volunteer services. 6. Conclusion The current study investigated the effect of event volunteers’ motivation, SE, and empowerment in predicting their volunteer outcomes. The study highlights the significant positive impact of event volunteers’ L. Senevirathna et al.

Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 57 (2023) 1–12 10 altruistic motives and empowerment (intrinsic task motivation) on their volunteer satisfaction, the positive impact of SE on event volunteers’ OCB and the positive impact of empowerment on future volunteering intentions. The study advances episodic event volunteering literature by systematically examining the antecedents of event volunteer outcomes using the MAO model. Volunteer managers should use the study’s findings to manage their invaluable human resources, event volunteers. Event managers must comprehensively understand the event volunteers’ motivations and abilities before service and provide suitable opportunities for the volunteers to achieve positive outcomes. 7. Limitations and future research It is important to address the limitations of the current study. The study was carried out in Australia. The findings reflect the culture and values of the Australian event volunteer context. Thus, caution should be exercised when generalising the results. Studies should be conducted in other contexts to examine the antecedents of event volunteer behaviour in culturally different contexts. When examining cultural differences, future research could include comparisons across volunteer race to identify how volunteers’ race impacts their volunteering outcomes. Furthermore, studies replicating the current study could also investigate the moderating role of event volunteers’ age, volunteering years, employment status and event scale to understand the implications of these variables on volunteering outcomes. While several studies examining the moderating role of event volunteers’ demographic variables, such as age (Compion et al., 2022; Won et al., 2021) exist, further research examining the influence of volunteering years and employment status is warranted. Little is known about how event volunteers perceive empowerment; thus, studies should investigate the influence of the above variables on empowerment. Studies investigating event volunteers’ motivation and SE as independent variables impacting event volunteers’ empowerment are warranted. The findings could help develop and tailor targeted volunteer training programs to suit different volunteer motives and SE levels. Furthermore, future research could explore empowerment’s mediating role in the relationship between motivation, SE, and volunteer outcomes. One conundrum of understanding event volunteers’ OCB is distinguishing between their altruistic volunteering motivation and OCB. As highlighted in the literature, OCB is an individual’s above-andbeyond role performance and is not formally rewarded. Volunteer behaviour displays similar characteristics; thus, it can be argued that volunteering can be a form of OCB (Lavelle, 2010). Future research could attempt to distinguish the two behaviours or explore the co-existence of volunteering and OCB. While this study contributed to the theoretical advancement of event volunteer outcomes using the MAO model, numerous future research avenues exist to contribute to further development. The current research examined event volunteers’ altruistic motivations (motivations) and SE (ability) as personal resources, and empowerment (opportunity) as an organisational resource contributing to event volunteer outcomes. However, HRM literature has investigated employee motivations and SE as situational variables impacting employees’ perceived empowerment (Hewagama et al., 2019; Na-Nan et al., 2021). Thus, future research could test the applicability in the event volunteer context by examining the moderating role of event volunteer motivations and SE in the relationship between perceived empowerment and volunteer outcomes. The results could highlight how event volunteers’ individual resourcefulness impacts the empowerment perception and its subsequent effect on their outcomes. Disclosure statement The authors report that there are no competing interests to declare. Declaration of competing interest The authors report there are no competing interests to declare. References Aisbett, L., & Hoye, R. (2015). Human resource management practices to support sport event volunteers. Asia Pacific Journal of Human Resources, 53(3), 351–369. https:// doi.org/10.1111/1744-7941.12062 Albrecht, S. L., & Marty, A. (2020). Personality, self-efficacy and job resources and their associations with employee engagement, affective commitment and turnover intentions. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 31(5), 657–681. https://doi.org/10.1080/09585192.2017.1362660 Alfes, K., Antunes, B., & Shantz, A. D. (2017). The management of volunteers - what can human resources do? A review and research agenda. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 28(1), 62–97. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 09585192.2016.1242508 Allen, J. B., & Shaw, S. (2009). "Everyone rolls up their sleeves and mucks in": Exploring volunteers’ motivation and experiences of the motivational climate of a sporting event. Sport Management Review, 12(2), 79–90. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. smr.2008.12.002 Amundsen, S. (2015). Linking empowering leadership to job satisfaction, work effort, and creativity: The role of self-leadership and psychological empowerment. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, 22(3), 304–321. https://doi.org/10.1177/ 1548051814565819jlo.sagepub.com Andersson, T. D., Getz, D., & Mykletun, R. J. (2013). Sustainable festival populations: An application of organizational ecology. Tourism Analysis, 18(6), 621–634. https://doi. org/10.3727/108354213X13824558188505 Bandura, A. (2006). Toward a psychology of human agency. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 1(2), 164–180. Bang, H. (2015). Volunteer age, job satisfaction, and intention to stay: A case of nonprofit sport organisations. The Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 36(2), 161–176. https://doi.org/10.1108/LODJ-04-2013-0052 Bang, H., Bravo, G. A., Mello Figueroa, ˆ K., & Mezzadri, F. M. (2019). The impact of volunteer experience at sport mega-events on intention to continue volunteering: Multigroup path analysis. Journal of Community Psychology, 47(4), 727–742. https:// doi.org/10.1002/jcop.22149 Birmingham. (2022). Birmingham 2022 commenwealth games. Our Legacy. https://res ources.cwg-qbr.pulselive.com/qbr-commonwealth-games/document/2022/07/1 2/a37f0633-361d-49b1-9cca-d25043dccff8/Birmingham-2022_Our_Legacy.pdf. Cain, L., Orlowski, M., & Kitterlin-Lynch, M. (2021). A holistic investigation of special event volunteer motivation. Event Management, 25(5), 473–487. https://doi.org/ 10.3727/152599521X16106577965198 Carter, W. R., Nesbit, P. L., Badham, R. J., Parker, S. K., & Sung, L.-K. (2018). The effects of employee engagement and self-efficacy on job performance: A longitudinal field study. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 29(17), 2483–2502. https://doi.org/10.1080/09585192.2016.1244096 Çetin, F., & As¸kun, D. (2018). The effect of occupational self-efficacy on work performance through intrinsic work motivation. Management Research Review, 41(2), 186–201. https://doi.org/10.1108/MRR-03-2017-0062 Cho, H., Li, C., & Wu, Y. (2020). Understanding sport event volunteers’ continuance intention: An environmental psychology approach. Sport Management Review, 23(4), 615–625. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smr.2019.08.006 Choong, Y. O., Ng, L. P., Ai Na, S., & Tan, C. E. (2020). The role of teachers’ self-efficacy between trust and organisational citizenship behaviour among secondary school teachers. Personnel Review, 49(3), 864–886. https://doi.org/10.1108/PR-10-2018- 0434 Christopher Westland, J. (2010). Lower bounds on sample size in structural equation modeling. Electronic Commerce Research and Applications, 9(6), 476–487. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.elerap.2010.07.003 Clary, E. G., & Snyder, M. (1999). The motivations to volunteer: Theoretical and practical considerations. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 8(5), 156–159. https://doi. org/10.1111/1467-8721.00037 Cnaan, R. A., Handy, F., & Wadsworth, M. (1996). Defining who is a volunteer: Conceptual and empirical considerations. Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, 25(3), 364–383. https://doi.org/10.1177/0899764096253006 Cnaan, R. A., Heist, H. D., & Storti, M. H. (2017). Episodic volunteering at a religious mega event: Pope Francis’s visit to Philadelphia. Nonprofit Management and Leadership, 28(1), 85–104. https://doi.org/10.1002/nml.21268 Compion, S., Meijs, L., Cnaan, R. A., Krasnopolskaya, I., von Schnurbein, G., & AbuRumman, S. (2022). Repeat and non-returning volunteers: The promise of episodic events for volunteer recruitment and retention. Voluntas, 33(3), 472–482. https:// doi.org/10.1007/s11266-022-00452-z Coyne, B. S., & Coyne, E. J. (2001). Getting, keeping and caring for unpaid volunteers for professional golf tournament events. Human Resource Development International, 4(2), 199–216. https://doi.org/10.1080/13678860121999 Cuskelly, G., Fredline, L., Barry, S., Kim, E., & Kappelides, P. (2020). Volunteer selection at a major sport event: A strategic human resource management approach. Sport Management Review, 24(1), 116–133. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smr.2020.02.002 Cuskelly, G., Taylor, T., Hoye, R., & Darcy, S. (2006). Volunteer management practices and volunteer retention: A human resource management approach. Sport Management Review, 9(2), 141–163. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1441-3523(06) 70023-7 L. Senevirathna et al.

Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 57 (2023) 1–12 11 Dickson, J., T, Benson, M., A, & Anne Terwiel, F. (2014). Mega-event volunteers, similar or different? Vancouver 2010 vs London 2012. International Journal of Event and Festival Management, 5(2), 164–179. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJEFM-07-2013-0019 Etikan, I., Musa, S. A., & Alkassim, R. S. (2016). Comparison of convenience sampling and purposive sampling. American Journal of Theoretical and Applied Statistics, 5(1), 1–4. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajtas.20160501.11 Farrell, J. M., Johnston, M. E., & Twynam, G. D. (1998). Volunteer motivation, satisfaction, and management at an elite sporting competition. Journal of Sport Management, 12(4), 288–300. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsm.12.4.288 Finkelstein, M. A. (2006). Dispositional predictors of organisazational citizenship bheaviour: Motives, motive fulfillment, and role identity. Social Behavior and Personality, 34(6), 603–616. https://doi.org/10.2224/sbp.2006.34.6.603 Finkelstein, M. A. (2008). Volunteer satisfaction and volunteer action: A functional approach. Social Behavior and Personality, 36(1), 9–18. https://doi.org/10.2224/ sbp.2008.36.1.9 Finkelstein, M. A. (2011). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation and organisational citizenship behavior: A functional approach to organisational citizenship behavior. Journal of Psychological Issues in Organisational Culture, 2(1), 19. https://doi.org/ 10.1002/jpoc.20054 Fornell, C., & Larcker, D. F. (1981). Evaluating structural equation models with unobservarable variables and measurement error. Journal of Marketing Research, 18 (1), 39–50. https://doi.org/10.2307/3151312 Frans, D. J. (1993). A scale for measuring social worker empowerment. Research on Social Work Practice, 3(3), 312–328. https://doi.org/10.1177/104973159300300305 Gagne, M., Senecal, C. B., & Koestner, R. (1997). Proximal job characteristics, feelings of empowerment, and intrinsic motivation: A multidimensional model. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 27(14), 1222–1240. Gazzoli, G., Hancer, M., & Park, Y. (2012). Employee empowerment and customer orientation: Effects on workers’ attitudes in restaurant organizations. International Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Administration, 13(1), 1–25. https://doi.org/ 10.1080/15256480.2012.640180 Giannoulakis, C., Wang, C.-H., & Felver, N. (2015). A modeling approach to sport volunteer satisfaction. International Journal of Event and Festival Management, 6(3), 182–199. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJEFM-04-2014-0010 Grammatikopoulos, V., Koustelios, A., & Tsigilis, N. (2006). Construct validity of the special event volunteer motivation scale for Greek volunteers. Leisure/Loisir, 30(1), 287–305. https://doi.org/10.1080/14927713.2006.9651352 Güntert, S. T. (2015). Motives for event volunteering: Extending the functional approach. Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, 44(4), 686. https://doi.org/10.1177/ 0899764014527797 Hair, J. F. (2010). Multivariate data analysis: A global perspective (7th ed.). Pearson http s://go.exlibris.link/rgf56s8K. Hair, J. F., Jr., Hult, G. T. M., Ringle, C. M., & Sarstedt, M. (2021). A primer on partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM). Sage publications. Hallmann, K., Wright, R. K., & Morellato, M. (2023). Serious leisure event volunteering and social capital. Event Management, 27(3), 353–366. https://doi.org/10.3727/ 152599522X16419948695189 Hewagama, G., Boxall, P., Cheung, G., & Hutchison, A. (2019). Service recovery through empowerment? HRM, employee performance and job satisfaction in hotels. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 81, 73–82. https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.ijhm.2019.03.006 Hoffman, M. L. (1981). Is altruism part of human nature? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 40(1), 121–137. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.40.1.121 Holmes, K., Dunlop, P. D., Lockstone-Binney, L., Davies, A., Farid, H. M., & Lavery, C. (2022). Volunteering in Australia: The organisation perspective. Volunteering Australia. https://volunteeringstrategy.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/Volunteeringin-Australia. Holmes, K., & Smith, K. A. (2009). Managing volunteers in tourism: Attractions, destinations and events. Butterworth-Heinemann. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780080943268 Hung, K., & Petrick, J. F. (2012). Testing the effects of congruity, travel constraints, and self-efficacy on travel intentions: An alternative decision-making model. Tourism Management, 33(4), 855–867. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2011.09.007, 1982. Hung, K., Sirakaya-Turk, E., & Ingram, L. J. (2011). Testing the efficacy of an integrative model for community participation. Journal of Travel Research, 50(3), 276–288. https://doi.org/10.1177/0047287510362781 Jepson, A., Clarke, A., & Ragsdell, G. (2013). Applying the motivation-opportunityability (MOA) model to reveal factors that influence inclusive engagement within local community festivals: The case of Utcazene 2012. International Journal of Event and Festival Management, 4(3), 186–205. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJEFM-06-2013- 0011 Jepson, A., & Ryan, W. G. (2018). Applying the motivation, opportunity, ability (MOA) model, and self-efficacy (S-E) to better understand student engagement on undergraduate event management programs. Event Management, 22(2), 271–285. https://doi.org/10.3727/152599518X15173356116718 Jha, S. (2014). Transformational leadership and psychological empowerment: Determinants of organisational citizenship behavior. South Asian Journal of Global Business Research, 3(1), 18–35. https://doi.org/10.1108/SAJGBR-04-2012-0036 Kim, E., & Cuskelly, G. (2017). A systematic quantitative review of volunteer management in events. Event Management, 21(1), 83–100. https://doi.org/10.3727/ 152599517X14809630271195 Kim, E., Cuskelly, G., & Fredline, L. (2020). Motivation and psychological contract in sport event volunteerism: The impact of contract fulfilment on satisfaction and future behavioral intention. Event Management, 24(4), 463–479. https://doi.org/ 10.3727/152599519X15506259856110 Kim, E., Fredline, L., & Cuskelly, G. (2018a). Heterogeneity of sport event volunteer motivations: A segmentation approach. Tourism Management, 68, 375–386. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2018.04.004 Kim, S.-H., Kim, M.-S., Holland, S., & Han, H.-S. (2018b). Hospitality employees’ citizenship behavior: The moderating role of cultural values. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 30(2), 662–684. https://doi.org/10.1108/ IJCHM-02-2016-0116 Kim, M., Kim, S. S.-K., Kim, M., & Zhang, J. J. (2019b). Assessing volunteer satisfaction at the London Olympic Games and its impact on future volunteer behaviour. Sport in Society, 22(11), 1864–1881. https://doi.org/10.1080/17430437.2019.1616926 Kim, B. J., Kim, M. H., & Lee, J. (2019a). Congruence matters: Volunteer motivation, value internalization, and retention. Journal of Organizational Psychology, 19(5), 56–70. https://doi.org/10.33423/jop.v19i5.2510 Kock, F., Berbekova, A., & Assaf, A. G. (2021). Understanding and managing the threat of common method bias: Detection, prevention and control. Tourism Management, 86, Article 104330. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2021.104330 Kundu, S. C., & Gahlawat, N. (2018). Ability-motivation-opportunity enhancing human resource practices and firm performance: Evidence from India. Journal of Management and Organization, 24(5), 730–747. https://doi.org/10.1017/ jmo.2016.22 Lachance, E. L., Bakhsh, J. T., Thompson, A., & Parent, M. M. (2021). What predicts the sport event volunteer experience? Examining motivation, satisfaction, commitment, and sense of community. Event Management, 25(6), 721–738. https://doi.org/ 10.3727/152599521X16106577965107 Lachance, E. L., & Parent, M. M. (2021). Understanding the sport event volunteer experience in the implementation mode of a para-sport event: An autoethnography. Event Management, 25(5), 501–519. https://doi.org/10.3727/ 152599520X15894679115556 Lamb, D., & Ogle, A. (2019). What preevent motives determine the decision to volunteer at a sporting event: How can Herzberg’s two-factor theory help? Event Management, 23(4), 495–510. https://doi.org/10.3727/152599519X15506259855643 Lavelle, J. J. (2010). What motivates OCB? Insights from the volunteerism literature. Journal of Organisational Behavior, 31(6), 918–923. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.644 Lee, C.-K., Reisinger, Y., Kim, M. J., & Yoon, S.-M. (2014). The influence of volunteer motivation on satisfaction, attitudes, and support for a mega-event. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 40, 37–48. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. ijhm.2014.03.003 Li, S., Jia, R., Seufert, J. H., Hu, W., & Luo, J. (2022). The impact of ability-, motivationand opportunity-enhancing strategic human resource management on performance: The mediating roles of emotional capability and intellectual capital. Asia Pacific Journal of Human Resources, 60(3), 453–478. https://doi.org/10.1111/1744- 7941.12293 Limpanitgul, T., Boonchoo, P., Kulviseachana, S., & Photiyarach, S. (2017). The relationship between empowerment and the three-component model of organisational commitment: An empirical study of Thai employees working in Thai and American airlines. International Journal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research, 11(2), 227–242. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJCTHR-07-2015-0069 Li, D., Xu, X., Chen, C.-f., & Menassa, C. (2019). Understanding energy-saving behaviors in the American workplace: A unified theory of motivation, opportunity, and ability. Energy Research & Social Science, 51, 198–209. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. erss.2019.01.020 Lo Presti, A. (2013). The interactive effects of job resources and motivations to volunteer among a sample of Italian volunteers. Voluntas, 24(4), 969–985. https://doi.org/ 10.1007/s11266-012-9288-7 Lockstone-Binney, L., Holmes, K., Smith, K., Baum, T., & Storer, C. (2015). Are all my volunteers here to help out? Clustering event volunteers by their motivations. Event Management, 19(4), 461–477. https://doi.org/10.3727/ 152599515X14465748512605 Maclnnis, D. J., & Jaworski, B. J. (1989). Information processing from advertisements: Toward an integrative framework. Journal of Marketing, 53(4), 1–23. https://doi. org/10.1177/002224298905300401 Ma, E., & Qu, H. (2011). Social exchanges as motivators of hotel employees’ organisational citizenship behavior: The proposition and application of a new threedimensional framework. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 30(3), 680–688. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2010.12.003 Ma, E., Zhang, Y., Xu, F. Z., Wang, D., & Kim, M. (2021). Feeling empowered and doing good? A psychological mechanism of empowerment, self-esteem, perceived trust, and OCBs. Tourism Management, 87, Article 104356. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. tourman.2021.104356, 1982. Monga, M. (2006). Measuring motivation to volunteer for special events. Event Management, 10(1), 47–61. https://doi.org/10.3727/152599506779364633 Morales-S´ anchez, R., & Pasamar, S. (2020). How to improve organisational citizenship behaviour by combining ability, motivation and opportunity. Employee Relations: The International Journal, 42(2), 398–416. https://doi.org/10.1108/ER-04-2019-0169 Mykletun, R. J., & Himanen, K. (2016). Volunteers at biking race events. Sport, Business and Management: International Journal, 6(3), 246–273. https://doi.org/10.1108/ SBM-12-2014-0051 Na-Nan, K., Kanthong, S., & Joungtrakul, J. (2021). An empirical study on the model of self-efficacy and organizational citizenship behavior transmitted through employee engagement, organizational commitment and job satisfaction in the Thai automobile parts manufacturing industry. Journal of Open Innovation: Technology, Market, and Complexity, 7(3), 170. https://doi.org/10.3390/joitmc7030170 Ocampo, L. A., Tan, T. A. G., & Sia, L. A. (2018). Using fuzzy dematel in modeling the causal relationships of the antecedents of organisational citizenship behavior (OCB) in the hospitality industry: A case study in the Philippines. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management, 34, 11–29. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhtm.2017.11.002 L. Senevirathna et al.

Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 57 (2023) 1–12 12 Organ, D. W. (1988). Organisational citizenship behavior: The good soldier syndrome. Lexington Books. https://go.exlibris.link/53j11YD5. Pak, K., Kooij, D. T. A. M., De Lange, A. H., & Van Veldhoven, M. J. P. M. (2019). Human resource management and the ability, motivation and opportunity to continue working: A review of quantitative studies. Human Resource Management Review, 29 (3), 336–352. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hrmr.2018.07.002 Parasuraman, A. (1987). Customer-oriented corporate cultures are critical to service marketing success. Journal of Services Marketing, 1(1), 39–46. https://doi.org/ 10.1108/eb059587 Pavalache-Ilie, M. (2014). Organisational citizenship behaviour, work satisfaction and employees personality. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 127, 489–493. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.03.296 Piatak, J. S. (2016). Time is on my side: A framework to examine when unemployed individuals volunteer. Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, 45(6), 1169–1190. https://doi.org/10.1177/0899764016628295 Podasakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., Lee, J.-Y., & Podsakoff, N. P. (2003). Common method biases in behavioral research: A critical review of the literature and recommended remedies. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88(5), 879–903. https://doi. org/10.1037/0021-9010.88.5.879 Podsakoff, P. M., & Organ, D. W. (1986). Self-reports in organisational research: Problems and prospects. Journal of Management, 12(4), 531–544. https://doi.org/ 10.1177/014920638601200408 Qiu, S., Alizadeh, A., Dooley, L. M., & Zhang, R. (2019). The effects of authentic leadership on trust in leaders, organisational citizenship behavior, and service quality in the Chinese hospitality industry. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management, 40, 77–87. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhtm.2019.06.004 Randolph, W. A. (1995). Navigating the journey to empowerment. Organisational dynamics, 23(4), 19–32. https://doi.org/10.1016/0090-2616(95)90014-4 Saksida, T., Alfes, K., & Shantz, A. (2017). Volunteer role mastery and commitment: Can HRM make a difference? International Journal of Human Resource Management, 28 (14), 2062–2084. https://doi.org/10.1080/09585192.2015.1126335 Schumacher, S., & Komppula, R. (2016). A case study on service recovery: FrontlineFrontline employees’ perspectives and the role of empowerment. European Journal of Tourism, Hospitality and Recreation, 7(2), 117–127. https://doi.org/ 10.1515/ejthr-2016-0014 Schwarzer, R., & Jerusalem, M. (2000). General perceived self efficacy. http://www. fu-berlin.de/gesund/skalen/Language_Selection/Turkish/General_Perceived_Self -Efficacy/hauptteil_general_perceivedself-efficacy.htm. Sergio, R. P., & Rylova, M. (2018). Employee engagement and empowerment as gateway towards retention: The case of volkswagen group. Journal of Eastern European & Central Asian Research, 5(2), 1–11. https://doi-org.libraryproxy.griffith.edu. au/10.15549/jeecar.v5i2.242. Smith, C. A., Organ, D. W., & Near, J. P. (1983). Organisational citizenship behavior: Its nature and antecedents. Journal of Applied Psychology, 68(4), 653–663. https://doi. org/10.1037//0021-9010.68.4.653 Studer, S. (2016). Volunteer management: Responding to the uniqueness of volunteers. Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, 45(4), 688–714. https://doi.org/10.1177/ 0899764015597786 Thomas, K. W., & Velthouse, B. A. (1990). Cognitive elements of empowerment: An "interpretive" model of intrinsic task motivation. Academy of Management Review, 15 (4), 666–681. https://doi.org/10.2307/258687 Twynam, G. D., Farrell, J. M., & Johnston, M. E. (2002). Leisure and volunteer motivation at a special sporting event. Leisure/Loisir, 27(3–4), 363–377. https://doi. org/10.1080/14927713.2002.9651310 Ugboro, I. O., & Obeng, K. (2000). Top management leadership, employee empowerment, job satisfaction, and customer satisfaction in TQM organisations: An empirical study. Journal of Quality Management, 5(2), 247–272. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/S1084-8568(01)00023-2 Ukil, M. I. (2016). The impact of employee empowerment on employee satisfaction and service quality: Empirical evidence from financial enterprizes in Bangladesh. Verslas: Teorija ir Praktika, 17(2), 178–189. https://doi.org/10.3846/btp.2016.651 Ullah, S., Raza, B., & Ali, W. (2021). Linking self-efficacy and organizational citizenship behavior: A moderated mediation model. International Journal of Organizational Leadership, 10(3), 233–247. https://doi.org/10.33844/ijol.2021.60528 Vetitnev, A. M., & Bobina, N. (2017). Residents’ perceptions of the 2014 sochi olympic games. Leisure Studies, 36(1), 108–118. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 02614367.2015.1105857 Vetitnev, A., Bobina, N., & Terwiel, F. A. (2018). The influence of host volunteer motivation on satisfaction and attitudes toward sochi 2014 olympic games. Event Management, 22(3), 333–352. https://doi.org/10.3727/ 152599518X15239930463145 Walker, A., Accadia, R., & Costa, B. M. (2016). Volunteer retention: The importance of organisational support and psychological contract breach. Journal of Community Psychology, 44(8), 1059–1069. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcop.21827 Wen, J., Huang, S., & Teo, S. (2023). Effect of empowering leadership on work engagement via psychological empowerment: Moderation of cultural orientation. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management, 54, 88–97. https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.jhtm.2022.12.012 Wiggins, J. (2004). Motivation, ability and opportunity to participate: A reconceptualisation of the rand model of audience development. International Journal of Arts Management, 7(1), 22–33. Wollebæk, D., Skirstad, B., & Hanstad, D. V. (2014). Between two volunteer cultures: Social composition and motivation among volunteers at the 2010 test event for the FIS Nordic World Ski Championships. International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 49(1), 22–41. https://doi.org/10.1177/1012690212453355 Won, D., Chiu, W., Bang, H., & Bravo, G. A. (2021). Perceived organisational support on episodic volunteers’ affective and behavioral outcomes: A case of the 2016 rio olympic games. International Journal of Event and Festival Management, 12(2), 240–258. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJEFM-10-2020-0060 Wood, R., & Bandura, A. (1989). Impact of conceptions of ability on self-regulatory mechanisms and complex decision making. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56(3), 407–415. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.56.3.407 Lakshi Senevirathna is a PhD candidate at the department of Tourism, Sports and Hotel Management at Griffith University, Australia. Her research interests include community engagement, event management and volunteer management. Dr. Xin Jin is an Associate Professor at the department of Tourism, Sports and Hotel Management at Griffith University, Australia. Dr. Jin has authored or co-authored a number of publications in top tier tourism, hospitality and event journals and sits on the editorial board of several high tier journals. Her research interests include event tourism, destination marketing, and Chinese outbound tourism. Dr. Emily Ma is a Professor at the School of Hospitality and Tourism Management, University of Surrey, United Kingdom. Dr. Ma has authored or co-authored a number of publications in top tier tourism and hospitality journals and sits on the editorial board of several high tier journals. Her research areas include organizational behaviour and customer experience management. L. Senevirathna et al.

Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 57 (2023) 102–111 Available online 20 September 2023 1447-6770/© 2023 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. on behalf of CAUTHE - COUNCIL FOR AUSTRALASIAN TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY EDUCATION. All rights reserved. Are all tourism review information on the platforms equally useful? Yuguo Tao a,* , Zehai He a , Gang Wu a , Chunyun Shi b a School of History Culture and Tourism, Jiangsu Normal University, Xuzhou, 221116, China b School of Geography,Geomatics and Planning, Jiangsu Normal University, Xuzhou, 221116, China ARTICLE INFO Keywords: Review usefulness Community-based reviews Transactional reviews Price information perception Affective information perception Frugality ABSTRACT Extracting experimental stimulus reviews that contain complete information can provide a new research perspective for comparing the usefulness of reviews from different platforms. Using the tourism reviews from Sina Weibo and Ctrip, which represent community-based and transactional platform reviews, respectively, as source materials, a set of extracted reference standards was first developed, and an extended information adoption model was constructed to explore the influence of review type and review quality on usefulness. The results showed that the usefulness of transactional reviews was significantly higher than that of communitybased reviews, that the perception of affective information and the cognitive aspect of the perception of price information played a partial mediating role in the process of review type influencing usefulness, and that the value of frugality moderated the main effect. This study enriches the connotation of the information adoption model and has great reference value for information search and related marketing efforts. 1. Introduction Online reviews have increasingly become a channel for consumers to learn about products (Filieri, 2015). In the context of tourism, online reviews have also become an indispensable source of information for the industry and an important way for consumers to learn about product quality (Fang et al., 2016; Lyu et al., 2022; Yu et al., 2021). For travel and hospitality products, because it is difficult for people to assess the quality of intangible products before consumption (Liu & Park, 2015), today’s consumers tend to seek information and learn of others’ consumption experiences through online reviews (Ye et al., 2011). Xie et al. (2016) reported that approximately 77% of hotel consumers read online reviews before choosing a product. Furthermore, comparing review information across platforms has become a basic need for consumers and sellers (Cheung & Thadani, 2012; Li et al., 2020). Online tourism platforms can be divided into two main types: community websites and transaction websites, with the former coming from community websites and the latter from transaction websites (Gligorijevic, 2016; Xiang et al., 2017). The reviewers of the former may not necessarily be the actual buyer, while the reviewers of the latter must have purchasing experience on the website. Regarding online reviews, identifying the factors that influence their perceived usefulness is a key issue in online marketing (Sussman & Siegal, 2003). Review usefulness is the extent to which consumers believe that product reviews can help with judgement or purchase decisions (Mudambi & Schuff, 2010). Many studies have demonstrated that there are many factors influencing the usefulness of reviews, among which the importance of review quality has been emphasized and strongly validated (Cheung et al., 2008; Stebbins, 2015; Xu et al., 2020; Yang & Leung, 2018). Although some studies have noted possible differences in the information quality of tourism reviews across platforms (Tao et al., 2022; Xiang et al., 2017), there is still a dearth of results from systematic explorations of the mechanisms by which review quality affects usefulness across platforms. Experimentation is the basis of causal inference (Falk & Heckman, 2009). The advantages and disadvantages of experimental data and big data are complementary to a large extent, and there is great potential for an effective combination of the two (Gilquin & Gries, 2009). Extracting representative reviews from numerous or even big data-level reviews for use in experimental methods has been widely used in disciplines such as computer science, information science, linguistics, and marketing (Huang et al., 2014; Park et al., 2007). Experimentation using online reviews has been carried out in tourism and hospitality research in the last decade (Viglia & Dolnicar, 2020). For example, the influence of factors such as text quality and image usefulness on travelers’ purchase intentions has been analyzed (Jun & Vogt, 2013), and the usefulness of reviews has been analyzed by selecting representative reviews from a large number of restaurant reviews through random sampling (Chen & Lurie, 2013). In addition, review information can be categorized into * Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (Y. Tao). Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jhtm https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhtm.2023.09.008 Received 6 June 2023; Received in revised form 15 September 2023; Accepted 16 September 2023

Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 57 (2023) 102–111 103 different dimensions, such as cognitive and affective information (Schindler & Bickart, 2012), but existing studies have not paid enough attention to the influence of review content on the usefulness of reviews, and there is even a lack of inter-platform analysis. In this study, quality reviews were created by developed metrics to apply in experiments to analyze the mechanism by which the usefulness of reviews on community-based and transactional platforms is influenced. According to the 2019 China Online Tourism and Vacation Industry Research Report, 81.9% of tourists in China share UGC (User Generated Content) on community based platforms (such as Sina Weibo) and transactional platforms (such as Ctrip). In the classic information adoption model proposed by Sussman and Siegal (2003), the information usefulness is determined by the quality of reviews and the credibility of information sources, respectively. When reviews come from different types of platforms, the type of review is likely to affect the quality of reviews, and the components of quality of review are also likely to vary, which will lead to significant differences in the path that affects the usefulness of the review compared to the original model. Based on the concept of perceived value described in related literatures (Petrick, 2002; Sweeney & Soutar, 2001), this article aims to analyze the types of reviews on different platforms to distinguish the credibility of different sources, and analyze whether the quality, price, and emotional information of the two types of reviews will affect their usefulness. The article also explores the moderating effect of consumer frugality value, hoping to expand the existing model and provide a reference for consumers to adopt reviews and marketers to manage reviews. 2. Literature review and hypotheses 2.1. Information adoption model The information adoption model was proposed by Sussman and Siegal (2003) on the basis of the dual processing model and the technology acceptance model to explain the process by which people identify and accept information. The central ideas of this model are as follows: the process of online information influencing people’s decisions can be regarded as the process of information adoption, the antecedent variable of information adoption is information usefulness, and information usefulness is jointly determined by the quality of reviews and the credibility of information sources. In the model, the quality of reviews is taken as the central route, and the credibility of information sources is taken as the peripheral route (Sussman & Siegal, 2003). Consumers’ choice of the central or peripheral route is not necessarily one or the other (Park & Lee, 2009). A large number of studies have used this model to analyze the relationship between review quality, source credibility, usefulness, and information adoption behavior (Cheung et al., 2008; Mensah et al., 2022; Zhu et al., 2016). In utilizing the model, many tourism studies have extended the model by adding variables. In addition to variables such as review quality, source credibility, information usefulness, information adoption (Esfahani et al., 2015), and variables that differ greatly from those in the original model, such as product ranking (Filieri & McLeay, 2014; Kao & Huang, 2022), have also been used. In particular, one study has also used the model for different review type situations, and the results suggest that the quantity, detail, and specificity of restaurant information are factors that make transactional websites superior to social media in terms of the influence of electronic word of mouth (e-WOM) (Erkan & Evans, 2016). It is evident that the core variables affecting information usefulness and adoption remain argument quality and source credibility and that different observable indicators of review quality or review sources have become important directions for expansion. Online reviews generally contain information on quality, price, and emotion (Schindler & Bickart, 2012). The overall perceived value of a product by consumers can be measured in four dimensions: quality, price, emotion, and society (Petrick, 2002; Sweeney & Soutar, 2001). Social value is the ability to enhance social self-concept (Sweeney & Soutar, 2001), but it is rarely reflected in tourism review information. Therefore, this study analyzes the usefulness of review quality of community-based and transactional travel platforms from the dimensions of quality, price, and emotion. 2.2. Review platform types and information usefulness Travel online reviews mainly come from two types of platforms: community-based websites, as TripAdvisor, and transactional websites, as Expedia (Gligorijevic, 2016; Xiang et al., 2017). In the past decade, researchers have analyzed the usefulness of tourism reviews on different platforms from the perspectives of platform source credibility, reviewer characteristics, review volume, review length, review valence (emotional polarity and rating), and review quality. From the perspective of platform source credibility and reviewer characteristics, the usefulness of reviews on Expedia and Booking.com is higher than that of reviews on TripAdvisor (Stebbins, 2015). In terms of review volume and sharer rating, hotels have a significantly higher review reputation on HotelTonight (a transactional website) than on TripAdvisor (Yang & Leung, 2018). From a review valence perspective, the number of useful reviews may be higher on TripAdvisor than on Expedia (Xiang et al., 2017). The reviews of destination air quality on Sina Weibo (a community-based website) are more reliable than those on Ctrip (a transactional website) (Tao et al., 2022). In terms of review volume and review ratings, it has been found that reviews on Expedia are more useful than those on TripAdvisor (Xu et al., 2020). The main reason for the above results is that the sharer on a community-based platform can be anyone while sharers on transactional platforms are limited to customers with actual purchase experience, whose reviews are more meaningful and have better objectivity/accuracy (Stebbins, 2015; Xu et al., 2020). Objectivity is an important observable indicator of review quality (Park et al., 2007). In summary, the usefulness of the two types of platforms may be different due to different perspectives, but mainstream research tends to suggest that the objectivity of review quality is higher on transactional websites than on community-based websites. Review quality refers to the quality of review content described from the perspective of objectivity, sufficiency, relevance, and understandability (Park et al., 2007). Review quality is a measure of the quality of online review text content and can basically be interchanged with review information or review content. The observable indicators of review quality include completeness, timeliness, objectivity, and relevance (Cheung et al., 2008; Filieri & McLeay, 2014). Existing studies that analyze the usefulness of reviews on different platforms focus on objectivity, while relevance, timeliness, and understandability may play relatively minor roles in this context. Therefore, this study gives priority to content completeness as a perspective for analysis to enrich the research perspective of existing platform review literature. Information completeness/sufficiency refers to the extent to which information has sufficient breadth, depth, and scope for the task at hand (Wang & Strong, 1996). The research on the usefulness of review quality between platforms is still very scarce (Yan, 2019). The transactional tourism reviews have more price and affective information than do community-based reviews (Tao et al., 2022; Xiang et al., 2017). Therefore, we propose the following hypothesis. H1. The usefulness of transactional tourism reviews is higher than that of community-based tourism reviews. 2.3. Review platform types and quality The information structure of online reviews has an important impact on information acquisition and decision-making behavior (Park & Lee, 2008). Online review information consists of cognitive (objective) attribute information and emotional (subjective) information (Schindler Y. Tao et al.

Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 57 (2023) 102–111 104 & Bickart, 2012). In the case of tourism reviews, both heuristic and emotional information on TripAdvisor influences customers’ purchase intentions (Ruiz-Mafe et al., 2018). Few studies have been conducted to compare the review qualities of transactional and community-based platforms, and those that have done so usually took the perspective of an overall review quality (Yan, 2019), but in fact, there is a large difference in the information structure and content between the two types of reviews (Zhao & Xu, 2020). Considering that information completeness has a very important impact on information usefulness (Cheung et al., 2008), it is worthwhile to compare the usefulness of two types of reviews through the lens of different information content. TripAdvisor and Expedia, respectively representatives of community-based and transactional platforms, respectively, in the travel industry, are likely to have large differences between their information structures (Xiang et al., 2017). The two types of reviews are similar in terms of quality-related information, but the reviews on Expedia have more price information. Price and emotional content are significantly lower for community-based platforms than for transactional platforms (Tao et al., 2022). Overall, there is a lack of studies comparing the usefulness of different review content across travel platforms. Therefore, it can be speculated from related findings (Tao et al., 2022; Xiang et al., 2017) that consumers have a higher perception of price information in transactional reviews than in community-based tourism reviews. Although the purchase intention of consumers of search products does not increase with an increase in the number of emotional reviews (Park et al., 2007), such information has a higher impact on consumers of experience products than on consumers of search products (Benlian et al., 2012); therefore, we speculate that travelers’ perception of affective information increases with an increase in emotional review information. In addition, although community-based quality information has an advantage over transactional tourism reviews (Tao et al., 2022; Xiang et al., 2017), we speculate that such advantage is difficult to perceive by consumers. Therefore, we propose the following hypotheses. H2a. Transactional tourism reviews contain more price information than do community-based tourism reviews. H3a. Transactional tourism reviews contain more affective information than do community-based tourism reviews. 2.4. Review quality and information usefulness Not only the overall review quality (Sussman & Siegal, 2003; Esfahani et al., 2015) but also the observable indicators of review quality, such as the completeness and objectivity, affect the usefulness of reviews (Cheung et al., 2008; Filieri & McLeay, 2014; Erkan & Evans, 2016). Considering that information completeness involves the breadth, depth, and scope of information (Wang & Strong, 1996) and that online reviews are composed of quality, price, emotion, and other aspects (Schindler & Bickart, 2012), completeness can be reflected by such information. While cognitive attribute reviews are more valuable than emotional reviews for search products (Park et al., 2008), cognitive attribute reviews are less useful than emotional experience information for experience products (Chua & Banerjee, 2016; Huang et al., 2014). Subjective reviews are more useful than objective reviews for experience products (Huang et al., 2009). Although some studies have compared the usefulness of reviews on different platforms by comprehensively analyzing the accuracy, completeness, and relevance of the review content (Yan, 2019), no results have been obtained for the usefulness across platforms through in-depth analyses of different review content. Shin et al. (2019) examine the influence of the concreteness and abstraction of the textual content in tourism reviews on the usefulness of reviews. While some studies have identified that community-based and transactional reviews may exhibit platform-specific “styles” in informational content such as price and emotion (Tao et al., 2022; Xiang et al., 2017), little follow-up research has been conducted to explore how this information affects review usefulness. The present study predicts that differences in the perception of price information and affective information will lead to differences in the usefulness of the two types of reviews. Therefore, we propose the following hypotheses. H2b. Price information mediates the influence of community-based and transactional tourism reviews on usefulness. H3b. affective information mediates the influence of communitybased and transactional tourism reviews on usefulness. 2.5. The moderating influence of frugality Values are core, enduring beliefs that guide people’s actions and judgments in a given context (Ramkissoon et al., 2009). The value of frugality advocates that people should maximize saving material wealth and reduce, or even eliminate, waste during consumption (Chen, 2006). Thrift value is not conceptually or empirically the opposite of materialism and consumerism, and it has an important historical place in both Eastern and Western cultures (Lastovicka et al., 1999; Wu et al., 2012; Hsu & Huang, 2016). Frugality consistently explains consumer usage behavior (Lastovicka et al., 1999; Hsu & Huang, 2016). Minkov (2009) analyzed happiness and life satisfaction in 97 countries using frugality as an important indicator. Frugal consumers avoid purchasing high-priced consumer goods when low-priced alternatives are available (Pan et al., 2019). Under the same conditions, travelers with a strong value of frugality are more inclined to choose consumption activities with lower economic costs (Fu et al., 2021). Stefko ˇ et al. (2022) identified a positive correlation between tourists’ frugal propensity and expenditures. The degree of frugality of travelers has a moderating effect on their willingness to participate in health tourism (Han, 2022). On the basis of related studies (Tao et al., 2022; Xiang et al., 2017), we believe that the difference between community-based and transactional reviews may be more significantly related to price information than affective information and that the value of frugality may be preferred as a moderating variable to analyze the influence of review types on usefulness. Therefore, we propose the following hypothesis. H4. For consumers with a high value of frugality, the usefulness of transactional reviews is higher than that of community-based reviews; for consumers with a low value of frugality, there is no significant difference in the usefulness of the two types of reviews. 3. Overview of the study Two situational experiments are conducted to investigate the hypotheses proposed above (Fig. 1). On the basis of constructing indicators to measure the experimental worthiness of reviews and extracting reviews with completeness, Study 1 and 2 examines not only the main effect of tourism reviews on different platforms on perceived usefulness (Hypothesis 1) but also the moderating effect of the value of frugality on the main effect (Hypothesis 4). Study 3 and 4 examines the main effect and moderating effect, examines the mediating effects of the perception of price information and the perception of affective information (Hypotheses 2a, 2b, 3a, 3b), and examines the mediated moderating effect of the whole model. 3.1. Study 1 3.1.1. Study 1 methodology The pilot used a two-factor [2 (review type: community-based vs. transactional) × 2 (value of frugality: high vs. low] between-group design to test the main effect of review type on usefulness and the moderating effect of the value of frugality on the main effect. To ensure the validity of the independent variable manipulation, the constructed Y. Tao et al.

Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 57 (2023) 102–111 105 experimental material was pretested in terms of the authenticity of the situations and the difference in the review information from different platform types before the formal experiment. The pretest included 148 college students (39.9% being male). Undergraduate students are ideal experimental subjects for experiential buying (Huang et al., 2018). As for the measurement items, the first was situational authenticity. Because the two sets of stimulus materials were artificially synthesized, a pilot needed to test the situational authenticity. The measurement was based on the method described by Su et al. (2020), specifically, “In real life, I think there are situations described in the above materials”. The second was the information difference between community-based and transactional reviews. The well-established review usefulness scale developed by Chen et al. (2002) was selected for this study and modified to the context of this study, for example, the two items "Using this platform will improve my efficiency in searching for information (for example, I find more price information)" and "I find the price information on this platform is useful" (all items were scored using seven-point Likert scale). The following focuses on exploring the development of stimulus materials. Community-based and transactional reviews were obtained from Sina Weibo and Ctrip, respectively. Sina Weibo is the most popular platform for Chinese people to share their experiences with tourism and hospitality products (Su et al., 2019). Ctrip is currently the largest internet travel website in China, ranking first in the global online travel industry in terms of total transaction volume in 2019 (Chinanews, 2020). The travel reviews published can provide rich materials for studying the information composition of different platforms. The selected reviews pertained to the Old Town of Lijiang, which is very attractive to Chinese and foreign tourists. In June 2022, we used "Old Town of Lijiang" + "tourism" as search keywords in Python programming to collect review data from both platforms. Data cleaning was performed by removing duplicate reviews and eliminating years with fewer than 50 reviews. Finally, a total of 6461 reviews from Sina Weibo and 4334 reviews from Ctrip were obtained. Data statistics show that there is also a significant difference in review length between the two types, with community-based type being 105 words and transactional type being 74 words. It is necessary to artificially control the two types of reviews length. As for emotional valence, the emotional value of the reviews is measured by utilizing the Baidu sentiment analysis API (https://ai.baidu.com) using Python programming. The results show that the overall emotional values of Sina Weibo and Ctrip are 0.945 and 0.941, respectively. The slight difference in the overall emotional values between the two is generally difficult to perceive by the experimental subjects. The emotional values of the two types of reviews were proportionally distributed according to 10 equal intervals, and the results showed that the maximum difference was only 0.47%, and the difference in emotional intensity between the two was very small. In summary, the emotional valences of the two types of reviews are controlled equally. We further construct a set of reference standards for the creation of stimulus reviews aiming to contain complete information. (i) Information such as review platform and reviewer must or can be hidden. (ii) Variables such as review volume and length need to be controlled artificially to be equal. (iii) Emotional valence should naturally be controlled to be equal. (iv) The number of reviews can generally be determined based on review length. 20 reviews are the most effective when the reviews are short (Connors et al., 2011; Huang et al., 2014), but the number of reviews can be decreased to 1–6 when the reviews are long (Park et al. al., 2007). Considering that all reviews in this study have an average word count of 93, 2 reviews are selected for this experiment. (v) The stimulus reviews are created using the proportion of high-frequency words in different dimensions. Using high-frequency words extracted from online reviews can effectively improve the accuracy of information analysis during topic analysis (Akay et al., 2015; Chen et al., 2020). Drawing on related studies (Huang et al., 2014; Petrick, 2002; Sweeney & Soutar, 2001), this study classifies extracted high-frequency words using three dimensions: quality, price, and emotion. Because Gooseker has a high accuracy in extracting high-frequency words (Tao et al., 2021), Gooseeker (http://www. gooseeker.com/) is selected as the word segmentation software in this study. As many as 150 high-frequency words are selected in this study to indicate review completeness. The proportions of high-frequency words in the quality, price, and emotion dimensions are 91.03%, 1.20%, and 7.77%, respectively, in community-based reviews, and are 80.25%, 5.60%, and 14.15%, respectively, in transactional reviews. Two types of stimulating reviews are displayed in Attachment 1. Existing experimental studies mainly use random sampling to extract review information (Chen & Lurie, 2013; Sen & Lerman, 2007). However, reviews created following the above reference standards help to provide a more comprehensive picture of review completeness. In addition, the Fig. 1. Theoretical model. Table 1 Pilot 1 subject characteristics. n % n % Age in Year Male 59 39.9 18 to 25 145 97.9 Female 89 60.1 26 to 35 2 1.4 Monthly Income 36 to 45 1 0.7 <2000 ¥ 119 80.4 46 and older 0 0 2000 to 4999 ¥ 14 9.5 Occupation 5000 to 7999 ¥ 9 6.1 Student 145 97.9 8000 to 9999 ¥ 4 2.7 Civil servants and employees of public institutions 1 0.7 ≥10000 ¥ 2 1.3 Enterprise employees 1 0.7 Level of Education Self-employed industrial and commercial household 1 0.7 Less than High School 0 0 Farmers or soldiers 0 0 High School/ Technical School 0 0 Other 0 0 Undergraduate/ Associates Degree 143 96.6 Gender Postgraduate Degree 5 3.4 Y. Tao et al.

Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 57 (2023) 102–111 106 demographic information obtained from the experiment is shown in Table 1. 3.1.2. Study 1 results The one-sample t-test results indicated that both groups of materials had high authenticity ratings (M community-based = 5.15, t = 11.557, p < 0.001, M transactional = 5.14, t = 9.177, p < 0.001); therefore, the stimulus materials passed the test, met the requirement for experimental manipulation. The independent samples t-test results indicated that the difference in review information was significantly higher in the transactional review group than in the community-based review group (M community-based = 4.68, M transactional = 5.39, SD community-based = 0.93, SD transactional = 0.82, t = -4.857, p < 0.001), and the material difference manipulation also met the experimental requirements. 3.2. Study 2 3.2.1. Study 2 methodology Study 2 adopted a mixed experimental design [2 (review type: community-based vs. transactional) × 2 (consumers’ value of frugality: low vs. high)] to test the main effect of review type (community-based vs. transactional) on usefulness and the moderating effect of the value of frugality on the main effect. The experiment was carried out through paid online recruitment using WJX, an online questionnaire survey platform (http://www.wjx. cn). Two hundred valid samples were obtained: 102 in the community-based group and 98 in the transactional group. The experimental materials were the same as those in the pilot. The situational authenticity scale was the same as that in the pilot. The well-established scale for review usefulness developed by Chen et al. (2002) was selected as the usefulness scale, for example, the two items "Using this platform will improve my efficiency in searching for information (for example, I find a lot of information on quality, price and emotion)" and "I find all sorts of information on this platform to be very useful". The value of frugality scale modified by Wu et al. (2012) and Wu (2018) was adopted. The scale contains six items: "Before going on a trip, I compare prices and quality from multiple sources", "Expenses should be saved during a trip", "In a trip, as long as the accommodation and food are clean, it’s fine", "The most important factor in tourism is the price", "Tourism expenses are very expensive", "Saving money for retirement or supporting children is more important than spending it on tourism". The demographic information obtained from the experiment is shown in Table 2. 3.2.2. Study 2 results Main effect test: The results of the one-sample t-test indicated that all participants’ ratings of the situational authenticity were significantly higher than 4 (M community-based = 5.61, t = 18.681, p < 0.001, M transitional = 5.73, t = 19.016, p < 0.001), and the situational authenticity of the stimulus materials met the experimental requirements. The main effect was tested using the independent samples t-test with the review type as the independent variable and usefulness as the dependent variable. The results revealed that the usefulness of transactional reviews (M transactional = 5.69, SD = 0.65) was significantly higher (t = − 4.510, p < 0.001) than that of community-based reviews (M community-based = 5.26, SD = 0.71). Therefore, H1 is validated. Moderating effect test: A 2 × 2 analysis of variance (ANOVA) and independent samples t-test were used to test Hypothesis H4. For the usefulness of the dependent variable, the two-way ANOVA results indicated significant main effects of review type (M community-based = 5.26, M transitional = 5.69, F(1, 196) = 23.964, p < 0.001) and value of frugality (M high = 5.62, M low = 5.34, F(1, 196) = 9.318, p = 0.003) and a significant interaction between review type and value of frugality (F(1, 196) = 28.827, p < 0.001). The results of the independent samples t-test further showed that when consumers’ value of frugality was high, the usefulness of transactional reviews (M transactional = 6.06, SD = 0.54) was significantly higher (t = − 6.606, p < 0.001) than that of communitybased reviews (M community-based = 5.15, SD = 0.80); when value of frugality was low, the usefulness of transactional reviews and community-based reviews (M transitional = 5.31, SD = 0.87; M communitybased = 5.35, SD = 0.61) had not significantly different between the review types (t = 0.372, p > 0.05). H4 is validated (Fig. 2). 3.3. Study 3 3.3.1. Study 3 methodology The two groups of materials in the pilot were constructed in the same way as those in Study 1 but with different review situations. One situation described tourists buying souvenirs on a commercial street in Old Town, and the other described tourists visiting historical buildings and consuming electronic presentations (details omitted). For the pilot, 120 subjects (33.3% being male) were recruited for a fee through the WJX questionnaire platform. The requirements, including scales, were the same as those in the pre-test of Study 1. The demographic information obtained from the experiment is shown in Table 3. 3.3.2. Study 3 results First, the results of the one-sample t-test showed that the ratings of situational authenticity were high for both groups (M community-based = 5.28, t = 9.683, p < 0.001, M transitional = 5.58, t = 12.991, p < 0.001); therefore, the situational authenticity of the stimulus materials passed the test. Second, the results of the independent samples t-test showed Table 2 Study 2 subject characteristics. n % n % Age in Year Male 92 46.0 18 to 25 46 23.0 Female 108 54.0 26 to 35 108 54.0 Monthly Income 36 to 45 34 17.0 <2000 ¥ 17 8.5 46 and older 12 6.0 2000 to 4999 ¥ 36 18.0 Occupation 5000 to 7999 ¥ 63 31.5 Student 22 11.0 8000 to 9999 ¥ 42 21.0 Civil servants and employees of public institutions 26 13.0 ≥10000 ¥ 42 21.0 Enterprise employees 137 68.5 Level of Education Self-employed industrial and commercial household 10 5.0 Less than High School 10 5.0 Farmers or soldiers 1 0.5 High School/ Technical School 22 11.0 Other 4 2.0 Undergraduate/ Associates Degree 151 75.5 Gender Postgraduate Degree 17 8.5 Fig. 2. The moderating effect of thrift value. Notes: Usefulness presented as estimating marginal means. Platform tourism reviews and consumers’ thrift value significant at p > 0.001. Y. Tao et al.

Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 57 (2023) 102–111 107 that the difference in review information on the platform was significantly higher for the transactional review group than for the community-based review group (M community-based = 4.99, M transitional = 5.59, SD community-based = 0.92, SD transitional = 0.84, t = -3.742, p < 0.001). Therefore, the experimental materials met the experimental manipulation requirements. 3.4. Study 4 3.4.1. Study 4 methodology The formal experiment adopted a two-factor between-group design [2 (review type: community-based vs. transactional) × 2 (value of frugality: high vs. low)] to further verify whether price review quality and affective review quality play mediating roles in the process by which review type affects usefulness while again validating the main and moderating effects. A total of 214 volunteers, consisting of 107 community-based volunteers and 107 transactional volunteers, were recruited through the WJX questionnaire platform. The materials were the same as those in the pilot. The items consisted of an authenticity scale, a usefulness scale, a value of frugality scale, a price information perception scale, an affective information perception scale, and a quality information perception scale as well as demographic characteristics. The first three scales were the same as those in Study 2. The items on the three information perception scales were based on the well-established scales of Sweeney and Soutar (2001). The price information perception scale included three items: "Based on this information, it can be judged whether the price of tourism products or services is reasonable", "Based on this type of information, it can be judged whether tourism products or services are a good value for the money", and "Based on this information, it can be judged whether the tourism products or services are economical”. The affective information perception scale consisted of four items: “Based on this information, it can be judged whether the sharer likes these tourism products or services”, “Based on this information, it can be judged whether the sharer feels relaxed when experiencing tourism products or services” “Based on this information, it can be judged whether the sharer feels good when experiencing tourism products or services”, and “Based on this information, it can be judged whether the sharer feels happy when experiencing tourism products or services”. The quality information perception scale consisted of three items: "Based on this information, it can be judged whether the quality of tourism products or services is reliable", "Based on this information, it can be judged whether the quality of tourism products or services is acceptable", and "Based on this information, it can be judged whether the quality of tourism products or services is inferior”. The demographic information of the subjects is shown in Table 4. 3.4.2. Study 4 results The results of the one-sample t-test showed that the participants’ all rated the situational authenticity significantly higher than 4 (M community-based = 5.52, t = 14.768, p < 0.001, M transitional = 5.67, t = 16.719, p < 0.001); hence, the situational authenticity of the stimulus materials met the experimental requirements. Mediating effect test: H1, H2a, and H3a were validated by independent samples t-tests. The results obtained with review type as the independent variable and usefulness as the dependent variable revealed that the perceived usefulness by the subjects assigned to the transactional materials (M transitional = 5.79, SD = 0.81) was significantly higher (t = − 4.104, p < 0.001) than that by the subjects assigned to the community-based materials (M community-based = 5.32, SD = 0.97); hence, H1 is validated again. The results obtained with review type as the independent variable and the perception of price information as the dependent variable indicated that the price information perception of the subjects who read community-based reviews (M community-based = 4.96, SD = 0.93) was significantly lower (t = − 5.398, p < 0.005) than that of the subjects who read transitional reviews (M transitional = 5.64, SD = 0.94); thus, H2a is supported. The results obtained with review type as the independent variable and affective information perception as the dependent variable showed that the affective information perception of the subjects who read community-based reviews (M community-based = 5.38, SD = 0.83) was significantly lower (t = − 3.071, p < 0.005) than that of the subjects who read transactional reviews (M transitional = 5.72, SD = 0.76); therefore, H3a is supported. The results obtained with review type as the independent variable and quality information perception as the dependent variable revealed that the quality information perception of the subjects who read community-based reviews (M community-based = 4.89, SD = 0.83) and that of the subjects who read transactional reviews (M transitional = 5.09, SD = 0.76) were not significantly different (t = − 1.460, p > 0.005). In summary, H1, H2a and H3a are validated. Linear regression analysis was carried out with the perception of price information, perception of affective information, and perception of quality information as independent variables, respectively, and usefulness as the dependent variable. The results showed that the perception of price information had a significant positive impact on usefulness (β = 0.240, t = 3.651, p < 0.001) and that the perception of affective information also had a significant positive impact on usefulness (β = 0.367, t = 5.847, p < 0.001); however, the perception of quality information had no significant impact on usefulness (β = 0.134, t = 2.037, p > 0.001). The mediating roles of the perception of price information and the perception of affective information were verified using the PROCESS analysis program. The mediating effect was tested by the bootstrap Table 3 Pilot 2 subject characteristics. n % n % Age in Year Male 40 33.3 18 to 25 28 23.3 Female 80 66.7 26 to 35 65 54.2 Monthly Income 36 to 45 21 17.5 <2000 ¥ 12 10.0 46 and older 6 5.0 2000 to 4999 ¥ 17 14.2 Occupation 5000 to 7999 ¥ 42 35.0 Student 12 10.0 8000 to 9999 ¥ 32 26.6 Civil servants and employees of public institutions 10 8.3 ≥10000 ¥ 17 14.2 Enterprise employees 87 72.5 Level of Education Self-employed industrial and commercial household 8 6.7 Less than High School 1 0.8 Farmers or soldiers 1 0.8 High School/ Technical School 17 14.2 Other 2 1.7 Undergraduate/ Associates Degree 97 80.8 Gender Postgraduate Degree 5 4.2 Table 4 Study 4 subject characteristics. n % n % Age in Year Male 78 36.4 18 to 25 36 16.8 Female 136 63.6 26 to 35 133 62.1 Monthly Income 36 to 45 37 17.3 <2000 ¥ 21 9.8 46 and older 8 3.7 2000 to 4999 ¥ 32 15.0 Occupation 5000 to 7999 ¥ 71 33.2 Student 26 12.1 8000 to 9999 ¥ 43 20.1 Civil servants and employees of public institutions 22 10.3 ≥10000 ¥ 47 22.0 Enterprise employees 145 67.8 Level of Education Self-employed industrial and commercial household 15 7.0 Less than High School 7 3.3 Farmers or soldiers 1 0.5 High School/ Technical School 24 11.2 Other 5 2.3 Undergraduate/ Associates Degree 165 77.1 Gender Postgraduate Degree 18 8.4 Y. Tao et al.

Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 57 (2023) 102–111 108 method proposed by Hayes (2013) (PROCESS, Model 4, with a sample size of 5000 and a confidence interval of 95%). The analysis was conducted with review type as the independent variable, perception of price information and perception of affective information as mediating variables, and usefulness as the dependent variable. The results showed that the mediating roles of the perception of price information (β = 0.04, LLCI = 0.04, ULCI = 0.28, excluding 0) and the perception of affective information (β = 0.12, LLCI = 0.05, ULCI = 0.26, excluding 0) were both significant. After controlling for the perception of price information and the perception of affective information as mediating variables, the influence of review type on usefulness remained significant (LLCI = 0.05, ULCI = 0.45, excluding 0), demonstrating that both the perception of price information and the perception of affective information played a partial mediating role. Thus, H2b and H3b are validated. Moderating effect test: Hypothesis H4 was tested using a 2 × 2 twoway ANOVA and independent samples t-test with review type and value of frugality as independent variables and usefulness as the dependent variable. The ANOVA results showed that the interaction term of review type and value of frugality had a significant influence on the usefulness of review information [F(1, 210) = 3.59, p < 0.05], indicating that the value of frugality played a moderating role in the relationship between review type and information usefulness. The results of the independent samples t-test further showed that when the value of frugality was high, the usefulness of transactional reviews (M transactional = 5.79, SD = 0.68) was significantly higher (t = − 5.165, p < 0.01) than the usefulness of community-based reviews (M community-based = 5.05, SD = 0.79); when the value of frugality was low, the usefulness of transactional reviews and community-based (M transitional = 5.51, SD = 0.87; M community-based = 5.20, SD = 0.93) was not significantly different (t = − 1.728, p > 0.05). The moderation results were generally similar to those of Study 2. Therefore, H4 is again validated. The results of the two-factor ANOVA with review type and value of frugality as independent variables and price information perception as the dependent variable showed that the interaction term of review type and value of frugality did not significantly influence the perception of price information [F(1, 210) = 0.38, p = 0.54], indicating that the value of frugality did not play a moderating role in the relationship between review type and perception of price information. Notably, the information object included only the price dimension when analyzing the moderating effect of value of frugality on the perception of price information but included not only the price dimension but also other dimensions when analyzing the moderating effect of value of frugality on the main effect. The mediated moderation of the whole model was analyzed by Model 5 in the PROCESS analysis program, with review type as the independent variable, value of frugality as the moderating variable, perception of affective information and perception of price information as mediating variables, and usefulness as the dependent variable, using a confidence interval set to 95% and a bootstrap of 5000 repetitions. The interaction between review type and value of frugality was significant (β = − 0.39, LLCI = − 0.77, ULCI = − 0.00, excluding 0), and decomposing it into different levels showed that when value of frugality was high, review type had a significant influence on usefulness (β = 0.44, LLCI = 0.16, ULCI = 0.72, excluding 0). The independent samples t-test was used to determine the direction of moderation, and it was found that the usefulness of transitional reviews was significantly greater than that of the community-based reviews (M transitional = 5.79, M community-based = 5.05, p < 0.01). When the value of frugality was low, the influences of community-based and transactional reviews on usefulness were not significant (β = 0.05, LLCI = − 0.23, ULCI = 0.33, including 0). The perception of price information (β = 0.15, LLCI = 0.04, ULCI = 0.25, excluding 0) and perception of affective information (β = 0.14, LLCI = 0.05, ULCI = 0.28, excluding 0) mediated the model for the influence of review type on usefulness. Table 5 provides additional information on the moderated mediation. 4. Discussion and implications 4.1. Conclusions Based on the analysis of the volume, length, and emotional valence of community-based and transactional reviews, this study combined the distribution of high-frequency words in the dimensions of quality, price, and emotion to construct reference guidelines for developing experimental stimulus materials from overall reviews, so as to provide reviews with a good completeness for subsequent experiments. The findings of Study 1 and Study 2 indicated that in the context of tourism, with the new perspective of review quality completeness as the entry point, there was a significant difference in the usefulness of community-based and transactional reviews, with the latter being more useful. The findings of Study 3 and Study 4 showed that for experience products such as tourism, both the perception of affective information and the perception of price information played partial mediating roles in the process by which the community-based and transactional reviews influenced usefulness; the perception of quality information did not play a mediating role. The findings of both Study 2 and Study 4 suggest that consumers’ value of frugality moderated the influence of tourism review type on usefulness. Consumers with a high value of frugality rated the usefulness of transactional reviews higher than community-based reviews; for consumers with a low value of frugality, the ratings for the usefulness of transactional reviews and community-based reviews were not significantly different. Table 5 Study 4 moderated-mediation analysis results. Price Information Perception Effective Information Perception Information Usefulness coefficient SE 95%CI coefficient SE 95%CI coefficient SE 95%CI Constant 4.27 0.20 3.87,4.67 5.05 0.17 4.71,5.39 0.78 0.60 − 0.40,1.95 Reviews Types 0.69 0.13 0.44,0.94 0.33 0.11 0.12,0.55 0.83 0.31 0.22,1.44 Price Information Perception 0.22 0.06 0.11,0.33 Effective Information Perception 0.41 0.06 0.28,0.53 Frugality 0.55 0.31 − 0.06,1.16 Reviews Types × Frugality − 0.39 0.2 − 0.77-0.00 R 0.61 R2 0.37 F 24.25 P 0.00*** Conditioal effects of themoderator effect SE 95%CI high 0.44 0.14 0.16,0.72 low 0.05 0.14 − 0.23,0.33 Indirect effect(s) effect SE 95%CI Price Information Perception 0.15 0.06 0.05,0.28 Effective Information Perception 0.14 0.05 0.04,0.25 Y. Tao et al.

Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 57 (2023) 102–111 109 4.2. Theoretical contributions By extracting experimental stimulus materials from platform reviews, this research provides a pioneering attempt to integrate and use Big data and experimental data, and also extends the perspective of comparing different platform reviews from mainstream objectivity to completeness. Many disciplines have used a combination of experimental data and review data or big data for research (Gilquin & Gries, 2009). This study developed a set of reference rules for measuring experimental reviews in terms of review volume and emotional valence, providing strong support for extracting experimental materials containing complete review information from platform reviews. The existing observable indicators for comparing the usefulness of review quality between platforms (Stebbins, 2015; Xiang et al., 2017; Xu et al., 2020) basically limited to the objective perspective. This study provides a new completeness perspective for this field and conducts a more systematic analysis. This study expands the connotation of the information adoption model from the perspective of source credibility by introducing different types of platform reviews. The information adoption model posits that the antecedent variable of information adoption is information usefulness, which is determined by both the quality of reviews and the credibility of information sources (Sussman & Siegal, 2003; Filieri & McLeay, 2014; Mensah et al., 2022). Source credibility affects review quality (Rieh & Belkin, 1998), but the scope of the exploration does not cover different source types. Studies found that different information sources led to different review usefulness, and thus, the credibility of the information source of the information adoption model was expanded from a single type to a multi-platform type. This study also demonstrated that the perception of price information and perception of affective information played mediating roles in the process of review type affecting usefulness, which expands the connotation of quality of reviews and relationship path in information adoption model. Compared to previous studies that only focused on the overall quality of reviews on different platforms (Yan, 2019), this study extended the role of review quality from the whole to the local. This study concluded that for different platforms, review type can also affect review quality, expanding the relationship between the two from a fragmented relationship on a single platform to a state of interconnectedness between platforms and changing the role of review quality from an independent variable to a mediating variable. The study expands the information adoption model from the two routes by which review quality as the central factor and information source as the peripheral factor affect usefulness separately to the three routes by which review type affects usefulness directly or indirectly through price review quality and affective review quality. The information that determines the usefulness of reviews on two types of platforms is price and emotional factors, rather than quality factors, which is a new knowledge that has not been explored. Consumers’ value of frugality plays a moderating role in the process of review type influencing usefulness. The moderating effect of the value of frugality on some consumption behaviors has been demonstrated (Cai et al., 2021; Yao, 2019). The moderating variable for review usefulness in previous studies has mainly been product type (Park et al., 2008; Huang et al., 2014; Chua & Banerjee, 2016). This study classified searcher types based on value of frugality, further enriching the types of moderating variables for review usefulness. 4.3. Managerial implications Information seekers should generally choose transactional rather than community-based reviews as their primary reference source in order to obtain more comprehensive and in-depth review content. Managers of tourism review platforms need to monitor information quality dimensions, as these dimensions help tourists decide which type of platform to search for information from. Both types of platforms, especially transactional websites, can guide reviewers to share information that is complete in terms of quality, price, and affective information and can also tag or highlight such reviews. Considering that transactional reviews are based on commercial websites as platforms and are highly utilitarian, transactional websites can also provide reward mechanisms for those who post reviews with high completeness. Another important implication of this study is the influence of specific review information dimensions on the usefulness of consumers’ reviews. Information seekers who want to learn more about prices and sharers’ views should choose transactional reviews over communitybased reviews. In addition, because most of the information in the two types of reviews is high quality content and the difference between the quality of the two reviews is not obvious, searchers who want to obtain only quality information about tourism attractions and tourism services should choose either transactional or community-based reviews to achieve their goals. In addition, for source markets with a high value of frugality, they should give preference to transactional tourism reviews as a reference objects. For consumers with a low value of frugality, there is no significant difference in the reference value of transactional vs. community-based reviews. 4.4. Limitations and future directions First, although this study explored obtaining experimental data based on comment data, further improvements are still needed. The review data came from a single case site and did not involve an English platform may affect the generalization of the results. Second, the object of experimental manipulation is mainly the completeness of review quality between platforms. By extending the object to the objectivity, timeliness, and relevance of information and even to the overall review quality, one will help to comprehensively explore the relationship between variables such as review quality, review usefulness, and information adoption. Third, in addition to review quality, the usefulness of platform reviews can be compared in future research from other perspectives such as review volume. This study has preliminarily concluded that the review usefulness of experience products increases with increasing price information and affective information, but this finding still needs to be confirmed by follow-up research. Fourth, this study explored the moderating effect of the value of frugality on review usefulness, and more moderating variables such as Hedonism and Utilitarianism consumers can be considered in future studies. Declaration of competing interest The authors report there are no competing interests to declare. Acknowledgement This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (42071168). Appendix 1. Stimulus materials of Study1 The stimulus reviews for Sina Weibo are as follows: The performance of Taiyang Valley in Taohua City is immersive, with beautiful mountains and blue sky and white clouds as the background, revolving around a great and poignant love story of the Sun Clan, performed by local farmers riding their own horses. The scene is spectacular and original, and we took many beautiful photos. Tickets bought on site. Great show, and we recommend watching it! We strolled around Old Street in downtown Taohua today. There are small bridges and flowing water, traditional houses, which, however, are commercialized. In the most lively Xiehou Bar, we listened to the resident singer’s touching folk songs and bought Taohua Beer. We like Old Street. The stimulus reviews for Ctrip are as follows: The performance of Taiyang Valley in Taohua City is immersive, Y. Tao et al.

Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 57 (2023) 102–111 110 with beautiful mountains and blue sky and white clouds as the background, revolving around a great and poignant love story of the Sun Clan, performed by local farmers riding their own horses. Tickets were bought on the spot at 100 yuan each, which we all think is affordable. The performance was good, and the scene was very touching. We recommend buying tickets! Old Street in Taohua City has small bridges and flowing water, but it is commercialized. In the most lively Xiehou Bar, we listened to the touching folk songs and bought Taohua Beer. The drinks were not very expensive, and the price for the performance was okay. The guests were all very comfortable. We like Old Street. References Akay, A., Dragomir, A., & Erlandsson, B. (2015). Network-based modeling and intelligent data mining of social media for improving care. Biomedical and Health Informatics. IEEE Journal of Biomedical and Health Informatics, 19(1), 210–218. Benlian, A., Titah, R., & Hess, T. (2012). Differential effects of provider recommendations and consumer reviews in e-commerce transactions: An experimental study. Journal of Management Information Systems, 29(1), 237–272. Cai, L., Zhou, R., & Yu, Y. (2021). Study on the driving factors and formation mechanism of urban residents’ "clear your wedding party plate" intention. Journal of East China University of Technology, 40(4), 323–328. Chen, Y. (2006). Study on current education of consumers moralities in Chinese universities. Journal of Jiangsu University, 28(3), 39–42. Chen, L., Gillenson, M. L., & Sherrell, D. L. (2002). Enticing online consumers: An extended technology acceptance perspective. Information & Management, 39(8), 705–719. Chen, Z., & Lurie, N. H. (2013). Temporal contiguity and negativity bias in the impact of online word of mouth. Journal of Marketing Research, 50(4), 463–476. Chen, W., Xu, Z., Zheng, X., Yu, Q., & Luo, Y. (2020). Research on sentiment classification of online travel review text. Applied Sciences-Basel, 10(15), 5275. Cheung, C. M. K., Lee, M. K. O., & Rabjohn, N. (2008). The impact of electronic word-ofmouth: The adoption of online opinions in online customer communities. Internet Research, 18(3), 229–247. Cheung, C., & Thadani, D. R. (2012). The impact of electronic word-of-mouth communication: A literature analysis and integrative model. Decision Support Systems, 54(1), 461–470. Chinanews. (2020). Ctrip released its 2019 financial report: The world’s largest trading volume for the second consecutive year. http://www.chinanews.com/business/2020/0 3-19/9130456.shtml. (Accessed 30 January 2023). Chua, A. Y., & Banerjee, S. (2016). Helpfulness of user-generated reviews as a function of review sentiment, product type and information quality. Computers in Human Behavior, 54, 547–554. Connors, L., Mudambi, S. M., & Schuff, D. (2011). –Is it the review or the reviewer? A multi-method approach to determine the antecedents of online review helpfulness. In Proceedings of 44th Hawaii international conference on systems science. Hawaii, USA. Erkan, I., & Evans, C. (2016). Social media or shopping websites? The influence of eWOM on consumers’online purchase intentions. Journal of Marketing Communications, 61 (1), l–17. Esfahani, S., Ravichandran, S., Israeli, A., & Bolden, E. (2015). Investigating information adoption tendencies of restaurants’ user-generated content utilizing a hypothesized information adoption model. Journal of Hospitality Marketing & Management, 25(8), 925–953. Falk, A., & Heckman, J. J. (2009). Lab experiments are a major source of knowledge in the social sciences. Science, 326(5952), 535–538. Fang, B., Ye, Q., Kucukusta, D., & Law, R. (2016). Analysis of the perceived value of online tourism reviews: Influence of readability and reviewer characteristics. Tourism Management, 52, 498–506. Filieri, R. (2015). What makes online reviews helpful? A diagnosticity-adoption framework to explain informational and normative influences in e-wom. Journal of Business Research, 68(6), 1261–1270. Filieri, R., & McLeay, F. (2014). E-WOM and Accommodation: An analysis of the factors that influence travelers’ adoption of information from online reviews. Journal of Travel Research, 53(1), 44–57. Fu, G., Xu, X., & Wen, J. (2021). Analysis on the influencing factors of tourism consumption behavior of urban elderly groups: Based on the perspective of consumer values. Guangxi Social Sciences, 311(5), 120–126. Gilquin, G., & Gries, S. T. (2009). Corpora and experimental methods: A state-of-the-art review. Corpus Linguistics and Linguistic Theory, 5(1), 1–26. Gligorijevic, B. (2016). Review platforms in destinations and hospitality. In R. Egger, I. Gula, & D. Walcher (Eds.), Open tourism (pp. 215–228). Springer Berlin Heidelberg. Han, Q. (2022). Research on the influence of frugal and cognition on forest health tourism willingness. Thesis of Liaoning University. Hayes, A. F. (2013). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: A regression-based approach. New York: Guilford. Hsu, C., & Huang, S. (2016). Reconfigurmg Chinese cultural values and their tourism implications. Tourism Management, 54(6), 230–242. Huang, P., Lurie, N. H., & Mitra, S. (2009). Searching for experience on the web: An empirical examination of consumer behavior for search and experience goods. Journal of Marketing, 73(2), 55–69. Huang, L. Q., Tan, C. H., Ke, W. L., & Wei, K. K. (2014). Comprehension and assessment of product reviews: A review-product congruity proposition. Journal of Management Information Systems, 30(3), 311–343. Huang, Y., Wu, J., & Shi, W. (2018). The impact of font choice on web pages: Relationship with willingness to pay and tourism motivation. Tourism Management, 66, 191–199. Jun, S., & Vogt, C. (2013). Travel information processing applying a dual-process model. Annals of Tourism Research, 40, 191–212. Kao, W. K., & Huang, Y. S. (2022). Service robots in full- and limited-service restaurants: Extending technology acceptance model. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management, 54(10), 10–21. Lastovicka, J. L., Bettencourt, L. A., Hughner, R. S., & Kuntze, R. J. (1999). Lifestyle of the tight and frugal: Theory and measurement. Journal of Consumer Research, 26, 85–98. Li, J., Dou, Z., Zhu, Y., Zuo, X., & Wen, J. (2020). Deep cross-platform product matching in e-commerce. Information Retrieval Journal, 23, 136–158. Liu, Z., & Park, S. (2015). What makes a useful online review? Implication for travel product websites. Tourism Management, 47(47), 140–151. Lyu, J., Khan, A., Bibi, S., Chan, J. H., & Qi, X. G. (2022). Big data in action: An overview of big data studies in tourism and hospitality literature. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 51(6), 346–360. Mensah, I. K., Adams, S., Adjei, J. K., & Mwakapesa, D. S. (2022). Drivers of egovernment adoption amidst COVID-19 pandemic: The Information Adoption Model (IAM) approach. Information development, 38(4), 494–509. Minkov, M. (2009). Predictors of differences in subjective well-being across 97 nations. Cross-Cultural Research. The Journal of Comparative Social Sciences, 43, 152–179. Mudambi, S. M., & Schuff, D. (2010). Research note: What makes a helpful online review? A study of customer reviews on amazon. Com. MIS Quarterly, 34(1), 185–200. Pan, L. S., Pezzuti, T., Lu, W., & Pechmann, C. C. (2019). Hyperopia and frugality: Different motivational drivers and yet similar effects on consumer spending. Journal of Business Research, 95(2), 347–356. Park, D. H., & Lee, J. (2008). Ewom overload and its effect on consumer behavioral intention depending on consumer involvement. Electronic Commerce Research and Applications, 7(1–4), 386–398. Park, C., & Lee, T. M. (2009). Antecedents of online reviews’ usage and purchase influence: An empirical comparison of U.S. and Korean consumers. Journal of Interactive Marketing, 23(4), 332–340. Park, D. H., Lee, J., & Han, I. (2007). The effect of on-line consumer reviews on consumer purchasing intention: The moderating role of involvement. International Journal of Electronic Commerce, 11(4), 125–148. Petrick, J. F. (2002). Development of a multi-dimensional scale for measuring the perceived value of a service. Journal of Leisure Research, 34(2), 119–134. Ramkissoon, H., Nunkoo, R., & Gursoy, D. (2009). How consumption values affect destination image information. Advances in Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research, 3, 143–168. Rieh, S. Y., & Belkin, N. J. (1998). Understanding judgment of information quality and cognitive authority in the WWW. Asis Annual Meeting, 35, 279–289. Ruiz-Mafe, C., Chatzipanagiotou, K., & Curras-Perez, R. (2018). The role of emotions and conflicting online reviews on consumers’ purchase intentions. Journal of Business Research, 89, 336–344. Schindler, R. M., & Bickart, B. (2012). Perceived helpfulness of online consumer reviews: The role of message content and style. Journal of Consumer Behavior, 11(3), 234–243. Sen, S., & Lerman, D. (2007). Why are you telling me this? An examination into negative consumer reviews on the web. Journal of Interactive Marketing, 21(4), 76–94. Shin, S., Chung, N., Xiang, Z., & Koo, C. (2019). Assessing the impact of textual content concreteness on helpfulness in online travel reviews. Journal of Travel Research, 58 (4), 579–593. Stebbins, L. (2015). Finding reliable information online: Adventures of an information sleuth (1st ed.). Washington: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. Stefko, ˇ R., Dˇzuka, J., & Laˇcný, M. (2022). Psychological factors of tourist expenditure: Neglected or negligible? Frontiers in Psychology, 13. Article 942252. Su, L., Cheng, J., & Swanson, S. R. (2020). The impact of tourism activity type on emotion and storytelling: The moderating roles of travel companion presence and relative ability. Tourism Management, 81. Article 104138. Sussman, S. W., & Siegal, W. S. (2003). Informational influence in organizations: An integrated approach to knowledge adoption. Information Systems Research, 14(1), 47–65. Su, L., Stepchenkova, S., & Kirilenko, A. P. (2019). Online public response to a service failure incident: Implications for crisis communications. Tourism Management, 73, 1–12. Sweeney, J. C., & Soutar, G. N. (2001). Consumer perceived value: The development of a multiple item scale. Journal of Retailing, 77(2), 203–220. Tao, Y., Liu, W., Huang, Z., & Shi, C. (2022). Thematic analysis of reviews on the air quality of tourist destinations from a sentiment analysis perspective. Tourism Management Perspectives, 42. Article 100969. Tao, Y., Zhang, F., Liu, W., & Shi, C. (2021). Tourists’ perceptions of climate: Application of machine learning to climate and weather data from Chinese social media. Weather Climate and Society, 13(4), 975–987. Viglia, G., & Dolnicar, S. (2020). A review of experiments in tourism and hospitality. Annals of Tourism Research, 80. Article 102858. Wang, R. Y., & Strong, D. M. (1996). Beyond accuracy: What data quality means to data consumers. Journal of Management Information Systems, 12(4), 5–34. Wu, J. (2018). Research on the antecedents and strategies of tourism decision-making of the elderly in Yangtze River Delta cities-based on the perspective of embodied cognition. Doctoral Dissertation of Zhejiang Industrial and Commercial University. Y. Tao et al.

Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 57 (2023) 102–111 111 Wu, R., Wang, C., & Du, L. (2012). The study of the effects of sunk cost, thrift value and controlled motivation on active consumption behavior. Nankai Business Review, 15 (5), 141–151. Xiang, Z., Du, Q., Ma, Y., & Fan, W. (2017). A comparative analysis of major online review platforms: Implications for social media analytics in hospitality and tourism. Tourism Management, 58(2), 51–65. Xie, K., Zhang, Z., Zhang, Z., Singh, A., & Lee, S. K. (2016). Effects of managerial response on consumer eWOM and hotel performance. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 28(9), 2013–2034. Xu, Y. K., Zhang, Z., Law, R. O., & Zhang, Z. (2020). Effects of online reviews and managerial responses from a review manipulation perspective. Current Issues in Tourism, 23(17), 2207–2222. Yan, Q. (2019). The influence of the eWOM platforms’ differences on consumers’ perceived usefulness. Journal of Management Science, 32(3), 80–91. Yang, Y., & Leung, X. Y. (2018). A better last-minute hotel deal via app? Cross-Channel price disparities between HotelTonight and OTAs. Tourism Management, 68, 198–209. Yao, L. (2019). Study on influencing mechanism and guiding policies of tourists’ environmental behavior. Doctoral Dissertation of China University of Mining and Technology. Ye, Q., Law, R., Gu, B., & Chen, W. (2011). The influence of user-generated content on traveler behavior: An empirical investigation on the effects of e-word-of-mouth to hotel online bookings. Computers in Human Behavior, 27(2), 634–639. Yu, T., Rita, P., Moro, S., & Oliveira, C. (2021). Insights from sentiment analysis to leverage local tourism business in restaurants. International Journal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research, 16(1), 321–336. Zhao, W., & Xu, J. (2020). Contrastive analysis of emotional expressive characteristics of users on different network platforms. Information Studies: Theory & Application, 43 (1), 163–168. Zhu, D. H., Chang, Y. P., & Luo, J. J. (2016). Understanding the influence of C2C communication on purchase decision in online communities from a perspective of information adoption model. Telematics and Informatics, 33(1), 8–16. Y. Tao et al.

Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 57 (2023) 349–363 Available online 23 November 2023 1447-6770/© 2023 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. on behalf of CAUTHE - COUNCIL FOR AUSTRALASIAN TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY EDUCATION. All rights reserved. A study on the influence mechanism of perceived situational factors on young tourists’ pro-environment behaviors: Taking perceived coolness as an example Yue Liu a , Songtao Geng a,b,* a School of Tourism, Hainan University, No 58, Renmin Avenue, Haikou, Hainan Province, China b School of Tourism, Xinjiang University of Finance & Economics, 449 Beijing Middle Road, Urumqi, Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, China ARTICLE INFO Keywords: Perceived coolness Perceived situational factor Pro-environmental behavior Young tourists Gender difference ABSTRACT The sustainable development of tourism destinations is intimately tied to tourists’ pro-environmental behaviors. Limited studies have explored the influence of factors such as emotions, morals, and rationality on tourists’ proenvironmental behaviors. Although progress has been made in identifying the factors that predict tourists’ proenvironmental behaviors, the mechanisms through which perceived situational factors impact environmental behaviors remain insufficiently understood. Furthermore, considering the evolving characteristics of the global population and changes in consumer behavior preferences, particularly the increasing use of coolness as a marketing tool targeting young people, this study develops a stimulus‒organism‒response (S–O-R) framework to examine the impact of perceived coolness on young tourists’ pro-environmental behaviors and further investigates the gender differences in this relationship from the perspective of situated cognition. The approach used is deductive. According to data collected from 564 young visitors who attended the Strawberry Music Festival, males’ perception of coolness directly influence their pro-environmental behavior, while females’ perception of coolness are indirectly influenced by place identity and psychological ownership. This study provides a valuable theoretical perspective on the influence of perceived situational factors on proenvironmental behavior among young tourists and offers insights for managers regarding promoting destination development and designing products. 1. Introduction Human behavior is recognized as the fundamental driver behind environmental problems (Han, 2021; Hopkins, 2020; Tang et al., 2017). Population growth and excessive consumption have caused many problems, such as energy depletion, ecological damage, and environmental degradation (Fritsche & Masson, 2021; Nolan & Schultz, 2014; Tang et al., 2017). According to the carbon footprint calculation, the development of the tourism industry is responsible for approximately 8% of global greenhouse gas emissions. It is estimated that by 2025, this index of global tourism will have grown by more than 40% (Lenzen et al., 2018). As an essential industry for driving economic development, the tourism sector continues to grapple with challenges, including unregulated resource exploitation and the overexploitation of tourist destinations, which have resulted in a range of ecological and environmental problems (Gossling ¨ et al., 2023; Li et al., 2022). Although there have been improvements made regarding environmental awareness (Schonherr ¨ et al., 2023), existing research has suggested that a key to addressing environmental issues also lies in individual-level behavior changes (Gifford & Nilsson, 2014; Li et al., 2023; Song & Soopramanien, 2019). Pro-environmental behavior (PEB) refers to behavior that either eliminates or reduces harmful influences on the ecological environment or promotes sustainable development practices (Kollmuss & Agyeman, 2002; Lee & Jeong, 2018; Steg & Vlek, 2009). Scholars have suggested that PEB encompasses various individual-level actions, such as conserving local resources, decreasing potential harm to the environment, satisfying the demand for sustainable social development, and enhancing the quality of life for individuals (Dong et al., 2020; Han, 2020). As the primary implementer of environmental protection (Steg & Vlek, 2009), guiding tourists to actively engage in PEB at tourism destinations is more conducive to reducing the environmental maintenance * Corresponding author. School of Tourism, Hainan University, No 58, Renmin Avenue, Haikou, Hainan Province, China. E-mail address: [email protected] (S. Geng). Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jhtm https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhtm.2023.11.004 Received 23 March 2023; Received in revised form 10 November 2023; Accepted 11 November 2023

Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 57 (2023) 349–363 350 costs of tourism destinations and promoting the sustainable and healthy development of tourism destinations (Huo et al., 2023). Furthermore, the occurrence of PEB among tourists is related to not only personal interests but also the well-being of society and the attainment of human happiness (Sagiv et al., 2015; van Riper et al., 2019). In particular, more customers participate in tourism-related activities as destinations continue to remove COVID-19-related travel restrictions. The tourism industry is needed to put in place effective measures to reduce its adverse impacts on ecological authenticity and biodiversity to achieve sustainable development. Young tourists are seen as an attractive and strong segment of the market that can affect many aspects of the tourism industry (Vukic et al., 2015). In particular, these individuals may become the primary group to suffer the consequences of environmental degradation (Wang et al., 2021). From this perspective, the study of young tourists’ PEB has significant managerial relevance. Previous research has examined what influences tourists’ PEB from three distinct perspectives, namely, psychological, social interaction, and demographic traits. From the psychological perspective, the influencing factors include the following three categories: rational factors, affective factors, and moral factors (Lin et al., 2022; Wang, Qin, & Zhou, 2020; Oliver et al., 2019; Bergquist et al., 2019). In general, previous studies have emphasized that tourists’ PEB can be influenced by attitude, perceived behavioral control, emotion, satisfaction, and moral consciousness (Graham-Rowe et al., 2014; Li et al., 2019). From the interactional perspective, some scholars have argued that social interactional factors, such as emotional bonding, in-group norms, trust in cooperation (Li & Wu, 2020), and interactions with others (Lin et al., 2022), may also influence tourists’ PEB (Dong et al., 2023; Wang et al., 2018; Cooper et al., 2018). In addition, the analysis of variations in tourists’ PEB has centered around sociodemographic factors, including but not limited to gender, age, individual financial circumstances, and education (Gao et al., 2021; Botetzagias et al., 2015). Although many attempts have been made to understand such influence, it should be noted that individuals are influenced by their surroundings when they decide whether to adopt PEB (Ming et al., 2022; Leung & Rosenthal, 2019). Previous studies have indicated that an individual’s attitude alone is insufficient to prompt behavioral change, especially when considering whether to engage in PEB and that individuals are significantly influenced by situation or context (Zhang et al., 2021; Leung & Rosenthal, 2019; Zepeda & Deal, 2009). However, importantly, while these studies have suggested that situational factors influence tourists’ PEB, the specific effects of situational factors on tourists’ PEB remain unclear, especially for young tourists. This is because different groups have different preferences and behavioral characteristics (Ma & Liu, 2023). As Osgerby (1998) points out, since the 1960s, young people have preferred things that offer instant gratification but little lasting use. As a result, young people are seen as hedonists who are more concerned with their own happiness than with their own future (Miles, 2000). In the special context of tourism, it is particularly important to explore the impact of attractive “stimuli” on PEB from the perspective of the characteristics and consumption preferences of young tourists. This approach can help managers understand how to better stimulate young tourists to participate in sustainable development construction and make them believe that this is a happy and fulfilling action that meets their value requirements. In addition, some studies have suggested that situational factors include demographics and related knowledge (Li et al., 2019). This concept mainly emphasizes the influence caused by physical surroundings, the social environment, and available resources (Steg & Vlek, 2009) while ignoring tourists’ perception of the situation. According to Endsley’s (1995) three-level model of situational awareness, individuals use sense to perceive the status, attributes, and dynamics of related elements in the environment rather than simply responding to physical stimuli. Therefore, on the basis of the original research, this study proposes the concept of perceived situational factors, which mainly emphasize tourists’ perception of the stimulus generated by the situation. Only when certain important environmental factors are perceived by consumers can they affect tourists’ psychology and lead to changes in their emotions and behaviors (Rivera et al., 2019). Specifically, the following questions need to be addressed: How do perceived situational factors influence tourists’ PEB? What are the underlying mechanisms at play? What practical implications do the research findings on perceived situational factors have for promoting sustainable development at tourist destinations? Are there any other demographic differences, such as gender differences, related to the impact of perceived situational factors on the PEB of young tourists? To fill these research gaps, this paper developed a framework to explore how perceived situational factors affect young tourists’ PEB. We selected perceived coolness as a representative variable of perceived situational factors because the terms “cool” or “coolness” are often associated with youth or youth culture (Attiq et al., 2022; Keller & Kalmus, 2009) and are often used in marketing campaigns aimed at young consumers (Chen & Chou, 2019; Van den Bergh & Behrer, 2016). The perception of coolness, which includes an evaluative component, reflects an individual’s psychological evaluation of external stimuli (Sundar et al., 2014). The correlation between visitors’ perception of coolness and their activities has rarely been studied in the literature; thus, little is known about the mechanisms behind this interaction, particularly how it affects PEB. This study examines the relationship between perceived coolness (S) and young tourists’ PEB (R) and further explores the underlying mechanisms (O) of this effect by adopting the stimulus‒organism‒response (S–O-R) model as a theoretical framework and situated cognition theory as nested support. Two constructs, namely, psychological ownership and place identity, are used as the underlying mechanisms to explain the relationship between perceived coolness and PEB. Furthermore, as gender permeates all facets of tourism development and activities (Mansfeld, 1992), tourists’ level of activity participation can be influenced by gender socialization, regardless of motivation (Xie et al., 2008). It has been shown that female tourists’ PEB is more easily affected by affective factors than that of male tourists (Gao et al., 2021; Scannell & Gifford, 2013). Analyzing gender differences can provide a more comprehensive understanding of the mechanism of tourists’ PEB (Gao et al., 2021), especially for situational groups. There is still a lack of research on the gender differences caused by the stimulation of situational factors. This study aims to make the following contributions to the literature. First, while previous research has examined factors influencing PEB, there has been a limited exploration of perceived situational factors. This study seeks to investigate the influence of perceived situational factors on tourists’ PEB, aiming to provide a comprehensive understanding of the underlying mechanisms. Compared to existing research, this study introduces situated cognition theory and combines the group characteristics of the research subjects, selecting perceived coolness as an important research concept with which to provide a prototype model for the study of the logic behind the PEB of young tourists. Second, young tourists are used as the sample in this study. On the one hand, youth will become the main victims of the negative effects of environmental destruction. On the other hand, different groups have different consumption characteristics, cultural levels, and awareness of environmental protection. Therefore, it is crucial to understand how young tourists’ PEBs are formed to achieve the sustainable development of tourism and encourage young tourists’ active participation in environmental preservation. Third, considering that the lack of uniqueness caused by competition and cultural convergence is a key issue for tourism destination management (Anholt, 2002), this study examines the impact of perceived coolness on PEB among young tourists based on their characteristics. Additionally, acknowledging the introduction of perceived coolness as an early attempt at tourists’ PEB research, this study incorporates place identity and place psychological ownership and constructs a chain-mediated model to better understand the emotional responses generated by this factor. Finally, we compare the impact of perceived situational factors on the PEB of young tourists of different genders to test the effect of demographic variables. This approach can Y. Liu and S. Geng

Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 57 (2023) 349–363 351 help us not only understand how young tourists decide what to do but also make recommendations for tourism destination managers for how to attract young travelers with distinctive and cutting-edge products that can lower the environmental costs of tourism activities. 2. Literature review 2.1. Perceived situational factors influencing tourists’ PEB PEB is widely recognized as a crucial approach to protecting the environment and contributing to healthy sustainable development (Krajhanzl, 2010; Li et al., 2022). Existing studies have found that tourists are exposed to constantly changing environments, which means that they need to adapt psychologically to these new changes (Dwivedi et al., 2023; Cui et al., 2023; Carracedo et al., 2021); furthermore, tourists are constantly in a new cognitive state and being influenced by novel situational factors (Gao et al., 2021). In brief, the stimuli from a situation can promote individuals’ behavior in unusual environments (Barr et al., 2011). However, according to situated cognition theory (see Fig. 1), it should be noted that human thoughts and actions are heavily influenced by the context and cues present in their physical and social environment (Schwarz, 2006). This perspective views cognition as embodied, meaning that people’s perceptions and behaviors are influenced by the specific surroundings in which they are situated (Wen et al., 2022). Diverse social contexts provide different cues that have the potential to influence individuals’ cognitive processes and, consequently, their responses to environmental stimuli (Jenlink, 2013). More importantly, physical stimuli from the environment present possibilities of what people can act upon (Gibson, 1979). Accordingly, this study suggests that perceived situational factors mainly emphasize tourists’ perception of the stimulus generated by the situation. This is consistent with the assertion proposed by existing research that situational factors play an important role in promoting individual behavior (Wang et al., 2021); however, the perceptions of those factors are essential for motivating behavior (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020; Norton et al., 2014), especially as tourists’ perceptions can positively influence their friendly behavior toward the environment (Lee et al., 2023; Chiu et al., 2014). While previous research has explored the role of external situational stimuli in tourists’ PEB, such as examining the influence of sustainability-related climate on PEB among destination residents (Wang et al., 2021), there are still gaps in understanding the impact of perceived situational factors on PEB. This may be because researchers primarily focus on destination development and select factors from the destination’s perspective while overlooking the influence of consumers’ own characteristics and preferences. These factors determine whether tourists can accurately perceive the situational stimuli provided by the destination’s environment and subsequently alter their behavior. Therefore, this study takes the perspective of young tourists and selects the variable of perceived coolness to investigate the impact of perceived situational factors on tourists’ PEB. 2.2. Perceived coolness Coolness can be defined as a positive trait that is subjective, dynamic, and socially constructed (Warren & Campbell, 2014; Wooten & Mourey, 2013). Previous studies (Warren et al., 2019) have identified four key features of coolness based on this definition. These features include coolness being subjective and dynamic, having a positive connotation, and being distinct from autonomy (Dar-Nimrod et al., 2012). The concept of coolness is constructed by society, which means that it is not considered an inherent feature of individuals or objects but rather as a perception or attribution reflected by the consumer; i.e., a target object is cool only if others think it is cool (Belk et al., 2010; Leland, 2004). Previous studies have used perceived coolness to describe an individual’s perception and evaluation of cool elements (Sundar et al., 2014), which can significantly affect consumer purchasing or use behavior (Bagozzi & Khoshnevis, 2022; Tiwari et al., 2021; Wang & Sundar, 2018). For young consumers, coolness is closely linked to their position in mainstream societal culture and structure (Jian et al., 2020), which can make them feel good and establish emotional connections with products or services, resulting in extraordinary experiences (Warren et al., 2019); it can even become an essential driving force for personalized consumption. The feature of coolness can be used to distinguish useful, unique, funny, fresh, authentic, appealing, and fashionable things (Runyan et al., 2013). While coolness is commonly associated with products, designers have also endeavored to conceptualize it within the environmental context (Sundar et al., 2014). Thus, it can be argued that marketers must understand the essence of coolness to effectively promote PEB among consumers (Nancarrow et al., 2002). In particular, perceived coolness has been integrated into mainstream consumer ideology (Bird & Tapp, 2008; Noh et al., 2014) and is highly valued by Generation Y consumers (Nancarrow et al., 2002). Previous studies have shown that Generation Y consumers are willing to pay a premium for cool products or brands (Duggal & Verma, 2019). Moreover, men are more concerned with perception of coolness than women because such a perception can enhance one’s image of fortitude (Holt & Thompson, 2004), thereby enhancing their maturity and leading to appreciation from their peers (Cross, 2004). However, whether perceived coolness can encourage tourists to adopt positive behaviors in tourism contexts and whether there is a gender difference in this impact still need to be studied. 2.3. Place identity Place identity is considered an emotional symbol of place attachment, which refers to the emotional and symbolic connections that individuals form with a place (Anton & Lawrence, 2016; Wan et al., 2022). Place identity is a complex combination of ideas, beliefs, preferences, values, goals, cognitions, affect, and behavioral intentions toward a certain place (Belanche et al., 2017). Understanding and promoting place identity is crucial for enhancing sustainable tourism development, as it promotes a sense of connection and responsibility toward the Fig. 1. An explanatory framework Note: This figure is drawn based on the research of Jenlink (2013), Roth et al., (2013), and Gibson (1979). Y. Liu and S. Geng

Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 57 (2023) 349–363 352 environment and the local community (Karaçor & Akçam, 2023; Stokols & Shumaker, 1981). As people’s awareness of the negative impacts of tourism on the natural environment continues to grow, place identity can be seen as a prerequisite for PEB (Belanche et al., 2017; Daryanto & Song, 2021; Scannell & Gifford, 2013). Tourists, who are driven by emotional attachment to the places they visit, are willing to take action to reduce or mitigate the environmental damage caused in those places (Daryanto & Song, 2021; Ramkissoon & Mavondo, 2017). Place identity, as a cognitive mechanism, has been shown to enhance self-esteem and self-identity (Anton & Lawrence, 2016) and increase feelings of belonging to one’s organization or community (Relph, 1976). It can also be used to predict the influence of specific environmentally responsible behaviors, such as recycling trash, protecting wildlife, and staying on designated trails (Williams & Patterson, 1999). Notably, in research on the impact of emotions on tourists’ PEB, the significant impact of place attachment on the implementation of tourists’ PEB has been verified multiple times (e.g., Jiao et al., 2023; Fornara et al., 2021; Ramkissoon et al., 2013). However, research on the specific psychological mechanisms of place attachment on tourists’ PEB is relatively rare; thus, further exploration is needed. 2.4. Psychological ownership of the destination Psychological ownership was initially employed in the field of organizational studies (Pierce et al., 2001). Recently, this concept has gradually been applied in academic research fields such as education (Boysen et al., 2022; Yim et al., 2019), consumer behavior (Shu & Peck, 2011; Xu et al., 2022), marketing (Morewedge et al., 2021; Zhao et al., 2023), and tourism (Xu et al., 2023; Yao et al., 2023). Psychological ownership is a cognitive-affective structure that emphasizes the psychological state in which an individual feels that a target object belongs to them; the target objects of psychological ownership can range from something as small as a seat to something as large as a destination or even a country (Tseng & Hsieh, 2019; Yim, 2021; Zhang & Xu, 2019). In this paper, psychological ownership refers to the extent to which individuals believe that the destination they are in belongs either to them or to an internal group (Brylka et al., 2015). Previously conducted research has shown that consumers’ understanding and familiarity with a target product can stimulate their possessive mentality (Pierce et al., 2003), which in turn has a positive impact on their attitudes and behaviors (Huvaj et al., 2023; Boysen et al., 2022; Peck & Shu, 2018). Previous research on the relationship between psychological ownership and individual behavior has mainly focused on the fields of marketing, organizational science, and psychology (Dai et al., 2021; Kang & Baker, 2022; Peck et al., 2021). Psychological ownership has a positive impact on individuals’ willingness to recommend by word-of-mouth, identify, purchase, protect, and maintain a sense of responsibility (Liu et al., 2018). A tourism situation is different from the regular situations with which people are familiar with and in which they live their daily lives (Zhang, 2008; Zhang & Zhang, 2022). The causal relationship between tourists’ sense of possession of the destination and PEB is not yet clear. Some scholars have realized that place attachment may affect tourists’ environmental responsibility behavior through internal psychological factors. This may be because cultivating individuals’ psychological ownership of a place can significantly promote their adoption of behaviors that are beneficial for the destination, such as transforming into volunteers and protecting the area (Preston & Gelman, 2020). However, few studies have explored the impact mechanism between place attachment and tourists’ environmental responsibility behavior by using tourists’ psychological ownership as an intermediary variable (Huo et al., 2023). 2.5. Gender differences in PEB Gender differences in behavior have been observed (Xia & Li, 2023), and social cognitive theory examines the fundamental mechanisms through which gender influences behavior and the underlying reasons for these differences (Bussey & Bandura, 1999; Shoda & Mischel, 1998). The examination of PEB can elucidate the intricacies of PEB across different cultural situations and provide a detailed understanding of the underlying mechanism of tourists’ PEB (Gao et al., 2021), particularly regarding gender differences (Du & Zhang, 2020). Existing studies have suggested that in the tourism industry, women tend to be more influenced by affective factors regarding their PEB than men (Scannell & Gifford, 2013; Wester & Eklund, 2011), while the gender difference between moral and rational factors is not significant (Gao et al., 2021). According to the evidence presented, it is reasonable to infer that there is a gender difference in the impact of perceived situational factors on PEB among young tourists. 3. Hypothesis development 3.1. The relationship between perceived coolness, place identity, psychological ownership, and PEB The S–O-R model is utilized in this research, with the aim of highlighting the impact of situational factors on behavior. Stimuli have the ability to trigger an individual’s psychological cognitive processes (Mehrabian & Russell, 1974), ultimately guiding them to produce behavioral responses that correspond to the stimulus (Eroglu et al., 2003; Fan et al., 2023; Lee et al., 2021). The S–O-R model places greater emphasis on the influence of external environmental stimuli on an individual’s psychology (Song et al., 2022). External information has a specific stimulus and impact on individuals; individuals will respond and take the corresponding action after engaging in perception and psychological activity (Song et al., 2022). Previous studies have Fig. 2. Conceptual model. Y. Liu and S. Geng

Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 57 (2023) 349–363 353 acknowledged the pivotal role of situational factors in shaping individual behavior and emphasize the importance of individuals’ perceptions of such factors in motivating behavior (Lee et al., 2023; Norton et al., 2014). Furthermore, Barr (2011) suggested that situational factors in unfamiliar environments can significantly influence the decision-making behavior of young consumers. Coolness is closely related to youth (Attiq et al., 2022; Van den Bergh & Behrer, 2016; Runyan et al., 2013). As a positive perception of a physical setting or environment, perceived coolness can also significantly affect consumer purchasing or use behavior (Wang & Sundar, 2018). Moreover, perceived coolness may increase the likelihood that consumers will engage in prosocial behavior (Bird & Tapp, 2008). Perceived coolness may seem contradictory to consumers’ prosocial behavior. However, in reality, both perceived coolness and prosocial behavior can be seen as signals of maturity and social justice (Bird & Tapp, 2008). Based on the above findings, it is reasonable to postulate the following (see Fig. 2): H1. Perceived coolness has a significant positive impact on young tourists’ PEB. An organism reflects psychological processes, such as cognitive evaluation and emotional response, which are triggered by external information and stimulation (Mehrabian & Russell, 1974; Song et al., 2022). Young people are eager to shake off their childlike identity by consuming products with cool characteristics and rebuilding their self-concept of independence and autonomy (Warren & Campbell, 2014). Perceived coolness can enhance not only consumers’ sense of belonging but also consumers’ self-identity and social identity (Mohiuddin et al., 2016). This is because coolness can help young consumers feel unique compared to other generations who may not appreciate the value they derive from certain experiences (Ferguson, 2011). Place is an extension of self (Pretty et al., 2003). As a type of affective attitude, place identity emphasizes the connection between a specific place and an individual’s identity, which can be influenced by physical environments (Chang et al., 2023; Korpela, 1989) and other external factors (Groulx et al., 2016). Based on this, it is reasonable to propose the following: H2. Perceived coolness has a significant positive impact on place identity. The relationship between perceived coolness and psychological ownership has not yet been analyzed through quantitative research. Previous studies have shown that factors such as place attachment (Lee et al., 2019), self-image congruity (Li et al., 2020), the cocreation of value (Deng et al., 2021), and perceived justice (Liu et al., 2022) can affect tourists’ psychological ownership of a place (Yao et al., 2023). According to situated cognition theory, an individual’s behavior arises from the dynamic coupling between the subject and the environment (Roth & Jornet, 2013). Individuals use sense to perceive the status, attributes, and dynamics of related elements in their current environment before behavior takes place, at which point the perceived significance and importance of the elements are collated and evaluated (Endsley, 1995). Psychological ownership can serve as feedback for stimulation; it can also be meant as a way for an individual to convey their self-identity to others, as the object of ownership is often perceived as a reflection of the individual themselves (Huvaj et al., 2023; Pierce et al., 2001; Zvilichovsky et al., 2018). Belk (2013) also argued that in addition to physical objects, places, experiences, and services can stimulate customers to develop a sense of self-extension and self-identification (Pierce et al., 2001; Pierce & Jussila, 2011; Yao et al., 2023). According to previous research, young consumers want to gain self-identity from coolness (Chen & Chou, 2019; Gardiner et al., 2014). Combining the above evidence, we postulate the following: H3. Perceived coolness has a significant positive impact on psychological ownership. Many studies have shown that there is a significant relationship between place attachment and PEB in different contexts (Zhang et al., 2023; Zhou et al., 2023; Peng et al., 2023; Ramkissoon, 2013). Place identity, which is defined as an emotional attachment to a place, has been demonstrated to hold significant symbolic meaning in the connection between individuals and places (Hallak et al., 2012; Stedman, 2002). For example, it has been shown that a positive place identity predicts people’s support for nature reserves (Carrus et al., 2005). Meanwhile, when tourists identify with a destination, they tend to cultivate attitudes and behaviors that are conducive to the destination (Li et al., 2022). Prior studies have discovered a significant correlation between place identity and environmentally responsible behavior (Ramkissoon, 2013); that is, place identity can influence individuals’ environmentally responsible behavior, resulting in emotional attachment to local resources (Ramkissoon, 2013; Vaske & Kobrin, 2001). Considering these reasons, we similarly postulate the following: H4. Place identity has a significant positive impact on young tourists’ PEB. Psychological ownership was found to affect individuals’ behaviors when the concept was first put forward (Xu et al., 2023). Some scholars have pointed out that when consumers have a sense of possession of something, they often view that possession is a component of their self-identity (Gao et al., 2009; Belk, 1988). According to research from the field of possessive psychology, one’s sense of ownership over an object can generate positive emotions and a sense of responsibility (Beggan, 1992). Research has indicated that psychological ownership can effectively enhance an individual’s level of social responsibility and motivate them to engage in corresponding positive behaviors (Peck et al., 2021; Qiu et al., 2022); in particular, tourists may be inclined to take actions to protect the environment when psychological ownership incites a sense of guilt in individuals (Pierce et al., 2003). This perspective can offer a novel approach to studying the mechanisms underlying the formation of tourists’ PEB. Psychological ownership can reduce the psychological distance between a visitor and a destination, which facilitates good attitudes toward such places (Li et al., 2020; Lin et al., 2022; Yao et al., 2023). These attitudes will stimulate individuals’ subjective consciousness, helping them not only produce a sense of responsibility but also engage in a series of positive actions toward the object, such as the behavior of maintaining the organization (Van Dyne & Pierce, 2004). In the context of tourism, psychological ownership can lead to the formation of a psychological contract and strengthen the bond between tourists and the destination, resulting in a high level of intimacy (Li et al., 2020). As a result, tourists are motivated to engage in protective behaviors, similar to individuals assisting others with whom they have emotional connections (Taylor, 2019). According to the positive motivational, attitudinal, and behavioral outcomes associated with psychological ownership, we propose that tourists’ sense of ownership toward destinations acts as a push factor (Asatryan & Oh, 2008; Atasoy & Morewedge, 2018; Zhao et al., 2023), driving their willingness to adopt PEB. Thus, we propose the following hypothesis: H5. Psychological ownership has a significant positive impact on young tourists’ PEB. 3.2. The chain mediation effects of place identity and psychological ownership Attitude and emotion may play a mediating role between perceived situations and behaviors (Kong & Yuen, 2022). Merely possessing a positive attitude is insufficient to trigger behavior change, as situational factors can serve as either facilitators or barriers to actions (Kong & Yuen, 2022; Zepeda & Deal, 2009). Namely, internal psychological factors, such as emotions, values, or beliefs, may mediate the relationship between perceived situational factors and PEB (Steg & Vlek, 2009). Research has shown that there exists a deep connection between place identity and stimuli from the local setting (Fullilove, 1996; Scannell & Y. Liu and S. Geng

Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 57 (2023) 349–363 354 Gifford, 2010). Perceived coolness can be regarded as a positive assessment (Sundar et al., 2014), which reflects tourists’ perception of coolness that was generated from the physical setting. As a form of self-expression, such perception combines the characteristics of social construction and psychological construction (Mohiuddin et al., 2016; Warren & Campbell, 2014), which can help individuals build independent and unique self-concepts (Warren & Campbell, 2014). Place identity reflects an individual’s desire to maintain their uniqueness, as well as their ability to not only engage in activities in a specific place exactly but also believe in such engagement (Mackellar, 2009; Twigger-Ross & Uzzell, 1996). After being influenced by external factors, an individual’s sense of place identity can foster a positive attitude toward environmental behavior (Ramkissoon, 2013; Brehm et al., 2013). Based on that, it is reasonable to propose the following hypothesis: H6. Place identity mediates the influence of perceived coolness on young tourists’ PEB. Pierce (2003) suggested that if people’s motivations and needs are fulfilled through possessive ownership, they are likely to feel accountable for the object and exhibit protective actions toward it. Products with cool features can meet the unique needs of consumers, which will change their self-cognition of themselves (Simonson & Nowlis，2000). Individuals use the psychological ownership of a place to define both their true self and ideal self and maintain a sense of self-consistency (Avey et al., 2009; Pierce et al., 2003). When a young tourist perceives the coolness of a destination, this perception translates into a projection of self-identity. This self-identity projection strengthens their psychological ownership of the destination, thereby giving them a sense of possession and enhancing their willingness to protect the destination (Lee et al., 2013). This sense of ownership establishes a unique bond between the self and the owned object, leading to the experience of the object as an extension of the self (Belk, 1988; Tan & Yang, 2022). When individuals develop a sense of ownership over an object (Ye & Gawronski, 2016), it is believed that they are more likely to protect, nurture, care for, and take proactive responsibility for that object (Pierce & Jussila, 2011). Therefore, we make the following reasonable speculation: H7. Psychological ownership mediates the influence of perceived coolness on young tourists’ PEB. Individuals’ attachment to a place is related to psychological ownership (Wang et al., 2022; Lee et al., 2019; Shu & Peck, 2011). Place attachment can provide various psychological benefits, including the recovery of emotional and cognitive impairment, escape from daily stress, and a sense of belonging. Place identity, as a cognitive dimension of place attachment, is an important source of the relationship between tourists and a place (Berrozpe et al., 2019). Research has suggested that tourists’ sense of place identity can generate a feeling of psychological ownership toward the destination they visit (Lee et al., 2019; Kumar & Nayak, 2019) and that attending a festival may strengthen the psychological connection with the host destination of the festival (Xie & Li, 2023). Based on this, we propose the following: H8. Place identity has a significant positive impact on psychological ownership. Social cognition theories suggest that behavior can be comprehended by examining the internal psychological processes that mediate individuals’ responses to their circumstances (Hagger & Hamilton, 2022; Heider, 1958). Stimulation is often seen as tourists’ perception of destination attributes (Chen et al., 2022). As mentioned earlier, individuals engage in a series of psychological activities after receiving external stimuli that encourage them to respond and take corresponding actions (Song et al., 2022). Individuals’ behavior can be influenced by both their cognition and emotions. Different perceptions of events can evoke varying emotions, which in turn can prompt individuals to exhibit different behaviors (Allen, 2018). Tourists’ perception of the external environment is rooted in their own selves; thus, consistency with their own values can lead to an individual’s identification and sense of belonging to the destination, which in turn can lead to a sense of possession of a spiritual home (Xu et al., 2021). In particular, when individuals’ fundamental needs for belonging and self-identity can be fulfilled through their psychological ownership of a destination, it can stimulate their positive behaviors. Multiple studies have provided empirical evidence of the significant impact of psychological ownership on individuals’ PEB (Joo & Marakhimov, 2018; Xu et al., 2023). Individuals are willing to protect “their” destination from harm and actively implement environmentally responsible behaviors. The psychological ownership of a place essentially reflects the basic motivation of an individual to own a “place” of their own (Pierce et al., 2001). According to previous research, we propose the following: H9. Place identity and psychological ownership play a chain-mediated role in the impact of perceived coolness on tourists’ PEB. 4. Methodology 4.1. Design of measurements This research conducted an empirical study using a questionnaire survey. Some minor modifications were made to the wording of the questionnaire items to better align them with the present research context (Wang et al., 2021). The questionnaire included two sections; the first section measured the previously mentioned latent variables. Each item’s level of agreement was rated by respondents on a 5-point Likert scale, with 1 standing for “strongly disagree” and 5 standing for “strongly agree.” Information on demographic variables, such as gender, occupation, education, and monthly income, was collected in the second section. The measurement scale for perceived coolness was adapted from the research conducted by Chen and Chou (2019). On the one hand, this scale draws on Sundar’s (2014) research; the scale developed by Sundar et al. (2014) has also been validated in the Chinese cultural context. On the other hand, Chen and Chou’s (2019) research aimed to not only measure the influence of perceived coolness on Generation Y in the Chinese context, but also to test the perceived coolness of young people (Generation Y). Although perceived coolness can be multidimensional—Runyan (2013) indicated that coolness can be divided into hedonic and functional types—considering that the research context in this article was a festival event that emphasized experiential coolness and perceived coolness, some multidimensional scales were used to emphasize the concept of coolness from the perspective of product functionality and appearance, which is inconsistent with the actual research. Considering that the ultimate goal of this study is to explore the impact of perceived situational factors on the PEB of young tourists, this study accounted for the characteristics of the research context and objects and ultimately selected Chen and Chou’s (2019) scale to measure perceived coolness. The scale for place identity was assessed using five items adapted from the works of Liu et al. (2012) and Belanche et al. (2017). Three items of psychological ownership were adapted from the research of Kumar and Nayak (2019). The measurement scale for PEB was developed based on the studies conducted by Su and Swanson (2017) and ultimately comprised six items. Previous studies have categorized individuals aged 18 to 28 (Müller-P´erez et al., 2023) or 16 to 35 as youth. The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) defines individuals aged 16 to 45 as youth, while the Chinese National Bureau of Statistics categorizes individuals aged 15 to 34 as youth (Li & He, 2023). Taking these factors into consideration, this study categorizes individuals aged 15 to 35 as youth. Y. Liu and S. Geng

Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 57 (2023) 349–363 355 4.2. Data collection and analysis Festivals are an important social context for participants to share cultural uniqueness and celebrate identity (Mackellar, 2009). They serve as a concentrated reflection of the social value and structure of a group (Wang, Luo, & Lin, 2020). The Strawberry Music Festival was first launched in 2009 and has since become one of the most popular outdoor music festivals in China, attracting a diverse range of customers, including white-collar workers, students, and other youth groups. The festival encompasses various themes and aims to reflect the attitudes and perspectives of young people toward life through music. For instance, the 2019 Strawberry Music Festival’s theme was “Circular World,” which emphasized environmental protection and encouraged the consolidation of multiplatform forces to influence youth behavior and promote environmental protection as a part of their life. The study participants consisted of young tourists who had attended the Strawberry Music Festival. First, a pretest that employed the snowball sampling method was carried out. We prepared two screening questions to ask the subjects before the questionnaire survey officially started. “Please choose your age range” was the first topic to respond to. Subjects older than 35 years old were not included in the study. “Did you feel cool when you attended the Strawberry Music Festival?” was the second question. The subject was not included in the study if their response was negative. Between December 16 and December 21, 2022, 102 pretest questionnaires were collected; 82 of these were judged legitimate for analysis, yielding an effective response rate of 80.4%. The main study was informed by the responses. Using SPSS 26.0 software, Cronbach’s α coefficients were utilized to test the reliability and validity of the questionnaire. All of the questionnaire items were modified from earlier studies; therefore, when the model’s overall reliability and validity were assessed, the values turned out to be higher than 0.8, indicating that the model was suitable for further investigation. The formal data collection process began after the pretest was conducted. Second, in response to the spread of COVID-19, the data collection process for this study was conducted formally through online platforms. The distribution of the questionnaires took place between January 5 and February 23, 2023. To ensure that the data collected for this study were comprehensive and reliable, two channels were utilized. In the first round of data collection, a market research firm named Credamo was employed. A second round of surveys was subsequently distributed via Sina Weibo. A total of 676 questionnaires were delivered to the target group, and 564 valid questionnaires were obtained after deleting incomplete responses. A total of 278 men and 286 women provided valid responses, yielding an effective response rate of 83.88%. After the completion of data collection, we conducted data analysis using SPSS 26.0 and SmartPLS 4.0 (Kim et al., 2020). Notably, the partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) approach has advantages over traditional covariance-based SEM. First, it does not require the data to conform to the assumption of a normal distribution (Hair et al., 2011). Second, it is more effective in handling complex models and small sample sizes. Third, it is suitable for conducting exploratory analysis (Hair et al., 2019). Given that the aim of this paper is to explore the formation mechanism and factors influencing PEB among young tourists, PLS-SEM is an appropriate methodology for achieving the research objectives. 5. Results 5.1. Respondent profile The demographic characteristics of the 564 respondents are presented in Table 1. The sample was slightly skewed toward females, who accounted for 50.7% of the total respondents. The percentage of respondents aged 15–18 years was only 1.4%, while those aged 19–25 years constituted 31.6% of the sample. People aged 26–30 accounted for the largest proportion in this survey at 43.4%. A total of 69.9% of respondents had an undergraduate education, and 20.2% of respondents had a graduate education or above. Approximately 9% of the respondents had attended junior college. Regarding monthly income, more than 70% of those surveyed reported earning over ¥5000 per month. Table 1 provides a summary of the respondents’ basic information. 5.2. Common method bias analysis To test the potential issue of common method bias (CMB), a Harman one-factor test was conducted (Liang, Saraf, & Xue, 2007; Podsakoff & Organ, 2016). Prior research has suggested that CMB may impact a study’s results if a single factor accounts for more than 50% of the cumulative variance (Ashfaq et al., 2020; Harman, 1976). Our analysis indicated that CMB was unlikely to be present in the data, as none of the measurement items loaded exclusively on a single factor (Chang et al., 2020). 5.3. Measurement model analysis This study utilized indicators such as Cronbach’s alpha, composite reliability (CR), and average variance extracted (AVE) to assess the reliability of each item and that of the variables. To assess the reliability of the individual-level indicators, a commonly accepted threshold is that their loadings should be greater than 0.7 (Rasoolimanesh et al., 2017). Referring to the results provided in Table 2, it can be found that most of the indicators had loadings above 0.70, with only two indicators falling in the range of 0.60–0.70. These findings suggest that the measurement scales are reliable. As Table 2 depicts, the majority of the Cronbach’s alpha values exceeded the commonly accepted threshold of 0.8, indicating the good reliability of the scales. The psychological ownership (for females) construct had a value of 0.797, which is slightly below 0.8 but still considered acceptable. Table 2 displays the Cronbach’s alpha values for male tourists, which ranged from 0.849 to 0.883. Additionally, the composite reliability (CR) was found to be above 0.897. The Cronbach’s alpha values for female tourists ranged from 0.797 to 0.878, and the CR was above 0.881. These CR results conform to the standard Table 1 Demographic characteristics of the respondents. Category N % Gender Male 278 49.3 Female 286 50.7 Age 15–18 8 1.4 19–25 178 31.6 26–30 245 43.4 31–35 133 23.6 Monthly income 3000 and under 99 17.6 3001–5000 62 11 5001–7000 114 20.2 7001–10,000 140 24.8 Above 10,000 149 26.4 Education Senior High School 5 0.9 Junior college 51 9 Undergraduate 394 69.9 Graduate and above 114 20.2 Occupation Students 121 21.5 Employees of state-owned enterprises 105 18.6 Staff of public institutions 43 7.6 Civil Servants 13 2.3 Employees of private enterprises 240 42.6 Employees of foreign-funded enterprises 35 6.2 Others 7 1.2 Times to participate in Strawberry Music Festival Once 190 33.7 Twice 194 34.4 Three times 114 20.2 Above three times 66 11.7 Y. Liu and S. Geng

Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 57 (2023) 349–363 356 proposed by Nunnally and Bernstein (1994), which stipulates that a composite reliability value ranging from 0.70 to 0.90 can be deemed acceptable, indicating a high level of data reliability. Convergent validity was assessed using the average variance extracted (AVE) method, which demonstrated that the AVE values for all constructs ranged from 0.556 to 0.768. These values were all higher than the critical threshold of 0.50. Discriminant validity was assessed by the Fornell-Larcker criterion. In Table 3, the findings indicate that all variables utilized met the criterion, demonstrating that the measurement scales possessed good discriminant validity. The aforementioned analyses affirmed the reliability and validity of all constructs. The subsequent stage involved testing the hypotheses by evaluating the structural model and the mediating effects. 5.4. Structural model analysis According to Table 4 and Fig. 3, it was found in the data analysis results of young male tourists that perceived coolness had significant positive influences on PEB (β = 0.197, p < 0.01), place identity (β = 0.564, p < 0.001), and psychological ownership (β = 0.238, p < 0.001); thus, Hypothesis 1, Hypothesis 2 and Hypothesis 3 were supported. These results indicate that perceived coolness is an important influencing factor on the PEB of young male tourists. Place identity had a positive effect on psychological ownership (β = 0.420, p < 0.001), but the effect on PEB was not significant (β = 0.099, p > 0.05); thus, Hypothesis 8 was supported, while Hypothesis 4 was not. This demonstrates that for young male tourists, place identity does not have a significant positive influence on their PEB. According to the data analysis results of young female tourists, perceived coolness did not have a significant direct impact on PEB among this group (β = 0.062, p > 0.05); hence, Hypothesis 1 was not supported for young female tourists. However, perceived coolness had positive influences on young female tourists’ place identity (β = 0.496, p < 0.001) and psychological ownership (β = 0.235, p < 0.001); thus, Hypothesis 2 and Hypothesis 3 were supported. Referring to the results Table 2 Evaluation of the measurement model. Construct/Item Loading (Male/ Female) Cronbach’s alpha (Male/ Female) CR (Male/ Female) AVE (Male/ Female) Perceived coolness 0.866/0.874 0.897/0.902 0.556/0.570 When I first heard of the Strawberry Music Festival, I was thinking that it would be cool to participate. 0.717/0.763 Going to the Strawberry Music Festival will make me look cool. 0.724/0.718 When I think of places that are cool, places that have held Strawberry Music Festival come to mind. 0.696/0.745 The Strawberry Music Festival is cool. 0.715/0.766 When I go to an event like the Strawberry Music Festival, my response often is something like, “That’s Cool!”. 0.735/0.695 The Strawberry Music Festival has some cool features. 0.801/0.788 If I made a list of cool places, the places that held the Strawberry Music Festival would be on it. 0.823/0.803 Place identity 0.870/0.855 0.906/0.896 0.658/0.633 Going to the Strawberry Music Festival makes me feel like I’m part of the tourism destination. 0.831/0.779 Going to the Strawberry Music Festival makes me feel like I’m integrated into the locality. 0.819/0.827 Going to the Strawberry Music Festival gave me a sense of identity with the destination. 0.820/0.815 The Strawberry Music Festival is an important part of the festival in the tourism destination 0.825/0.790 I would like to recommend others to participate in music festival activities in this place. 0.758/0.765 Psychological ownership 0.849/0.797 0.909/0.881 0.768/0.712 I sense that this destination is mine. 0.881/0.819 I feel personally connected to this destination. 0.896/0.868 I feel personal ownership for this destination. 0.852/0.843 Pro-environmental behavior 0.883/0.878 0.911/0.907 0.632/0.618 I comply with the rules so as to not harm the destination’s environment. 0.785/0.780 I report to the appropriate destination administration any environmental pollution or destruction at the destination. 0.817/0.829 When I see garbage and debris at the destination, I put it in the trash. 0.808/0.765 If there are environment improvement activities at the destination, I am willing to attend. 0.804/0.786 I try not to disrupt the fauna and/or flora when visiting the destination. 0.742/0.763 I try to convince others to protect the natural environment at the destination. 0.810/0.793 Table 3 Discriminant validity assessment. Construct (Male/ Female) PC PEB PI PO PC 0.746/ 0.755 PEB 0.440/ 0.324 0.795/ 0.786 PI 0.564/ 0.496 0.428/ 0.470 0.811/ 0.796 PO 0.474/ 0.448 0.542/ 0.443 0.554/ 0.548 0.876/ 0.844 Note: PC=Perceived coolness; PEB=Pro-environmental behavior; PI=Place identity; PO=Psychological ownership. Table 4 Assessment of structural model. Relationship Path coefficient (Male/ Female) Hypothesis testing (Male/ Female) H1: PC → PEB 0.197**/0.062 Yes/No H2: PC → PI 0.564***/0.496*** Yes/Yes H3: PC → PO 0.238***/0.235*** Yes/Yes H4: PI → PEB 0.099/0.303*** No/Yes H5: PO → PEB 0.394***/0.249*** Yes/Yes H8: PI → PO 0.420***/0.431*** Yes/Yes Y. Liu and S. Geng

Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 57 (2023) 349–363 357 presented in Table 4, place identity had positive effects on PEB (β = 0.303, p < 0.001) and psychological ownership (β = 0.431, p < 0.001); thus, Hypotheses 4 and 8 were supported. Furthermore, the positive impact between psychological ownership and PEB (β = 0.249, P < 0.001) was found to be statistically significant, thereby supporting Hypothesis 5. 5.5. Multiple-chain mediation effect analysis Following the mediation analysis method proposed by Zhao et al. (2010) and Hayes (2009), the bootstrapped estimate was conducted using SPSS 26.0 and the PROCESS 4.1 macro program. To validate the hypothesized chain mediation effect proposed in this study, 95% bias-corrected bootstrap confidence intervals were calculated based on 5000 bootstrap samples. The outcomes are presented in the following tables. As Table 5 shows, in the multiple chain mediation effect analysis of young male tourists, the bootstrap 95% CI confirmed the significant indirect effects of psychological ownership on the relationship between perceived coolness and PEB, thereby supporting Hypothesis 7 and Hypothesis 9. However, the bootstrap 95% CI confirmed that there was no significant indirect impact of place identity on the relationship between perceived coolness and PEB (95% CI [− 0.0224, 0.1439]); hence, Hypothesis 6 was not supported. As shown in Table 6, all three mediation paths were found to be significant. However, the results revealed that the direct effect of perceived coolness on young female tourists’ PEB was not significant (95% CI [− 0.0625, 0.1866]). After introducing the mediating variable, perceived coolness was found to have a significant impact on PEB, which indicates that place identity and psychological ownership fully mediate the relationship between perceived coolness and PEB. 6. Conclusions, implications, and limitations 6.1. Discussion This research developed a structural equation model that examines the relationship between perceived coolness, place identity, psychological ownership, and PEB among young tourists in the festival tourism context. There are several key findings. First, this study used perceived coolness as an example with which to confirm that perceived situational factors can affect young tourists’ PEB. Young tourists typically have unique values and consumption behaviors, while festival tourism, as a special form of tourism, has unique situational characteristics and social influence. Therefore, this study conducted a survey on young tourists in a festival tourism situation to deeply explore the impact of perceived coolness on their PEB. Despite gender differences being an important influencing factor, the findings have provided evidence that perceived coolness, as a new standard used by young consumers to evaluate products and brands (Bird & Tapp, 2008), can not only promote tourists’ purchasing behavior but also have a significant impact on promoting their positive PEB, specifically in the context of festival tourism. This outcome also emphasizes the importance of considering situational stimuli when studying tourists’ behaviors, which is consistent with previous findings (Aziz & Niazi, 2023; Norton et al., 2014). Second, this study found that perceived coolness has a significant positive direct effect on place identity and psychological ownership for both males and females. Namely, perceived coolness can facilitate young tourists’ place identity and psychological ownership. In essence, situational factors have the ability to either promote or hinder individual behavior by making cognitive processes and attitudes toward the behavior more prominent (Leung & Rosenthal, 2019). This confirms that when the perception of situational stimuli among young tourists is consistent with their desired self-identity (Belanche et al., 2017), Fig. 3. The path coefficient of the structural equation model Note: The analysis results outside the brackets are for the male group, while the results inside the brackets are for the female group. Table 5 Multiple chain mediation effect analysis of male. Effect Mediation path Effect value Standard error 95% Confidence interval Boost LLCI Boost ULCI Indirect effect PC→PI→PEB 0.0602 0.0422 − 0.0224 0.1439 PC→PO→PEB 0.1041 0.0341 0.0455 0.1781 PC→PI→PO→PEB 0.1056 0.0202 0.0681 0.1479 Direct effect PC→PEB 0.2119 0.0678 0.0783 0.3454 Total effect PC→PEB 0.4818 0.606 0.3624 0.6011 Table 6 Multiple chain mediation effect analysis of female. Effect Mediation path Effect value Standard error 95% Confidence interval Boost LLCI Boost ULCI Specific indirect effect PC→PI→PEB 0.1518 0.0404 0.0746 0.2313 PC→PO→PEB 0.0593 0.0202 0.0246 0.1031 PC→PI→PO→PEB 0.0565 0.0174 0.0259 0.0943 Direct effect PC→PEB 0.0621 0.0633 − 0.0625 0.1866 Total effect PC→PEB 0.3296 0.0589 0.2137 0.4454 Y. Liu and S. Geng

Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 57 (2023) 349–363 358 individuals will develop a sense of identification and ownership toward a destination. Conversely, this study demonstrated that from the perspective of gender differences, place identity has a significant positive impact on the PEB of female tourists but not on that of male tourists, which is not consistent with the existing findings. A reasonable explanation may be that social cognition seems to vary with different gender roles, meaning that due to the allocation of social roles, men and women experience differences in their upbringing (Chusmir & Parker, 1991). As a result, different gender groups are influenced by their own values, which leads to differences in the perception and identification of external factors. The self-perception theory and the cognitive consistency theory proposed by Bem (1972) and Festinger (1957), respectively, suggest that a specific aspect of identity becomes more prominent when an individual engages in behaviors that are consistent with that identity. This means that when a person behaves in a way that is in line with a particular identity, that identity becomes more salient and is more likely to influence their future behavior. In addition, females generally have better emotional recognition (Prentice et al., 2022; Proverbio, 2017), and their behavior can be affected by cognitive factors and emotional factors, while male tourists are more likely to change their behavior as a direct effect of situational factors. Finally, the study’s findings revealed that there is a significant gender difference in the influence of perceived situational factors on the PEB of young tourists. Perceived coolness is a necessary but insufficient factor in driving PEB among young tourists, particularly females. The influence of perceived coolness on PEB among females is fully mediated by place identity and psychological ownership, while among males, it is partly mediated by psychological ownership. These findings provide a new perspective on the impact of perceived coolness on PEB and highlight the importance of considering the mediating role of place identity and psychological ownership, particularly for young female tourists. Previous findings have concluded that females are more concerned about environmental protection and are more involved in PEB than males. However, some studies have found that males are actually more involved in environmental action than females, revealing a mismatch between females’ level of environmental concern and their level of action (Mohai, 1992). In this study, perceived coolness was found to affect women’s PEB through the chain mediating effect of place identity and psychological ownership, thus forming a chain mediation path of “PC→PI→PO→PEB.” In contrast, for male tourists, although the chain mediation effect is equally significant, the direct effect of perceived coolness on PEB is also more obvious. These conflicting results can primarily be attributed to the fact that each gender holds distinct sets of values for their professional and personal lives (Chusmir & Parker, 1991; Kol & Levy, 2023). In addition, as emphasized by situated cognition theory, the processing of external information may be influenced by factors such as information-processing ability and personal experience; thus, individuals’ final behavioral presentation may vary (Roth & Jornet, 2013). Additionally, perceived situational factors may influence individuals’ attitudes toward PEB differently when faced with strong interests. 6.2. Theoretical implications The theoretical contribution of the current study mainly includes three aspects. First, from an academic perspective, this study explores the impact of perceived situational factors on tourists’ PEB, enriching and developing a prototype theory of PEB with the aid of situated cognition theory and the S–O-R model. Perceived situational elements have mainly been ignored in prior studies of tourists’ PEB. Most studies on PEB among tourists have mainly focused on the impact of psychological factors, while there has been less exploration of perceived situational factors. On the one hand, this research has created a new concept definition of a perceived situational factor. On the other hand, using perceived coolness as the cause of a particular circumstance offers new insight into the process by which young tourists’ PEB is formed, according to the features of the group. This approach offers a fresh viewpoint for the following research, i.e., that of perceived situational factors. Second, to investigate the chain mediating effect of the entire framework, this study selected place identity and place psychological ownership as mediating factors. The purpose of this study was to investigate the mechanism by which situational factors affect the development of young tourists’ PEB, which is a topic that is lacking in previous studies. That is, most of the literature regards only the related concepts as key variables in the model while neglecting to discuss the inner mechanism and the after-effect of mind-object interaction from the perspective of tourists. This study aims to provide a more comprehensive examination of the psychological mechanism of perceived situational factors on tourists’ PEB and provide a prototype model. In regard to environmental protection, existing studies often associate such protection with negative outcomes such as sacrifice, pain, and discomfort (Pritchard, 2010; Venhoeven et al., 2013), especially in tourism contexts where PEB is seen as collective and altruistic behavior (Li & Wu, 2020). In fact, protecting the environment is related to the well-being of individuals and society (Sagiv et al., 2015; van Riper et al., 2019); PEB can also stem from human motivation to pursue happiness and identification (Becerra et al., 2023). Correspondingly, in this study, PEB can be seen as a behavioral outcome influenced by tourists’ preferences and personal experiences, which is closely related to tourists’ values and consumption preferences. In other words, tourists may choose to adopt PEB under the influence of perceived coolness; conversely, they may also believe that adopting environmentally responsible behavior at their destination is also a cool thing to do. That is, young tourists may wish to engage in PEB to showcase their values and demonstrate their concern for environmental issues, thereby enhancing their “cool” image. Therefore, unlike existing studies that choose to explore the impact of more objective factors (such as transportation convenience (Fujii & Kitamura, 2003; Hergesell & Dickinger, 2013) and pricing regimes (Dubuisson-Quellier & Lamine, 2008) on tourists’ PEB, this study focuses on the differences among groups and explores the PEB of young tourists with the help of concepts such as perceived coolness. This model framework is more consistent with the behavioral logic of young tourism groups. Finally, this study chose young tourists as the research object. On the one hand, previous studies of tourists’ PEB have not given an adequate level of attention to young tourists. On the other hand, despite the marked polarization of populations across countries and the increased aging of the population, young people dominate the current consumer group; thus, as previously mentioned, young people will be the main victims of the adverse impacts of environmental destruction. In addition, young tourists have unique values and consumption patterns (Autio & Heinonen, 2004), which means that their behavior and influencing mechanisms may differ from those of other groups. Therefore, studying their PEB formation process is crucial to achieving the sustainable growth of the tourism industry and encouraging young travelers to take an active role in environmental conservation. The impact of perceived situational factors on the PEB of visitors of different genders was also examined in this study to determine whether there were any significant differences. This approach was taken because when the population fluctuates, disparities in the gender ratio become more obvious; thus, focusing on gender differences will help us comprehend the characteristics of tourists’ behavior in a more nuanced way. 6.3. Managerial implications The empirical findings of this study may help managers better understand how perceived coolness triggers place identity and psychological ownership among young tourists of different genders, subsequently motivating those tourists to engage in PEB; they also highlight the importance of considering perceived contextual factors in developing effective interventions and policies aimed at promoting sustainable tourism practices. The findings’ managerial implications for Y. Liu and S. Geng

Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 57 (2023) 349–363 359 destinations are as follows. First, to promote environmentally friendly behavior among young tourists, managers should not only consider the influence of physical stimuli but also pay more attention to the degree of perceived physical stimuli. From the perspective of situational perception, too much physical stimulation may cause discomfort to tourists, while too little physical stimulation may make them feel bored. This is because the worlds of daily life and tourism are two realms that influence but differ from one another. Therefore, emphasizing the distinctive attributes of items can be utilized to attract tourists and better encourage them to engage in environmentally responsible behavior that promotes the sustainable growth of the destination. To increase tourists’ understanding of environmental and cultural protection issues and to foster their environmental consciousness, one strategy is to emphasize the destination’s natural environment and cultural heritage. Additionally, building tourists’ sense of identity and connection to the area is crucial in motivating them to practice ecologically responsible behavior. Providing more individualized and considerate services and fostering a welcoming tourism environment can boost tourists’ positive emotions and sense of place, encouraging their environmental awareness and behavior. Second, in the era of the experience economy, the design and promotion of eco-friendly tourism products should focus on the consumption characteristics and group characteristics of young tourists to meet their unique consumer psychological needs. The youth tourism market is predicted to be one of the first markets to rebound following the pandemic and is expected to lead market recovery efforts (Gardiner et al., 2023; D’Arco et al., 2023; Yamane & Kaneko, 2021). Thus, the development of cool aspects should receive special consideration in product design and advertising. This approach will ensure that customers can maintain and exhibit their independence, autonomy, and individuality, which will boost their self-assurance and influence. Cool features can be used in a variety of factors, such as function, theme, and cultural connotation, while keeping the traditional eco-friendly theme to effectively attract and foster the loyalty of young tourists to eco-friendly products and destinations. For example, eco-friendly tourism equipment, clothing, and accessories can be designed with cool functions and features, or cool elements can be incorporated into eco-friendly tourism activities and itineraries to attract the attention and interest of young tourists. At the same time, youth tend to be more environmentally conscious and socially responsible; they also tend to value customization and diversity and be more inclined to share their travel experiences and feelings via social media. Thus, to provide individualized and varied eco-friendly products and services, as well as to establish stable interaction and communication with them through social media and other channels, it is important to account for these characteristics in product design and promotion. This approach will increase their awareness of and loyalty to products and destinations. Third, due to the gender differences found regarding the influence of perceived situational factors on the PEB of young tourists, destination managers need to pay special attention to providing appropriate entertainment facilities, tourism products, and related services for young tourists of different genders to improve their tourism behavior and to strengthen gender-specific tourism services. Taking festival activities as an example, gender differences can be fully considered from the following aspects. On the one hand, different activities and rest areas can be considered to provide convenience for tourists while improving their level of satisfaction with more attractive environmental arrangements, thereby creating a more attractive and inclusive festival activity experience. For example, setting up a retro-futuristic style activity area for women and a cyberpunk-style area for men would help to promote a futuristic and thrilling feeling through the use of bright colors and technological decorations. On the other hand, in the design of supporting products, consideration should be given to using green and environmentally friendly materials or incorporating environmental protection promotion content into product design. While maintaining a sense of design and coolness, tourists should be reminded to pay attention to environmental protection. Finally, in the marketing of festival tourism products, special emphasis should be placed on the contribution that tourists can make to environmental protection or other public welfare activities by participating in this festival event, thereby enhancing their sense of participation and responsibility in tourism destinations. 6.4. Limitations and future research There are several limitations that should be acknowledged. First, this study primarily employed questionnaire surveys for empirical testing. However, situational factors that tourists can perceive, such as the perceived safety and perceived ambivalence of a destination, cannot be accurately measured through questionnaire surveys. Second, this study could be extended to other groups and different tourism contexts, such as elderly tourists or tourists with pets. In addition, future research should consider using in-depth interviews to further examine young tourists’ PEB from multiple perspectives. This approach would allow for a more comprehensive understanding of the factors that impact PEB. Furthermore, future research could explore the mechanisms underlying tourists’ PEB from the perspective of perceived authenticity or other experiential concepts. This approach would provide a deeper understanding of how tourists’ sense of authenticity influences their PEB and could inform the development of more effective interventions and policies aimed at promoting sustainable tourism practices. Third, as the variable of perceived coolness was selected based on the group characteristics and personal preferences of the research object (young tourists), this study reasonably inferred that compared to the impact of external factors such as policies, pricing systems, and public transportation quality (Ertz et al., 2016), young tourists are more sensitive to the perception of external factors that align with their personal values and consumption preferences; it also inferred that the impact of these factors is more significant than that of other factors. In future research, comparing the effects of different types of external stimuli should be considered. Declaration of competing interest There are no conflicts of interest in this paper. Acknowledgment This work was supported by the High-level Talent Project of the Hainan Natural Science Foundation (722RC634) and the Planning Project for Philosophy and Social Sciences in Hainan Province (HNSK (YB)23-12). References Allen, B. (2018). Implementing trauma-focused cognitive-behavioral therapy (TF-CBT) with preteen children displaying problematic sexual behavior. Cognitive and Behavioral Practice, 25(2), 240–249. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cbpra.2017.07.001 Anholt, S. (2002). Nation branding: A continuing theme. Journal of Brand Management, 10(1), 59–60. https://doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.bm.2540101 Anton, C. E., & Lawrence, C. (2016). The relationship between place attachment, the theory of planned behaviour and residents’ response to place change. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 47, 145–154. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. jenvp.2016.05.010 Asatryan, V. S., & Oh, H. (2008). Psychological ownership theory: An exploratory application in the restaurant industry. Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research, 32 (3), 363–386. https://doi.org/10.1177/1096348008317391 Ashfaq, M., Jiang, Y., & Yu, S. (2020). My smart speaker is cool! Perceived coolness, perceived values, and users’ attitude toward smart speakers. International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction, 22, 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 10447318.2020.1841404 Atasoy, O., & Morewedge, C. K. (2018). Digital goods are valued less than physical goods. Journal of Consumer Research, 44(6), 1343–1357. https://doi.org/10.1093/jcr/ ucx102 Attiq, S., Abdul Hamid, A. B., Khokhar, M. N., Shah, H. J., & Shahzad, A. (2022). “Wow! It’s cool”: How brand coolness affects the customer psychological well-being through Y. Liu and S. Geng

Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 57 (2023) 349–363 360 brand love and brand engagement. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, Article 923870. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.923870 Autio, M., & Heinonen, V. (2004). To consume or not to consume? Young people’s environmentalism in the affluent Finnish society. Young, 12(2), 137–153. https:// doi.org/10.1177/1103308804042104 Avey, J. B., Avolio, B. J., Crossley, C. D., & Luthans, F. (2009). Psychological ownership: Theoretical extensions, measurement and relation to work outcomes. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 30(2), 173–191. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.583 Aziz, S., & Niazi, M. A. K. (2023). Protecting coastal tourism through developing tourists’ environment responsible behaviour. Journal of Outdoor Recreation and Tourism, 44, Article 100698. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jort.2023.100698 Bagozzi, R. P., & Khoshnevis, M. (2022). How and when brand coolness transforms product quality judgments into positive word of mouth and intentions to buy/use. Journal of Marketing Theory and Practice, 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 10696679.2022.2081925 Barr, S., Shaw, G., & Coles, T. (2011). Sustainable lifestyles: Sites, practices, and policy. Environment and Planning, 43(12), 3011–3029. https://doi.org/10.1068/a43529 Becerra, E. P., Carrete, L., & Arroyo, P. (2023). A study of the antecedents and effects of green self-identity on green behavioral intentions of young adults. Journal of Business Research, 155, Article 113380. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2022.113380 Beggan, J. K. (1992). On the social nature of nonsocial perception: The mere ownership effect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 62(2), 229–237. https://doi.org/ 10.1037/0022-3514.62.2.229 Belanche, D., Casalo, L. V., & Flavian, C. (2017). Understanding the cognitive, affective and evaluative components of social urban identity: Determinants, measurement, and practical consequences. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 50(6), 138–153. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2017.02.004 Belk, R. W. (1988). Possessions and the extended self. Journal of Consumer Research, 15 (2), 139–168. https://doi.org/10.1086/209154 Belk, R. W. (2013). Extended self in a digital world. Journal of Consumer Research, 40(3), 477–500. https://doi.org/10.1086/671052 Belk, R. W., Tian, K., & Paavola, H. (2010). Consuming cool: Behind the unemotional mask. Research in Consumer Behavior, 12, 183–208. https://doi.org/10.1108/S0885- 2111(2010)0000012010 Bem, D. J. (1972). Self-perception theory. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (pp. 1–62). Elsevier. Bergquist, M., Nilsson, A., & Schultz, P. W. (2019). A meta-analysis of field experiment using social norms to promote pro-environmental behaviors. Global Environmental Change, 59, Article 101941. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2019.101941 Berrozpe, A., Campo, S., & Yagüe, M. J. (2019). Am I Ibiza? Measuring brand identification in the tourism context. Journal of Destination Marketing & Management, 11, 240–250. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdmm.2018.04.005 Bird, S., & Tapp, A. (2008). Social marketing and the meaning of cool. Social Marketing Quarterly, 14(1), 18–29. https://doi.org/10.1080/15245000801898399 Botetzagias, I., Dima, A. F., & Malesios, C. (2015). Extending the theory of planned behavior in the context of recycling: The role of moral norms and of demographic predictors. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 95, 58–67. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.resconrec.2014.12.004 Boysen, M. S., Knage, M., Egelund, K. S., Lund, O., & Skovbjerg, H. M. (2022). Treehouses and superheroes: A design-based study of psychological ownership in collaborative creativity through exchanges of presents. Thinking Skills and Creativity, 46, Article 101198. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2022.101198 Brehm, J. M., Eisenhauer, B. W., & Stedman, R. C. (2013). Environmental concern: Examining the role of place meaning and place attachment. Society & Natural Resources: International Journal, 26(5), 522–538. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 08941920.2012.715726 Brylka, A., Mah¨ onen, ¨ T. A., & Jasinskaja-Lahti, I. (2015). National identification and intergroup attitudes among members of the national majority and immigrants: Preliminary evidence for the mediational role of psychological ownership of a country. Journal of Social and Political Psychology, 3(1), 24–45. https://doi.org/ 10.5964/jspp.v3i1.275 Bussey, K., & Bandura, A. (1999). Social cognitive theory of gender development and differentiation. Psychological Review, 106(4), 676–713. https://doi.org/10.1037/ 0033-295x.106.4.676 Carracedo, P., Puertas, R., & Marti, L. (2021). Research lines on the impact of the COVID19 pandemic on business. A text mining analysis. Journal of Business Research, 132, 586–593. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2020.11.043 Carrus, G., Bonaiuto, M., & Bonnes, M. (2005). Environmental concern, regional identity, and support for protected areas in Italy. Environment and Behavior, 37(2), 237–257. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013916504269644 Chang, J., Lin, Z., Vojnovic, I., Qi, J., Wu, R., & Xie, D. (2023). Social environments still matter: The role of physical and social environments in place attachment in a transitional city, Guangzhou, China. Landscape and Urban Planning, 232, Article 104680. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2022.104680 Chang, S. J., Van Witteloostuijn, A., & Eden, L. (2020). Common method variance in international business research. Research Methods in International Business, 385–398. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-22113-3_20 Chen, C. F., & Chou, S. H. (2019). Antecedents and consequences of perceived coolness for Generation Y in the context of creative tourism - a case study of the Pier 2 art center in Taiwan. Tourism Management, 72(6), 121–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. tourman.2018.11.016 Chen, G., So, K. K., Hu, X., & Poomchaisuwan, M. (2022). Travel for affection: A stimulus-organism-response model of honeymoon tourism experiences. Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research, 46(6), 1187–1219. https://doi.org/10.1177/ 10963480211011720 Chiu, Y. T., Lee, W. I., & Chen, T. H. (2014). Environmentally responsible behavior in ecotourism: Antecedents and implications. Tourism Management, 40, 321–329. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2013.06.013 Chusmir, L. H., & Parker, B. (1991). Gender and situational differences in managers’ values: A look at work and home lives. Journal of Business Research, 23(4), 325–335. https://doi.org/10.1016/0148-2963(91)90018-S Cooper, C. D., Kong, D. T., & Crossley, C. D. (2018). Leader humor as an interpersonal resource: Integrating three theoretical perspectives. Academy of Management Journal, 61(2), 769–796. https://doi.org/10.5465/amj.2014.0358 Cross, G. (2004). The cute and the cool: Wondrous innocence and modern American children’s culture. Oxford University Press. Cui, H., Yao, F., Jin, X., Zhao, T., Xu, W., & Smyczek, S. (2023). Effect of regulatory focus on food variety-Seeking behavior of Chinese tourists. Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research, 47(1), 153–176. https://doi.org/10.1177/1096348020988893 Dai, Y. D., Altinay, L., Zhuang, W. L., & Chen, K. T. (2021). Work engagement and job burnout? Roles of regulatory foci, supervisors’ organizational embodiment and psychological ownership. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management, 46, 114–122. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhtm.2020.12.001 Dar-Nimrod, I., Hansen, I. G., Proulx, T., Lehman, D. R., Chapman, B. P., & Duberstein, P. R. (2012). Coolness: An empirical investigation. Journal of Individual Differences, 33(3), 175–185. https://doi.org/10.1027/1614-0001/a000088 D’Arco, M., Marino, V., & Resciniti, R. (2023). Exploring the pro-environmental behavioral intention of Generation Z in the tourism context: The role of injunctive social norms and personal norms. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 1–22. https://doi. org/10.1080/09669582.2023.2171049 Daryanto, A., & Song, Z. (2021). A meta-analysis of the relationship between place attachment and pro-environmental behaviour. Journal of Business Research, 123, 208–219. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2020.09.045 Deng, W., Lu, C., Lin, Y., & Chen, W. (2021). A study on the effect of tourists’ value cocreation on the perceived value of souvenirs: Mediating role of psychological ownership and authenticity. Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research, 26(2), 200–214. https://doi.org/10.1080/10941665.2020.1763411 Dong, X., Liu, S., Li, H., Yang, Z., Liang, S., & Deng, N. (2020). Love of nature as a mediator between connectedness to nature and sustainable consumption behavior. Journal of Cleaner Production, 242, 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. jclepro.2019.118451 Dong, Z., Wu, Z., & Hou, Y. (2023). Protect the environment for impressing others? Understanding whether, why, and when relational mobility shapes individual proenvironmental behaviors. Journal of Cleaner Production. , Article 139215. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2023.139215 Dubuisson-Quellier, S., & Lamine, C. (2008). Consumer involvement in fair trade and local food systems: Delegation and empowerment regimes. Geojournal, 73(1), 55–65. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10708-008-9178-0 Duggal, E., & Verma, H. V. (2019). Cool perspectives, Indian cool and branding. South Asian Journal of Global Business Research, 8(2), 130–145. https://doi.org/10.1108/ SAJBS-07-2018-0083 Du, P., & Zhang, L. X. (2020). Gendered pro-environmental behavior: Analysis of the mediation effects of gender equality awareness and perception of environmental problem. Sociological Review of China, 8(2), 47–60. https://doi.org/10.3969/j. issn.2095-5154.2020.02.007 Dwivedi, Y. K., Shareef, M. A., Akram, M. S., Malik, F. T., Kumar, V., & Giannakis, M. (2023). An attitude-behavioral model to understand people’s behavior towards tourism during COVID-19 pandemic. Journal of Business Research. , Article 113839. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2023.113839 Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2020). From expectancy-value theory to situated expectancyvalue theory: A developmental, social cognitive, and sociocultural perspective on motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 61, Article 101859. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101859 Endsley, M. R. (1995). Toward a theory of situation awareness in dynamic systems. Human Factors, 37(1), 32–64. https://doi.org/10.1518/001872095779049543 Eroglu, S. A., Machleit, K. A., & Davis, L. M. (2003). Empirical testing of a model of online store atmospherics and shopper responses. Psychology and Marketing, 20(2), 139–150. https://doi.org/10.1002/mar.10064 Ertz, M., Karakas, F., & Sarigollü, ¨ E. (2016). Exploring pro-environmental behaviors of consumers: An analysis of contextual factors, attitude, and behaviors. Journal of Business Research, 69(10), 3971–3980. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. jbusres.2016.06.010 Fan, Y., Isa, S. M., Yang, S., & Goh, E. (2023). Please stay with us again: Investigating the mediating roles of hedonic well-being and tourism autobiographical memory in customer retention at Chinese resorts. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management, 56, 410–419. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhtm.2023.08.005 Ferguson, S. (2011). A global culture of cool? Generation Y and their perception of coolness. Young Consumers, 12(3), 265–275. https://doi.org/10.1108/ 17473611111163313 Festinger, L. (1957). A theory of cognitive dissonance. Row, Peterson and Company. Fornara, F., Scopelliti, M., Carrus, G., Bonnes, M., & Bonaiuto, M. (2021). Place attachment and environment-related behavior. In L. C. Manzo, & P. Devine-Wright (Eds.), Place attachment. Advances in theory, methods and applications (pp. 193–207). Routledge. Fritsche, I., & Masson, T. (2021). Collective climate action: When do people turn into collective environmental agents? Current Opinion in Psychology, 42, 114–119. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2021.05.001 Fujii, S., & Kitamura, R. (2003). What does a one-month free bus ticket do to habitual drivers? An experimental analysis of habit and attitude change. Transportation, 30 (1), 81–95. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1021234607980 Y. Liu and S. Geng

Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 57 (2023) 349–363 361 Fullilove, M. T. (1996). Psychiatric implications of displacement: Contributions from the psychology of place. American Journal of Psychiatry, 153(12), 1516–1523. https:// doi.org/10.1176/ajp.153.12.1516 Gao, Y., Ma, Y. F., Bai, K., Li, Y., & Liu, X. Y. (2021). Which factors influence individual pro-environmental behavior in the tourism context: Rationality, affect, or morality? Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research, 26(5), 516–538. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 10941665.2021.1876117 Gao, L., Wheeler, S. C., & Shiv, B. (2009). The “shaken self”: Product choices as a means of restoring self-view confidence. Journal of Consumer Research, 36(1), 29–38. https://doi.org/10.1086/596028 Gardiner, S., Grace, D., & King, C. (2014). The generation effect: The future of domestic tourism in Australia. Journal of Travel Research, 53(6), 705–720. https://doi.org/ 10.1177/0047287514530810 Gardiner, S., Janowski, I., & Kwek, A. (2023). Self-identity and adventure tourism: Crosscountry comparisons of youth consumers. Tourism Management Perspectives, 46, Article 101061. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tmp.2022.101061 Gibson, J. J. (1979). The theory of affordances. In J. J. Gibson (Ed.), The ecological approach to visual perception (pp. 119–137). Taylor & Francis. Gifford, R., & Nilsson, A. (2014). Personal and social factors that influence proenvironmental concern and behaviour: A review. International Journal of Psychology, 49(3), 141–157. https://doi.org/10.1002/ijop.12034 Gossling, ¨ S., Balas, M., Mayer, M., & Sun, Y. Y. (2023). A review of tourism and climate change mitigation: The scales, scopes, stakeholders and strategies of carbon management. Tourism Management, 95, Article 104681. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. tourman.2022.104681 Graham-Rowe, E., Jessop, D. C., & Sparks, P. (2014). Identifying motivations and barriers to minimising household food waste. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 84, 15–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2013.12.005 Groulx, M., Lemieux, C., Dawson, J., Stewart, E., & Yudina, O. (2016). Motivations to engage in last chance tourism in the Churchill Wildlife Management Area and Wapusk National Park: The role of place identity and nature relatedness. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 24(11), 1523–1540. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 09669582.2015.1134556 Hagger, M. S., & Hamilton, K. (2022). Social cognition theories and behavior change in COVID-19: A conceptual review. Behaviour Research and Therapy. , Article 104095. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2022.104095 Hair, J. F., Ringle, C. M., & Sarstedt, M. (2011). PLS-SEM: Indeed a silver bullet. Journal of Marketing Theory and Practice, 19(2), 139–152. https://doi.org/10.2753/ MTP1069-6679190202 Hair, J. F., Risher, J. J., Sarstedt, M., & Ringle, C. M. (2019). When to use and how to report the results of PLS-SEM. European Business Review, 31(1), 2–24. https://doi. org/10.1108/EBR-11-2018-0203 Hallak, R., Brown, G., & Lindsay, N. J. (2012). The place identity–performance relationship among tourism entrepreneurs: A structural equation modelling analysis. Tourism Management, 33(1), 143–154. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. tourman.2011.02.013 Han, H. (2020). Theory of green purchase behavior (TGPB): A new theory for sustainable consumption of green hotel and green restaurant products. Business Strategy and the Environment, 29(6), 2815–2828. https://doi.org/10.1002/bse.2545 Han, H. (2021). Consumer behavior and environmental sustainability in tourism and hospitality: A review of theories, concepts, and latest research. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 29(7), 1021–1042. https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2021.1903019 Harman, H. H. (1976). Modern factor analysis. University of Chicago Press. Hayes, A. F. (2009). Beyond Baron and Kenny: Statistical mediation analysis in the new millennium. Communication Monographs, 76(4), 408–420. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 03637750903310360 Heider, F. (1958). The psychology of interpersonal relations. Wiley. Hergesell, A., & Dickinger, A. (2013). Environmentally friendly holiday transport mode choices among students: The role of price, time and convenience. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 21(4), 596–613. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 09669582.2013.785555 Holt, D. B., & Thompson, C. J. (2004). Man-of-action heroes: The pursuit of heroic masculinity in everyday consumption. Journal of Consumer Research, 31(2), 425–440. https://doi.org/10.1086/422120 Hopkins, D. (2020). Sustainable mobility at the interface of transport and tourism. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 28(2), 129–143. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 09669582.2019.1691800 Huo, H., Zhang, J. J., & Zhan, S. (2023). Study on relationship among place attachment, tourists’ psychological ownership and environmentally responsible behavior. Resource Development & Market, 1, 120–128. https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1005- 8141.2023.01.016 Huvaj, M. N., Darmody, A., & Smith, R. S. (2023). Psychological ownership and disownership in reward-based crowdfunding. Journal of Business Research, 158, Article 113671. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2023.113671 Jenlink, P. M. (2013). Situated cognition theory. In B. J. Irby, G. Brown, R. Lara-Alecio, & S. Jackson (Eds.), Handbook of educational theories for theoretical frameworks (pp. 185–198). Information Age Publishing. Jian, L., Yanping, G., Julan, X., & Zhuo, C. (2020). “Wow! It’s cool”: A literature review of consumer perceived coolness and prospects. Foreign Economics & Management, 42 (1), 42–54. https://doi.org/10.16538/j.cnki.fem.20191010.001 Jiao, L., Ren, Z., Guo, Z., Gao, S., & Xu, Y. (2023). Individual differences in place attachment and pro-environmental behavior: Pride as an emotional tie. Personality and Individual Differences, 214, Article 112357. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. paid.2023.112357 Joo, J., & Marakhimov, A. (2018). Antecedents of customer participation in business ecosystems: Evidence of customers’ psychological ownership in Facebook. Service Business, 12(1), 1–23. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11628-017-0335-8 Kang, Y. A., & Baker, M. A. (2022). Which CSR message most appeals to you? The role of message framing, psychological ownership, perceived responsibility and customer altruistic values. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 106, Article 103287. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2022.103287 Karaçor, E. K., & Akçam, E. (2023). Using structural equation modelling to examine the relationship between place identity, sense of community, and environmental attitude. MethodsX. , Article 102443. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mex.2023.102443 Keller, M., & Kalmus, V. (2009). What makes me cool? Estonian tweens’ interpretative repertoires. Young Consumers, 10(4), 329–341. https://doi.org/10.1108/ 17473610911007157 Kim, M. J., Lee, C., & Jung, T. (2020). Exploring consumer behavior in virtual reality tourism using an extended stimulus-organism-response model. Journal of Travel Research, 59, 69–89. https://doi.org/10.1177/0047287518818915 Kol, O., & Levy, S. (2023). Men on a mission, women on a journey-Gender differences in consumer information search behavior via SNS: The perceived value perspective. Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services, 75, Article 103476. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.jretconser.2023.103476 Kollmuss, A., & Agyeman, J. (2002). Mind the gap: Why do people act environmentally and what are the barriers to pro-environmental behavior? Environmental Education Research, 8(3), 239–260. https://doi.org/10.1080/13504620220145401 Kong, S. C., & Yuen, C. N. (2022). An analysis of the attitudes and behaviours of university students and perceived contextual factors in alternative assessment during the pandemic using the attitude–behaviour–context model. Heliyon, 8(10), Article e11180. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2022.e11180 Korpela, K. M. (1989). Place-identity as a product of environmental self-regulation. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 9(3), 241–256. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0272- 4944(89)80038-6 Krajhanzl, J. (2010). School and health 21. In E. Rehulka ˇ (Ed.), Environmental and proenvironmental behavior (pp. 251–274). MSD. Kumar, J., & Nayak, J. K. (2019). Exploring destination psychological ownership among tourists: Antecedents and outcomes. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management, 39, 30–39. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhtm.2019.01.006 Lee, S. H., Chang, H. J. J., & Zhao, L. (2023). The importance of personal norms and situational expectancies to sustainable behaviors: The norm activation and situational expectancy-value theories. Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services, 73, Article 103371. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jretconser.2023.103371 Lee, H. T., Jan, F. H., & Lin, Y. H. (2021). How authentic experience affects traditional religious tourism development: Evidence from the Dajia Mazu Pilgrimage, Taiwan. Journal of Travel Research, 60(5), 1140–1157. https://doi.org/10.1177/ 0047287520921240 Lee, W., & Jeong, C. (2018). Effects of pro-environmental destination image and leisure sports mania on motivation and pro-environmental behavior of visitors to Korea’s national parks. Journal of Destination Marketing & Management, 10, 25–35. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.jdmm.2018.05.005 Lee, W. S., Kim, J., Graefe, A. R., & Chi, S. H. (2013). Valuation of an eco-friendly hiking trail using the contingent valuation method: An application of psychological ownership theory. Scandinavian Journal of Hospitality and Tourism, 13(1), 55–69. https://doi.org/10.1080/15022250.2013.771902 Lee, H., Yang, S. B., & Koo, C. (2019). Exploring the effect of Airbnb hosts’ attachment and psychological ownership in the sharing economy. Tourism Management, 70, 284–294. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2018.08.017 Leland, J. (2004). Hip: The history. Harper Collins Publisher. Lenzen, M., Sun, Y. Y., Faturay, F., Ting, Y. P., Geschke, A., & Malik, A. (2018). The carbon footprint of global tourism. Nature Climate Change, 8(6), 522–528. https:// doi.org/10.1038/s41558-018-0141-x Leung, Y. W., & Rosenthal, S. (2019). Explicating perceived sustainability-related climate: A situational motivator of pro-environmental behavior. Sustainability, 11(1). https://doi.org/10.3390/su11010231. Article 231. Liang, H., Saraf, N., & Xue, H. Y. (2007). Assimilation of enterprise systems: The effect of institutional pressures and the mediating role of top management. MIS Quarterly, 31 (1), 59–87. https://doi.org/10.2307/25148781 Li, Y., & He, W. (2023). The impact of cognitive tourism experience on post-stress growth of young tourists: Multiple chain mediation effects of self-forgiveness and interpersonal forgiveness. Tourism Tribune, 38(2), 92–105. https://doi.org/ 10.19765/j.cnki.1002-5006.2022.00.041 Li, J., Huang, L. M., He, M., & Ye, B. H. (2023). Understanding pro-environmental behavior in tourism: Developing an experimental model. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management, 57, 213–224. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhtm.2023.10.005 Lin, H., Tian, J., Kong, Y., & Gao, J. (2022). Impact of tour guide humor on tourist proenvironmental behavior: Utilizing the conservation of resources theory. Journal of Destination Marketing & Management, 25, Article 100728. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. jdmm.2022.100728 Liu, J. X., Li, D. J., & Li, J. (2018). A comparative study on the attachment effect of value co-creation: On the basis of the mediators of psychological ownership and flow experience. Management Review, 30(7), 114–125. https://doi.org/10.14120/j.cnki. cn11-5057/f.2018.07.011 Liu, Y., Qu, Z., Meng, Z., & Kou, Y. (2022). Environmentally responsible behavior of residents in tourist destinations: The mediating role of psychological ownership. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 30(4), 807–823. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 09669582.2021.1891238 Liu, B., Zhu, H., & Yuan, Z. J. (2012). The significance of the traditional festival in the construction of place identity: A case study of the winter jasmine flower market in Y. Liu and S. Geng

Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 57 (2023) 349–363 362 guangzhou. Geographical Research, 31(12), 2197–2208. https://doi.org/10.11821/ yj2012120007 Li, S., Wei, M., Qu, H., & Qiu, S. (2020). How does self-image congruity affect tourists’ environmentally responsible behavior? Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 28(12), 2156–2174. https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2020.1800717 Li, Q., & Wu, M. (2020). Tourists’ pro-environmental behaviour in travel destinations: Benchmarking the power of social interaction and individual attitude. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 28(4), 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2020.1737091 Li, Z. F., Wu, J. C., & Deng, S. (2022). The effect of destination social responsibility on tourists’ pro-environmental behavior. Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research, 27 (12), 1233–1246. https://doi.org/10.1080/10941665.2023.2174038 Li, D., Zhao, L., Ma, S., Shao, S., & Zhang, L. (2019). What influences an individual’s proenvironmental behavior? A literature review. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 146, 28–34. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2019.03.024 Mackellar, J. (2009). An examination of serious participants at the Australian Wintersun Festival. Leisure Studies, 28(1), 85–104. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 02614360802613879 Ma, Y., & Liu, C. (2023). Configuration analysis of influencing factors of energy-saving behaviors: From the perspective of consumers’ pro-environmental characteristics and environmentally friendly social atmosphere. Energy. , Article 127906. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2023.127906 Mansfeld, Y. (1992). From motivation to actual travel. Annals of Tourism Research, 19(3), 399–419. https://doi.org/10.1016/0160-7383(92)90127-B Mehrabian, A., & Russell, J. (1974). An approach to environmental psychology. MIT Press. Miles, S. (2000). Youth lifestyles in a changing world. Open University Press. Ming, Y., Deng, H., & Wu, X. (2022). The negative effect of air pollution on people’s proenvironmental behavior. Journal of Business Research, 142, 72–87. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.jbusres.2021.12.044 Mohai, P. (1992). Men, women, and the environment: An examination of the gender gap in environmental concern and activism. Society & Natural Resources, 5(1), 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1080/08941929209380772 Mohiuddin, K. G. B., Gordon, R., Magee, C., & Lee, J. K. (2016). A conceptual framework of cool for social marketing. Journal of Social Marketing, 6(2), 121–143. https://doi. org/10.1108/JSOCM-07-2015-0046 Morewedge, C. K., Monga, A., Palmatier, R. W., Shu, S. B., & Small, D. A. (2021). Evolution of consumption: A psychological ownership framework. Journal of Marketing, 85(1), 196–218. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022242920957007 Müller-P´erez, J., Acevedo-Duque, A., ´ Rettig, P. V., García-Salirrosas, E. E., Fernandez- ´ Mantilla, M. M., Izquierdo-Marín, S. S., & Alvarez-Becerra, ´ R. (2023). Consumer behavior after COVID-19: Interpersonal influences, eWOM and digital lifestyles in more diverse youths. Sustainability, 15(8). https://doi.org/10.3390/su15086570. Article 6570. Nancarrow, C., Nancarrow, P., & Page, J. (2002). An analysis of the concept of cool and its marketing implications. Journal of Consumer Behaviour: International Research and Review, 1(4), 311–322. https://doi.org/10.1002/cb.77 Noh, M., Runyan, R., & Mosier, J. (2014). Young consumers’ innovativeness and hedonic/utilitarian cool attitudes. International Journal of Retail & Distribution Management, 42(4), 267–280. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJRDM-07-2012-0065 Nolan, J. M., & Schultz, P. W. (2014). Prosocial behavior and environmental action. In D. A. Schroeder, & W. G. Graziano (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of prosocial behavior (pp. 626–652). Oxford University Press. Norton, T. A., Zacher, H., & Ashkanasy, N. M. (2014). Organizational sustainability policies and employee green behavior: The mediating role of work climate perceptions. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 38, 49–54. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.jenvp.2013.12.008 Nunnally, J., & Bernstein, I. (1994). Psychometric theory (3rd ed.). McGraw-Hill. Oliver, J., Benjamin, S., & Leonard, H. (2019). Recycling on vacation: Does proenvironmental behavior change when consumers travel? Journal of Global Scholars of Marketing Science, 29(2), 266–280. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 21639159.2019.1577158 Osgerby, B. (1998). Youth in britain since 1945. Blackwell Publishers. Peck, J., Kirk, C. P., Luangrath, A. W., & Shu, S. B. (2021). Caring for the commons: Using psychological ownership to enhance stewardship behavior for public goods. Journal of Marketing, 85(2), 33–49. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022242920952084 Peck, J., & Shu, S. B. (2018). Psychological ownership and consumer behavior. Springer. Peng, X., Liu, M., Hu, Q., & He, X. (2023). A multiscale perspective on place attachment and pro-environmental behavior in hotel spaces. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management, 55, 435–447. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhtm.2023.05.013 Pierce, J. L., & Jussila, I. (2011). Psychological ownership and the organizational context: Theory, research evidence, and application. Edward Elgar Publishing. Pierce, J. L., Kostova, T., & Dirks, K. T. (2001). Toward a theory of psychological ownership in organisations. Academy of Management Review, 26(2), 298–310. https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.2001.4378028 Pierce, J. L., Kostova, T., & Dirks, K. T. (2003). The state of psychological ownership: Integrating and extending a century of research. Review of General Psychology, 7(1), 84–107. https://doi.org/10.1037/1089-2680.7.1.84 Podsakoff, P., & Organ, D. (2016). Self-reports in organizational research: Problems and prospects. Journal of Management, 12(4), 531–544. https://doi.org/10.1177/ 014920638601200408 Prentice, F., Hobson, H., Spooner, R., & Murphy, J. (2022). Gender differences in interoceptive accuracy and emotional ability: An explanation for incompatible findings. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 141, Article 104808. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2022.104808 Preston, S. D., & Gelman, S. A. (2020). This land is my land: Psychological ownership increases willingness to protect the natural world more than legal ownership. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 70, Article 101443. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. jenvp.2020.101443 Pretty, G., Chipuer, H., & Bramston, P. (2003). Sense of place amongst adolescents and adults in two rural Australian towns: The discriminating features of place attachment, sense of community and place dependence in relation to place identity. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 23, 273–287. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0272- 4944(02)00079-8 Pritchard, J. (2010). Virtual rewards for driving green. The Behavior Analyst, 33(2), 185–187. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03392216 Proverbio, A. M. (2017). Sex differences in social cognition: The case of face processing. Journal of Neuroscience Research, 2(95), 222–234. https://doi.org/10.1002/ jnr.23817 Qiu, H., Wang, X., Morrison, A. M., Kelly, C., & Wei, W. (2022). From ownership to responsibility: Extending the theory of planned behavior to predict tourist environmentally responsible behavioral intentions. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 1–24. https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2022.2116643 Ramkissoon, H., & Mavondo, F. T. (2017). Pro-environmental behavior: Critical link between satisfaction and place attachment in Australia and Canada. Tourism Analysis, 22(1), 59–73. https://doi.org/10.3727/108354217X14828625279735 Ramkissoon, H., Smith, L. D. G., & Weiler, B. (2013). Testing the dimensionality of place attachment and its relationships with place satisfaction and pro-environmental behaviours: A structural equation modelling approach. Tourism Management, 36, 552–566. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2012.09.003 Rasoolimanesh, S. M., Jaafar, M., Ahmad, A. G., & Barghi, R. (2017). Community participation in world heritage site conservation and tourism development. Tourism Management, 58, 142–153. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2016.10.016 Relph, E. (1976). Place and placelessness. Pion. van Riper, C., Winkler-Schor, S., Foelske, L., Keller, R., Braito, M., Raymond, C., … Johnson, D. (2019). Integrating multi-level values and pro-environmental behavior in a US protected area. Sustainability Science, 14, 1395–1408. https://doi.org/ 10.1007/s11625-019-00677-w Rivera, D. E., Fa, M. C., & Villar, A. S. (2019). Delightful tourism experiences: A cognitive or affective matter? Tourism Management Perspectives, 32, Article 100569. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.tmp.2019.100569 Roth, W. M., & Jornet, A. (2013). Situated cognition. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Cognitive Science, 4(5), 463–478. https://doi.org/10.1002/wcs.1242 Runyan, R. C., Noh, M., & Mosier, J. (2013). What is cool? Operationalizing the construct in an apparel context. Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management: International Journal, 17(3), 322–340. https://doi.org/10.1108/JFMM-01-2012-0001 Sagiv, L., Roccas, S., & Oppenheim-Weller, S. (2015). Values and well-being. In S. Joseph (Ed.), Positive psychology in practice (pp. 103–121). John Wiley. Scannell, L., & Gifford, R. (2010). Defining place attachment: A tripartite organizing framework. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 30(1), 1–10. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.jenvp.2009.09.006 Scannell, L., & Gifford, R. (2013). Personally relevant climate change: The role of place attachment and local versus global message framing in engagement. Environment and Behavior, 45(1), 60–85. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013916511421196 Schonherr, ¨ S., Peters, M., & Kuˇsˇcer, K. (2023). Sustainable tourism policies: From crisisrelated awareness to agendas towards measures. Journal of Destination Marketing & Management, 27, Article 100762. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdmm.2023.100762 Schwarz, N. (2006). Feelings, fit, and funny effects: A situated cognition perspective. Journal of Marketing Research, 43(1), 20–23. https://doi.org/10.1509/jmkr.43.1.20 Shoda, Y., & Mischel, W. (1998). Personality as a stable cognitive-affective activation network: Characteristic patterns of behavior emerge from a stable personality structure. In S. J. Read, & L. C. Miller (Eds.), Connectionist models of social reasoning and social behavior (pp. 175–209). Lawrence Erlbaum. Shu, S. B., & Peck, J. (2011). Psychological ownership and affective reaction: Emotional attachment process variables and the endowment effect. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 21, 439–452. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcps.2011.01.002 Simonson, I., & Nowlis, S. M. (2000). The role of explanations and need for uniqueness in consumer decision making: Unconventional choices based on reasons. Journal of Consumer Research, 27(1), 49–68. https://doi.org/10.1086/314308 Song, Z., & Soopramanien, D. (2019). Types of place attachment and pro-environmental behaviors of urban residents in Beijing. Cities, 84, 112–120. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.cities.2018.07.012 Song, Y., Zhang, L., & Zhang, M. (2022). Research on the impact of public climate policy cognition on low-carbon travel based on SOR theory—evidence from China. Energy, 261, Article 125192. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2022.125192 Stedman, R. (2002). Toward a social psychology of place: Predicting behaviour from place-based cognitions, attitude, and identity. Environment and Behavior, 34, 561–581. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013916502034005001 Steg, L., & Vlek, C. (2009). Encouraging pro-environmental behaviour: An integrative review and research agenda. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 29(3), 309–317. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2008.10.004 Stokols, D., & Shumaker, S. A. (1981). People in places: A transactional view of settings. In J. Harvey (Ed.), Cognition, social behavior, and the environment (pp. 441–448). Erlbaum. Sundar, S. S., Tamul, D. J., & Wu, M. (2014). Capturing “cool”: Measures for assessing coolness of technological products. International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 72(2), 169–180. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhcs.2013.09.008 Su, L., & Swanson, S. R. (2017). The effect of destination social responsibility on tourist environmentally responsible behavior: Compared analysis of first-time and repeat tourists. Tourism Management, 60(6), 308–321. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. tourman.2016.12.011 Y. Liu and S. Geng

Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 57 (2023) 349–363 363 Tang, Y., Geng, L., Schultz, P. W., Zhou, K., & Xiang, P. (2017). The effects of mindful learning on pro-environmental behavior: A self-expansion perspective. Consciousness and Cognition, 51, 140–148. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.concog.2017.03.005 Tan, W. K., & Yang, C. Y. (2022). An exploration of MMORPG in-game virtual-item contribution to game enjoyment from the perspectives of purchase behavior and psychological ownership. Computers in Human Behavior, 134, Article 107303. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2022.107303 Taylor, S. (2019). The puzzle of altruism: Why do ‘selfish genes’ behave so unselfishly? Explore, 15(5), 371–375. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.explore.2019.04.002 Tiwari, A. A., Chakraborty, A., & Maity, M. (2021). Technology product coolness and its implication for brand love. Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services, 58, Article 102258. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jretconser.2020.102258 Tseng, T. H., & Hsieh, S. H. (2019). Determinants of emoticon usage in mobile instant messaging: A construal level theory perspective. Behaviour & Information Technology, 38(3), 289–301. https://doi.org/10.1080/0144929X.2018.1531927 Twigger-Ross, C. L., & Uzzell, D. L. (1996). Place and identity processes. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 16(3), 205–220. https://doi.org/10.1006/jevp.1996.0017 Van Dyne, L., & Pierce, J. L. (2004). Psychological ownership and feelings of possession: Three field studies predicting employee attitudes and organizational citizenship behavior. Journal of Organizational Behavior: The International Journal of Industrial, Occupational and Organizational Psychology and Behavior, 25(4), 439–459. https:// doi.org/10.1002/job.249 Van den Bergh, J., & Behrer, M. (2016). How cool brands stay hot: Branding to Generations Y and Z. Kogan Page Publishers. Vaske, J. J., & Kobrin, K. C. (2001). Place attachment and environmentally responsible behavior. The Journal of Environmental Education, 32(4), 16–21. https://doi.org/ 10.1080/00958960109598658 Venhoeven, L. A., Bolderdijk, J. W., & Steg, L. (2013). Explaining the paradox: How proenvironmental behaviour can both thwart and foster well-being. Sustainability, 5(4), 1372–1386. https://doi.org/10.3390/su5041372 Vukic, M., Kuzmanovic, M., & Stankovic, M. K. (2015). Understanding the heterogeneity of generation Y’s preferences for travelling: A conjoint analysis approach. International Journal of Tourism Research, 17(5), 482–491. https://doi.org/10.1002/ jtr.2015 Wang, X., Fielding, K. S., & Dean, A. J. (2022). Psychological ownership of nature: A conceptual elaboration and research agenda. Biological Conservation, 267, Article 109477. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2022.109477 Wang, J., Luo, Q., & Lin, T. (2020). Nested boundaries: Group identity formation in highly involved festival participants - a case study of the Midi Qian at the Midi Music Festival. Tourism Tribune, 35(5), 139–150. https://doi.org/10.19765/j.cnki.1002- 5006.2020.05.017 Wang, X. Z., Qin, X. R., & Zhou, Y. B. (2020). A comparative study of relative roles and sequences of cognitive and affective attitudes on tourists’ pro-environmental behavioral intention. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 28(5), 727–746. https://doi. org/10.1080/09669582.2019.1704297 Wang, R., & Sundar, S. S. (2018). How does parallax scrolling influence user experience? A test of TIME (Theory of interactive media effects). International Journal of HumanComputer Interaction, 34(6), 533–543. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 10447318.2017.1373457 Wang, J., Wang, S., Wang, H., Zhang, Z., & Ru, X. (2021). Examining when and how perceived sustainability-related climate influences pro-environmental behaviors of tourism destination residents in China. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management, 48(8), 357–367. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhtm.2021.07.008 Wang, W., Wu, J., Wu, M. Y., & Pearce, P. L. (2018). Shaping tourists’ green behavior: The hosts’ efforts at rural Chinese B&Bs. Journal of Destination Marketing & Management, 9, 194–203. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdmm.2018.01.006 Wan, C., Shen, G. Q., & Choi, S. (2022). Pathways of place dependence and place identity influencing recycling in the extended theory of planned behavior. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 81, Article 101795. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. jenvp.2022.101795 Warren, C., Batra, R., Loureiro, S. M. C., & Bagozzi, R. P. (2019). Brand coolness. Journal of Marketing, 83(5), 36–56. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022242919857698 Warren, C., & Campbell, M. C. (2014). What makes things cool? How autonomy influences perceived coolness. Journal of Consumer Research, 41(2), 543–563. https://doi.org/10.1086/676680 Wen, H., Wong, I. A., Fan, Y., & Leong, A. M. W. (2022). When festitivity meets heritage site: Co-Developed experience through the lens of situated cognition. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 39(5), 516–533. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 10548408.2022.2148039 Wester, M., & Eklund, B. (2011). “My husband usually makes those decisions”: Gender, behavior, and attitudes toward the marine environment. Environmental Management, 48(1), 70–80. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-011-9676-6 Williams, D. R., & Patterson, M. E. (1999). Environmental psychology: Mapping landscape meanings for ecosystem management. In H. K. Cordell, & J. C. Bergstrom (Eds.), Integrating social sciences and ecosystem management: Human dimensions in assessment, policy and management (pp. 141–160). Sagamore. Wooten, D., & Mourey, J. (2013). Adolescent consumption and the pursuit of “cool”. In A. Ruvio, & R. Belk (Eds.), The routledge companion to identity and consumption (pp. 169–176). Routledge. Xia, W., & Li, L. M. (2023). Societal gender role beliefs moderate the pattern of gender differences in public-and private-sphere pro-environmental behaviors. Journal of Environmental Psychology. , Article 102158. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. jenvp.2023.102158 Xie, H., Costa, C. A., & Morais, D. B. (2008). Gender differences in rural tourists’ motivation and activity participation. Journal of Hospitality & Leisure Marketing, 16 (4), 368–384. https://doi.org/10.1080/10507050801951452 Xie, J., & Li, X. (2023). From theatrical elements to festival attendees’ perceived emotional synchrony: The perspective of interaction ritual chain theory. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management, 56, 83–93. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. jhtm.2023.06.016 Xu, J., Du, H. S., Shen, K. N., & Zhang, D. (2022). How gamification drives consumer citizenship behaviour: The role of perceived gamification affordances. International Journal of Information Management, 64, Article 102477. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. ijinfomgt.2022.102477 Xu, N. N., Guo, Y. Z., & Liu, H. B. (2021). Influence of cultural identity on tourists’ responsibility behavior—a chain intermediary model. Journal of Arid Land Resources & Environment, 35(8), 199–208. https://doi.org/10.13448/j.cnki.jalre.2021.233 Xu, Z., Yang, G., Wang, L., Guo, L., & Shi, Z. (2023). How does destination psychological ownership affect tourists’ pro-environmental behaviors? A moderated mediation analysis. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 31(6), 1394–1412. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 09669582.2022.2049282 Yamane, T., & Kaneko, S. (2021). Is the younger generation a driving force toward achieving the sustainable development goals? Survey experiments. Journal of Cleaner Production, 292, Article 125932. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.125932 Yao, Y., Wang, G., Ren, L., & Qiu, H. (2023). Exploring tourist citizenship behavior in wellness tourism destinations: The role of recovery perception and psychological ownership. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management, 55, 209–219. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.jhtm.2023.03.008 Ye, Y., & Gawronski, B. (2016). When possessions become part of the self: Ownership and implicit self-object linking. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 64, 72–87. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2016.01.012 Yim, J. S. C. (2021). When a place is psychologically claimed: The shifting effect of psychological ownership on residents’ support and prevention of local tourism. Journal of Outdoor Recreation and Tourism, 35, Article 100408. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.jort.2021.100408 Yim, J. S., Moses, P., & Azalea, A. (2019). Predicting teachers’ continuance in a virtual learning environment with psychological ownership and the TAM. Educational Technology Research & Development, 67(3), 691–709. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s11423-019-09661-8 Zepeda, L., & Deal, D. (2009). Organic and local food consumer behaviour: Alphabet theory. International Journal of Consumer Studies, 33(5), 697–705. https://doi.org/ 10.1111/j.1470-6431.2009.00814.x Zhang, L. Y. (2008). A study on consumers’ behavior and phenomenon under unusual environment. Tourism Tribune, 10, 12–16. https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1002- 5006.2008.10.007 Zhang, H., Cai, L., Bai, B., Yang, Y., & Zhang, J. (2023). National forest park visitors’ connectedness to nature and pro-environmental behavior: The effects of cultural ecosystem service, place and event attachment. Journal of Outdoor Recreation and Tourism, 42, Article 100621. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jort.2023.100621 Zhang, H., & Xu, H. (2019). Impact of destination psychological ownership on residents’ “place citizenship behavior”. Journal of Destination Marketing & Management, 14, Article 100391. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdmm.2019.100391 Zhang, M., & Zhang, X. (2022). Between escape and return: Rethinking daily life and travel in selective unplugging. Tourism Management, 91, Article 104521. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.tourman.2022.104521 Zhang, H., Zhang, X., & Bai, B. (2021). Tourism employee pro-environmental behavior: An integrated multi-level model. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management, 47, 443–452. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhtm.2021.04.014 Zhao, T., Lu, Y., Wang, V. L., Wu, B., Chen, Z., Song, W., & Zhou, L. (2023). Shared but unhappy? Detrimental effects of using shared products on psychological ownership and consumer happiness. Journal of Business Research, 169, Article 114306. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2023.114306 Zhao, X., Lynch, J. G., Jr., & Chen, Q. (2010). Reconsidering baron and kenny: Myths and truths about mediation analysis. Journal of Consumer Research, 37(2), 197–206. https://doi.org/10.1086/651257 Zhou, B., Wang, L., Huang, S. S., & Xiong, Q. (2023). Impact of perceived environmental restorativeness on tourists’ pro-environmental behavior: Examining the mediation of place attachment and the moderation of ecocentrism. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management, 56, 398–409. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhtm.2023.08.006 Zvilichovsky, D., Danziger, S., & Steinhart, Y. (2018). Making-the-product-happen: A driver of crowdfunding participation. Journal of Interactive Marketing, 41, 81–93. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intmar.2017.10.002 Y. Liu and S. Geng

Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 57 (2023) 327–338 Available online 18 November 2023 1447-6770/© 2023 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. on behalf of CAUTHE - COUNCIL FOR AUSTRALASIAN TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY EDUCATION. All rights reserved. “Band-aid teaching”: Exploring emergency remote teaching experiences of hospitality educators through an affective lens Cindy Lee a,* , Anita Manfreda a , Antoine Bisson a , Madalyn Scerri b , Rajka Presbury c a Torrens University Australia, 22 Pulteney Street, Adelaide, SA, 5000, Australia b Torrens University Australia, 1 Chambers Rd, Leura, NSW, 2780, Australia c Torrens University Australia, 17/51 Foveaux St, Surry Hills, NSW, 2010, Australia ARTICLE INFO Keywords: Emotional experience Emergency remote teaching Online teaching experience Hospitality higher education ABSTRACT There has been a significant increase in research focusing on online education and emergency remote teaching (ERT) in response to the COVID-19 pandemic. However, one area that received limited attention is hospitality education, which traditionally relied on face-to-face teaching to develop technical and soft skills required in hospitality work. Teaching in the hospitality field involves a unique aspect of emotional work, making it imperative to delve into the experiences of educators during times of crisis. This study explores the emotional teaching experiences of hospitality educators during a significant work event: the transition to ERT. Semistructured interviews with educators from nine hospitality institutions revealed a prevalence of negative emotions interspersed with occasional positive emotions. Explained through the lens of Affective Events Theory, the emotions were influenced by a range of personal and situational factors encompassing student-related, personal, institutional, pedagogical, and technical characteristics of the ERT transition. Moreover, the study identified the emergence of a “Band-Aid teaching” attitude and subsequent strategies used to cope with this transition. The study provides theoretical and practical insights into the emotional landscape of hospitality education that can be invaluable in managing future periods of uncertainty. 1. Introduction The outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic forced hospitality education providers to rapidly shift to online course delivery, pushing educators to adapt to what became known as the “new normal”. This sudden and involuntary transition gave educators little time and flexibility to meet changing expectations. They were challenged into emergency remote teaching (ERT), which Hodges et al. (2020, para. 14) defined as ‘a temporary shift of instructional delivery to an alternate delivery mode due to crisis circumstances.’ Subsequently, a significant body of literature has emerged regarding online teaching and learning, revealing numerous challenges students encountered in higher education (HE) online environments. These challenges encompassed technological, social, physical, and financial limitations, including limited internet connectivity and access to technology, hindered interactions with educators, decreased interest and attention, absence of conducive learning environments and impacts on mental health (Ferri et al., 2020; Fuchs, 2021; Hasan & Khan, 2020). The crucial role of educators in addressing these challenges became evident through the implementation of tailored online teaching techniques and practices aimed at enhancing students’ learning experiences (Hasan & Khan, 2020) and through increased communication with students to mitigate feelings of confusion and isolation (Ferri et al., 2020). During the ERT transition, educators were expected to assume multiple roles, responsibilities, and skills beyond those entailed in face-to-face teaching. However, research highlighted that many educators were not equipped technologically or pedagogically for effective online teaching (Rapanta et al., 2020). Moreover, while there was acknowledgment of the growing demands on educators due to the ERT transition, most research primarily focused on the student experience. Only a limited fraction delved into the experiences of educators, particularly their emotional experiences in higher education (HE) (Bond et al., 2021) and the emotional challenges faced (Naylor & Nyanjom, 2021; Nyanjom & Naylor, 2021). Changes to teaching practices and adoption of technological tools are known to impose significant emotional burden on educators (Bennett, * Corresponding author. E-mail addresses: [email protected] (C. Lee), [email protected] (A. Manfreda), [email protected] (A. Bisson), madalyn.scerri@ torrens.edu.au (M. Scerri), [email protected] (R. Presbury). Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jhtm https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhtm.2023.11.001 Received 12 July 2023; Received in revised form 31 October 2023; Accepted 1 November 2023

Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 57 (2023) 327–338 328 2014). The burden extends past mere adjustments to technical processes and thus demands significant emotional energy from educators (Pope, 2005). Consistent with hospitality work’s high-touch and people-oriented nature, which infers intense emotional states (Woo & Chan, 2020), hospitality education involves continuous interactions with program managers, peers, students and the industry. These interactions involve a complex exchange of emotions, which constitutes emotional work, defined by Ogbonna and Harris (2004) as the effort needed to display what is perceived to be expected emotions. Emotions play a pivotal role in influencing educators’ engagement (Gilmore & Warren, 2007), self-identity, self-efficacy, decision-making, and interactions with students and colleagues (Downing & Dyment, 2013). Moreover, hospitality educators face multi-layered requirements to model and develop competencies in students essential for the hospitality industry, resulting in heightened emotional states. The cumulative impact of this emotional work can result in exhaustion and reduced determination if not adequately managed (Bennett, 2014). However, despite the substantial emotional component of hospitality educators’ work, the increasing focus on student satisfaction in HE resulted in the emotional work of educators being undervalued and neglected (Naylor & Nyanjom, 2021). Challenges associated with educators’ emotional work were amplified as the shift to online teaching significantly and negatively affected students’ learning experiences (Lei & So, 2021). Research revealed a lack of perceived equivalence by students when comparing online courses to face-to-face courses (Lee & Deale, 2021). To compensate for the shortcomings of online teaching and learning, previous research found educators to invest more emotionally and practically to deliver high-quality learning experiences (Bennett, 2014), leading to emotional drain. These challenges were particularly pronounced in hospitality education, which, prior to COVID-19, heavily relied on face-to-face teaching (Mejia & Phelan, 2014), a high-touch environment (Munoz et al., 2021), and experiential learning to impart real-life experiences, knowledge, and hands-on skills to students (Orlowski et al., 2021). Hospitality educators have also been identified as adverse to and slow adopters of technology (Mejia & Phelan, 2014) and, as such, were not open to and prepared for the transition to ERT. Additionally, the emotional experiences of hospitality educators during the transition to ERT were compounded by inherent emotional labour in the hospitality field. Educators were required to cope with unexpected changes while managing and regulating their emotions, such as concealing negative emotions, to support online delivery. The need to explore the emotional experiences of hospitality educators is thus magnified (Lei & So, 2021). Existing research on educators’ emotional experiences in the transition to online teaching has been conducted prior to the COVID-19 pandemic (Bennett, 2014) and across multiple disciplines (Naylor & Nyanjom, 2021; Nyanjom & Naylor, 2021). However, the uncertainty brought by the COVID-19 pandemic presented circumstances and stressors that intensified educators’ emotional experiences, particularly in hospitality HE, and further examination in this context is required. In response, this study explores the emotional teaching experiences of hospitality educators during the ERT transition by addressing the following questions: 1. What were the emotions experienced by educators during the transition to ERT? 2. What were the characteristics of the ERT transition that drove emotions experienced by educators? 3. What were the factors affecting the emotional experiences of educators? 4. What were the attitudes and behaviours adopted by educators to cope with the ERT transition? The lens of Affective Events Theory (AET), which explains how work events influence individuals and their emotional experiences (Weiss & Beal, 2007; Weiss & Cropanzano, 1996), is used to guide the research questions as it provides a suitable framework for examining the emotional experiences of hospitality educators during the ERT transition. Work events are exogenous and proximal causes of emotions at work that can often be seen as shocks to existing workplace conditions and patterns (Weiss & Cropanzano, 1996). For this study, the transition to ERT is classified as a work event that unexpectedly challenged standard workplace conditions and elicited emotional responses in individuals at work. This study makes several contributions. First, it illuminates the emotions of hospitality educators whose experience in times of crisis (e. g., the COVID-19 pandemic) has been largely neglected. Second, existing research has not explored hospitality educators’ emotional experiences through the lens of AET, although it has suitability in high-contact work environments, including hospitality (Hwang et al., 2021) and education (Ghasemy et al., 2021). Through the lens of AET, this study demonstrates characteristics of the ERT transition that drove positive and negative emotions in hospitality educators and the emergence of a “Band-aid teaching” attitude. In doing so, the applicability of AET to hospitality and education service contexts is reaffirmed. Third, this study provides insights to HE institutions on the support and actions required to evoke positive emotions and mitigate negative emotions experienced by educators. Consequently, educators’ experience and performance during future crises can be enhanced, and students’ learning experiences improved. Finally, this study seeks to contribute to existing knowledge and practice of HE crisis and risk management, as well as hospitality online education, through understanding educators’ attitudinal and behavioural coping responses during ERT. 2. Theoretical background 2.1. Emotions at work: The Affective Events Theory (AET) lens The significance of emotional experiences at work has been well established in organisational psychology and behaviour across multiple fields. Extensive literature exists on high-contact organisations where employees’ emotions are deeply affected by social events and highly connected to attitudes, behaviours, and work outcomes (Hwang et al., 2021). A variety of theoretical lenses have been employed to better understand emotional experiences in workplace settings, including Cognitive Appraisal Theory (Lazarus, 1991), Conservation of Resources Theory (Hobfoll, 1989), and Social Exchange Theory (Blau, 1964). While these theories have been applied to explain numerous phenomena, not all were developed for specific service organisational settings, with most being used to test relationships between emotions and their antecedents and outcomes without an in-depth understanding of the nature of emotional experiences (Hwang et al., 2021). For this study, we adopt the lens of Affective Events Theory (AET) to investigate the emotional experiences of hospitality educators during the transition to ERT. Weiss and Cropanzano (1996) introduced AET as a roadmap to investigate how work events influence individuals and their emotional experiences in workplace settings. The authors note that work events (e.g., transition to ERT) and workplace features elicit positive or negative emotions in individuals who bring specific dispositions that heighten or alleviate emotional responses. Work events have a fluctuating and dynamic nature that affects the well-being and emotions of individuals at work (Shi et al., 2021), and the fluidity and unpredictable nature of the ERT transition encapsulate such characteristics. Emotions, in turn, prompt immediate affective-driven behaviours and impact work attitudes, leading to prolonged judgment-driven behaviours influencing work-related outcomes (Weiss & Cropanzano, 1996). AET has been widely applied in studying individuals’ emotions at work (Hwang et al., 2021) and work events that trigger emotional responses, such as requirements of emotional labour (Lee & Madera, 2019), job insecurity (Cheung et al., 2019), and workplace gossip (Babalola et al., 2019). However, much of its application has focused on testing and measuring the relationships between work events, emotions, C. Lee et al.

Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 57 (2023) 327–338 329 and other variables within the model, with limited attention paid to understanding the characteristics of work events in more depth. In a later study, Weiss and Beal (2007) reiterated the model’s intention, which was to provide a macro-structure for driving further investigations on emotions within organisational contexts. Specifically, the authors invited scholars to focus on the causes and consequences of discrete emotional states with greater attention to ‘events, their interpretation, their structure, their informational value’ (Weiss & Beal, 2007, p. 4), thus placing emphasis on the “experiential” aspects of organisational psychology. The application of AET in understanding the emotional experiences of educators has gained increasing attention, with studies investigating emotional experiences in HE and their impact on educators’ attitudes and behaviours. These include research investigating factors predicting satisfaction as an affective-driven attitude among health science faculty members (Kuwaiti et al., 2019), the relationship between perceived organisational politics and job attitudes (Khan et al., 2021), and the antecedents and consequences of academics’ affective states in developing countries (Ghasemy et al., 2021). However, while AET has begun to be used in education studies (Ghasemy et al., 2021), a robust understanding of educators’ emotional experiences has yet to be achieved (Castellacci & Vinas-Bardolet, ˜ 2021; Kuwaiti et al., 2019), including through the application of AET. In particular, despite the substantial emotional component of their work, no existing studies have explored hospitality educators’ emotional experiences through the lens of AET. This is a notable gap in the literature as the theory appears particularly useful for high-contact work environments such as hospitality (Hwang et al., 2021) and education (Ghasemy et al., 2021). Studying the emotional experiences of hospitality educators resulting from a significant work event, such as the transition to ERT, is crucial as it provides avenues for regulating and managing emotions at work, particularly in times of unanticipated change. 2.2. Emergency remote teaching in hospitality education The term ‘Emergency Remote Teaching’ (ERT) was introduced by Hodges et al. (2020) to describe education institutions’ responses to the COVID-19 pandemic. ERT is characterised as a temporary shift and solution-driven approach towards teaching and learning in the event of a crisis. Two key factors differentiate ERT from online teaching: its unplanned nature and the assumption that teaching will return to its previous form when the crisis ends. The primary aim of ERT is ‘not to re-create a robust educational ecosystem but rather to provide temporary access to instruction and instructional supports in a manner that is quick to set up and is reliably available during an emergency or crisis’ (Hodges et al., 2020, para. 14). Conversely, online teaching is the outcome of detailed instructional design and planning, encompassing time and investment in the overall ecosystem surrounding the learner’s experience (Iglesias-Pradas et al., 2021). It involves a learning process that offers learners support, responsibility, flexibility, and choice (Fuchs, 2021). Ferri et al. (2020) identified three broad challenges arising from ERT, namely technological and social challenges faced by students and pedagogical challenges faced by educators. Pedagogical challenges pertain to educators’ lack of skill in utilising technology while trying to engage and motivate students through interactive media. Similarly, Valsaraj et al. (2021) highlighted the challenging nature of this transition as it requires educators to “unlearn” and “relearn” teaching methods and techniques at an accelerated pace, resulting in educators becoming “conscious of their incompetence” in handling ERT. The need to make pedagogical changes, accompanied by the additional workload during ERT, has been reported to cause stress in educators, impacting their mental health (Adedoyin & Soykan, 2023). The Community of Inquiry framework (Garrison et al., 1999) posits that successful higher education, including in the online environment, necessitates the development of a community comprising educators and students that facilitates meaningful enquiry and deep learning (Swan et al., 2008). Within this framework, cognitive presence, social presence, and teaching presence interact to drive engagement that enhances learning (Maddrell et al., 2020). Cognitive presence, a crucial element of critical thinking, refers to the extent to which participants within the community are able to ‘construct meaning through sustained communication’ (Garrison et al., 1999, p. 89). Social presence concerns the affective connection students feel with participants within the community (Swan et al., 2008), including other students, educators, study programs, and the education institution (Vygotsky, 1978). Teaching presence comprises two critical functions, namely the design and facilitation of the educational experience (Garrison et al., 1999). In hospitality education, teaching presence and social presence have been found to be significant determinants of student satisfaction in ERT (Patwardharr et al., 2020), both in which the educator’s role is fundamental. The effectiveness and success of hospitality education also rely heavily on the abilities and adaptability of educators to design and deliver courses in a variety of teaching modalities (Smith, 2021, Ozüdogru, ¨ 2021). The centrality of hospitality educators in enhancing students’ overall learning experience during ERT is thus noted and should not be overlooked. Yet, research on ERT has primarily focused on the perspectives of students (Fuchs, 2021; Iglesias-Pradas et al., 2021), parents (Misirli & Ergulec, 2021), and educators across other disciplines (Valsaraj et al., 2021, Ozüdogru, 2021). Little is known about the experiences of hospitality educators working in higher education, particularly their emotional experiences. Moreover, research on ERT and online teaching during the COVID-19 pandemic has been largely quantitative (e.g., Bond et al., 2021; Lee & Deale, 2021), presenting a methodological gap in this area of research. Hence, to address these gaps, this study sets out to explore the emotional teaching experiences of hospitality educators during the transition to ERT through the lens of AET. 3. Methods The subjective nature of emotional experiences necessitates a constructivist research paradigm which, through a subjectivist epistemology (Denzin & Lincoln, 2011), attains knowledge from an insider’s (i.e. hospitality educator’s) perspective to provide the best lens for the phenomenon being studied (i.e. transition to ERT) (Creswell, 2013). From an ontological standpoint, it views the world as comprising multiple realities, allowing multiple voices to speak and multiple explanations to be considered (Denzin & Lincoln, 2011). As such, the present study was conducted using an inductive and qualitative approach to enable those personally involved in the activity to ‘describe and explain their experiences, feelings, and worldview in their own words’ (Veal, 2011, p. 232). 3.1. Sampling, recruitment, and data collection The targeted population for this study comprised educators from HE institutions who had taught or were teaching hospitality courses in English during the COVID-19 pandemic under ERT circumstances. No geographical exclusion criteria were adopted to enhance the transferability of potential findings (Manfreda et al., 2023b). Respondents were recruited through invitations posted on social networking sites (Facebook and LinkedIn) and direct invitations emailed to professional connections of the research team. To increase the diversity and geographical reach of the sample, snowball sampling was applied after each interview by asking if respondents were willing to connect the researcher to other hospitality educators within their network. Upon obtaining institutional ethics clearance, in-depth semi-structured interviews were conducted to collect data. We utilised a series of open-ended questions to elicit all possible responses relating to the emotional experiences of hospitality educators during the ERT transition. The interview questions invite participants to reflect on their C. Lee et al.

Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 57 (2023) 327–338 330 overall experience, including memorable (positive or negative) aspects of the transition, emotions felt, challenges faced, and strategies used to overcome such challenges. Preliminary questions encompassing respondents’ background and work experience were also incorporated to capture essential insights into the personal characteristics of educators that guide the subsequent flow and order of questions. The interviews ranged from 50 to 80 min and were conducted by three members of the research team online or in person. A sample size of 16 was obtained, comprising ten females and six males, with teaching experiences ranging from one to over 20 years. The participants belonged to 11 cultural affiliations and were associated with nine HE institutions across four countries. The detailed profile of respondents is presented in the supplementary material, using pseudonyms chosen by individual respondents. While data saturation was reached at the 12th interview, additional interviews were conducted to confirm no new information was obtained from further data collection. Baker and Edwards (2012) suggest qualitative data saturation can be reached between 12 and 101 participants. As such, the final sample size, comparable to recent studies in high-quality tourism and hospitality journals (e.g., Lee et al., 2023; Pu et al., 2023; Ray et al., 2023), is deemed acceptable. Over 1000 min of audio-recorded data was collected and translated into 140, 000 words and 412 pages of textual data. 3.2. Data analysis Initial analysis began through repeat listening of the audio recordings and reading of transcriptions for note-taking. This enabled immersion in the participants’ voices to capture the intent, context, and meanings conveyed during the interviews (Creswell, 2013). The research team (the first three authors) met to analyse one interview collectively and agree upon an analytical framework for the remaining interviews. To take advantage of both techniques and strengthen the analytical process (Harkison et al., 2018), one researcher conducted the analysis using NVivo, while two others analysed the transcripts manually. Next, investigator triangulation was applied to enhance the trustworthiness of the findings, with each researcher interpreting the dataset individually before coming together to discuss and confirm the interpretations. This strategy further addressed potential bias that may be inherent in ‘the investigator’s subjective understanding, gender, race, and culture’ (Decrop, 1999, p. 159). Applying Strauss’ (1987) guidelines for open, axial, and selective coding, initial open codes representing similar ideas, concepts, and viewpoints were merged to develop categories within the dataset. These categories were holistically reviewed, allowing for relationships to emerge, thus leading to a synthesised framework on the emotional experiences of hospitality educators during the ERT transition. Additionally, the categories and framework derived from the analysis were discussed with two other members of the research team who were external to the data collection and analysis process for peer debriefing. The discussions allowed for findings to be reviewed, affirmed, and challenged (Lincoln & Guba, 1985) and for conclusions to be validated. Fig. 1 visually depicts the various categories identified and, within each category, codes that emerged from the analytical process. 4. Findings and discussion Findings from this study reveal the emotions, drivers, attitudes, and behaviours characterising the emotional experiences of hospitality educators during the ERT transition (Fig. 1). While the visual representation reflects the relationships presented in Weiss and Corpzano’s (1996) AET model, this framework emerged inductively from the analysis of interview data. The following sub-sections discuss the characteristics of the ERT transition and the emotions driven as a result, demonstrating the interrelation between the two. While various emotions were expressed, a prevalence of negative emotions was noted as educators experienced intense emotional and physical stress during this period. The findings are reported below in the order of recurrence within each category. 4.1. Characteristics of the ERT transition driving negative emotions In explaining negative emotional responses, a range of drivers or characteristics of the ERT transition were identified and subsequently classified into five broad categories: student-related, personal, institutional, pedagogical, and technical. A summary of these drivers is shown in Fig. 1. 4.1.1. Student-related challenges Overwhelmingly, the most prevalent characteristics driving negative Fig. 1. Emotional experience of hospitality educators during ERT transition. C. Lee et al.

Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 57 (2023) 327–338 331 emotions were student-related challenges, which educators attributed to the loss of meaningful connections and hampered student engagement in the online environment. Respondents highlighted the importance of human connection in the hospitality industry, which they seek to establish and nurture in the classroom: I felt very frustrated for a very long period of time of building that meaningful connection with my students in an online environment … doesn’t matter what you say, they refuse to turn on their camera, they refuse to engage with you. I think this is where somehow for me was quite soul-crushing. Because it’s just such important elements missing. [Ariel] Hampered connection was discussed in relation to educator-tostudent and student-to-student relationships resulting from the absence of physical presence and proximity and magnified by students ‘hiding’ behind screens (turning cameras off) and keyboards (communicating via chat). The sense of one’s identity is minimised owing to reduced facial and visual cues, time spent together, and touchpoints throughout the course. One respondent explained: I think that it is more nuanced, and you have to actually plan what would otherwise come naturally in the teaching classroom environment. In the physical location, people follow their roles. If you’re sitting next to someone, you don’t just ignore them. You say hello, regardless. But no one’s sitting next to anyone online and so part of your role as a facilitator is creating some of those connections. [Olivia] The inability to connect on an individual level also impeded educators’ capacity to offer pastoral care, particularly to students with varying learning needs: You normally would be in the classroom when they’re reading and you’d walk around and they’d ask questions and you’d sit with them and make sure they understand. The whole pastoral element has disappeared. [Annette] In line with Munoz et al. (2021), educators largely grieved the loss of meaningful connections and personal care for students. This created a less stimulating teaching environment and contributed to feelings of defeat, helplessness, apathy, and boredom. 4.1.2. Personal challenges Apart from challenges arising from hampered student connections, negative emotions were attributed to personal challenges faced by educators due to a reduced sense of certainty and the heightened demands of ERT. Feelings of uncertainty were linked to educators’ lack of experience as they felt unprepared and unequipped, pedagogically and technologically, for the shift to online teaching. This resulted in a perceived loss of control over delivering quality classroom experience, leading to feelings of guilt and disappointment: I’d come away after a session saying, ‘That could have been better. That could have been better.’ I felt let down, or I felt I let the students down, so then I’d communicate with them. ‘These are the key things and we’ll do a quiz next week, so brush up.’ I was trying to recover. [Paddington] Educators also expressed concerns about the long-term impact of online teaching on their job security. As hospitality education entails the development of soft and technical skills that necessitate an extent of face-to-face teaching (Orlowski et al., 2021), feelings of concern about the future of hospitality education were inevitable for some: … the concern about, would I be fired and would the program finish, because it would not work online and therefore, and our numbers were dropping. That the program would essentially finish. [Sandra] While feelings of uncertainty were experienced mainly in the early stages of the shift, the prolonged effects of ERT left educators feeling exhausted as they experienced greater job demands. For example, the need to multi-task and manage multiple platforms when teaching online heightened the physical and mental demands of ERT: When you go into the class, you’ve got to use multiple tools at the same time to keep it engaging. For instance, when I go in, I start off my class with usually an animal video or something playing in the background while the students are joining in. And then I’ll have some popular song playing so they can start getting excited and awake because most of them have been studying for four hours already … So, you’ve got that going and while the students are trickling in, you’re trying to mark your attendance and you’re trying to pull up your slides, put up polls, use the Blackboard and use the whiteboard and do it all at the same time. [Shanti] The emotional work involved was also highlighted by respondents who sought to compensate for the absence of physical presence through exaggerating emotions, facial expressions, and voice. Such exhaustion was compounded by the lack of reciprocity shown by students who remained hidden behind screens with little to no response to questions or discussions posed during class, generating feelings of apathy: I think the hardest part is you’ve got to exaggerate every single emotion you feel so that it goes through the screen and they get it. So even if you’re not feeling that excited, you’ve got to seem really excited so they can get excited about it and they don’t feel you’re bored by being there. You’ve got to be very animated in everything that you do and it can be really exhausting. [Shanti] And exhausting, weirdly exhausting just sitting at home and looking at the screen … Just speaking to myself, really, for one and a half hours. [Jimothy] 4.1.3. Institutional factors Other than challenges tied to students and educators, institutions played a significant role in the negative emotions experienced by educators. Institutional factors pertain to the support provided to educators through appropriate training, teaching tools, policies, and workload considerations. Recalling his first online teaching experience, one respondent stated: It was a bit like, ‘Okay, good luck and do it.’ There was not much prep (aration). [Antonio] Respondents lamented the challenges encountered with utilising systems that are not fit for purpose and trainings that were untimely and ineffective in preparing educators for the various situations they faced in the online classroom, leading to feelings of frustration and helplessness: I think what we had to deal with was a dysfunctional system and I have been a great critic of the tools we were given … you can do a bit of training, but by the time you actually went to apply it, things weren’t happening the way you were trained they were going to happen. [Paddington] I think it’s very important that you have a good backup and that you are trained well on how to use the techniques. In my opinion, the way it was done at our institute, well, yes, we had a small training about how Teams worked before COVID started, but we were not ready yet to teach. So, we had to find out ourselves. [Inga] While past research has found training to be lacking during the COVID-19 transition to online teaching (Joshi et al., 2021), our findings reveal the need to focus on the content and appropriateness of training. Trainings are expected to assist educators with gaining competence in using online tools and platforms for ERT (Valsaraj et al., 2021) and are important in supporting hospitality educators (Mejia & Phelan, 2014). Institutional factors also pertain to the classroom policies and guidelines imposed by institutions during ERT. Respondents explained how policies allowing students to attend classes without turning their C. Lee et al.

Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 57 (2023) 327–338 332 cameras on brought about challenges with developing attitudes and behaviours required in hospitality work. Respondents explained how the inability to oversee such aspects resulted in a reduced sense of control and feelings of defeat: It is a challenge because we’ve got a policy at the moment that you don’t have to turn your cameras on if you don’t want. So, for example, I can’t see you at the moment. I don’t know if they’ve got up and showered. I don’t know if they’ve brushed their hair. I don’t know any of that. I’ve got no control. So, I’m just going to take their word for it. But also, I don’t know if they’re there. [Pablo] Additionally, financial constraints faced by institutions resulted in larger class sizes aimed at minimising teaching expenditure. Such decisions introduced further complications to classroom management while impacting educators’ quality of teaching and workload. This was also tied to pastoral care, which educators wished to extend to students yet constrained by the time and resources available to them, leading to feelings of frustration: One other frustrating thing is it has become very obvious that all these are money-saving techniques from the department, because you are no longer physically limited to the classroom size. And now I’m dealing with 80 students in one tutorial … I only have an hour and a half. I can’t be on an individual basis. I don’t even know their names. [Jimothy] The increasing workload experienced by educators was attributed to the additional roles prescribed by institutions in response to ERT. A large portion of such roles falls outside educators’ usual scope of duties, which had to be learned, implemented, and delivered at an accelerated pace, leading to extended levels of stress and exhaustion. As past studies have revealed, the additional workload required to adapt course content to online platforms and maintain interpersonal communications with students during the pandemic amplified the level of stress experienced by educators, impacting their mental health (Adedoyin & Soykan, 2023; Nyanjom & Naylor, 2021): We’re asking our colleagues to do everything. So, we’re asking them to write the course, design the course, put it online and then teach the course, and wondering why they’re tired. [Annette] 4.1.4. Pedagogical challenges Next, negative emotions were driven by pedagogical factors attributed to the limitations of the online classroom and tools accessible to educators. In describing her frustration with the online classroom, one respondent explained how the absence of physical presence enables students to evade certain situations and thus hampers the development of skills (e.g. problem-solving, communication, leadership) and traits (e. g. confidence) crucial to the hospitality industry: I think it [online classroom] reduces student’s ability to be confident in a certain environment because the screen, the ability to turn off your camera, turn off your mic, give them a safe space to hide rather than coming out saying I want to take ownership of this situation, I want to help you. [Ariel] In the same vein, the non-physicality of the online classroom limited educators’ ability to hold students accountable for their actions and behaviours, making it challenging to harness professional standards expected by the industry, including grooming, timeliness, and respect. This resulted in feelings of helplessness: I think that goes back to the non-physicality of being on campus and having [person de-identified] walk around with a grooming kit and yelling at them for not wearing black socks. Having me give them that look because they’re late, and having someone play on their phone and then getting a talking to. These kinds of professional standards you cannot do online the same way. [Sandra] Furthermore, teaching online inhibited educators’ visualisation of the classroom, particularly students’ engagement and receptivity to the content and style of delivery. This led to feelings of defeat as it takes away visual prompts which educators rely on and subsequently act upon through modifications to their teaching approach: Part of I think being an effective teacher is modifying your teaching, depending on your audience. And if your audience is online and all you’re seeing is a bunch of grey and white avatars, then how do you modify your teaching? … How am I supposed to create this positive learning experience if I don’t even know how they’re feeling? [Sandra] Pedagogical challenges also brought about feelings of helplessness, which educators attributed to the lack of appropriate online teaching tools and technologies that replicate the development of hands-on and technical skills performed in face-to-face teaching. Similarly, real-life encounters and experiences in hospitality work can be difficult to simulate online, making it impossible for educators to familiarise students with what “real life” in the “real world” looks like: I’ve been looking for a simulation so I know, there are very few simulations that give the same skills as you would get. The simple thing of carrying a tray, the physical weight of carrying a tray or spilling something on a guest, or dropping the dishes, but these are real things that happen in our industry … So, I think that’s the hardest thing teaching online practical skills. [Annette] Such pedagogical challenge in ERT is not new, particularly in practice-based courses such as clinical studies (Adedoyin & Soykan, 2023). However, the findings of this study recognise the distinct requirements of hospitality education, which seeks to cultivate not only technical skills to perform the job but also attitude and character development needed for the practice of emotional labour and delivery of hospitable services. 4.1.5. Technical challenges While pedagogical challenges stemmed from the limitations and constraints of the online classroom, technical factors further hampered the quality of teaching and learning for staff and students. Such factors include poor internet connectivity, technical glitches, and the incompatibility of systems used for online teaching. The anticipation of potential technical failure contributed to feelings of panic, stress, and anxiety, resulting in added measures taken by educators to ensure such occurrences are minimised and carefully managed: Every time I have an online session … just before that, there’s a moment of anxiety. Will it work? It’s almost like you log on early just to make sure. And everybody says, ‘Oh, I forgot to turn myself off mute.’ Or, ‘How do I share my screen?’ And it’s almost this moment of panic. [Annette] 4.2. Characteristics of the ERT transition driving positive emotions Although limited, specific characteristics of the ERT transition brought about positive emotions for educators. These were driven by unexpected student interactions, which contrasted the typical struggles faced with online student engagement and, as such, elicited feelings of surprise, joy, and fun. Positive interactions created a sense of appreciation that reinforced educators’ confidence in their online teaching abilities and elevated their online teaching experience: But to my surprise, though, with this cohort I have probably 95% of students after listening to me, they all turn on their camera. I have my massive screen in front of me at home, and I basically zoom out the entire Zoom screen, I think they can list up to 50 people on the same screen. All the students turn on their cameras smiling, saying hi C. Lee et al.

Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 57 (2023) 327–338 333 and interacting. At that moment, I just almost felt like I was about to cry. [Ariel] Educators also appreciated meaningful interactions afforded by online teaching platforms that expanded spatial boundaries of the classroom into personal home spaces. The crossover between work and home spaces allowed for opportunities to share and exchange aspects of one’s life while breaking down barriers of a formal classroom environment and establishing genuine human connections that brought joy: So, all the students recognise my cat, and they’re like, ‘Oh, where is Jeckings today?’ And that lets them look into our home lives … But I think it’s led to having a closer relationship with students in some ways because they’re literally watching you in your home environment. [Shanti] Such finding offers a new perspective on the influence of the home environment, as past studies have described family and pets to be barriers and intrusions that bring about diversion and disruption to the teaching and learning process (Adedoyin & Soykan, 2023; Joshi et al., 2021). This finding may be attributed to hospitality educators’ tendency towards and demonstration of authenticity, essential for establishing interpersonal relationships, care, and empathy in service interactions (Manfreda et al., 2023a). Educators valued the convenience of online teaching as it permitted multi-tasking with minimal disruption to the class. One respondent explained how the ability to take notes while teaching allowed for postclass review and follow-up without needing to rely on personal memory. This assisted with better management of students’ learning, resulting in a sense of relief: The best part about teaching online is you can have a notebook beside you, and you can take notes and you can draw back to them. Whereas when you’re standing in front of them, you’ve got to rely on your memory. [Paddington] Interestingly, some educators also expressed an increased sense of control through technology-assisted student management and, thus, confidence in managing the learning of students online. Indicators such as the number of times a student attended classes, participation in classroom discussions, and content of the online chat were used to identify and track the progress of weaker students. Respondents explained how features such as polls enable the detection of students who appeared present but failed to engage. This informed the next course of action, typically taking the form of follow-up emails after class: When you look and you do say polls for example online, and you don’t see responses a couple of times from someone, you know they’re not engaged. They could be watching Tik Tok or they’re enjoying their meal or Netflix or whatever. But, I follow up with them and say, ‘Hey I noticed you didn’t participate in some of the activities, is there anything I can do to help?‘. [John] While educators’ appreciation for the flexibility of online teaching has been previously established, particularly in relation to work location and time (Lee & Deale, 2021), our findings reveal flexibility that extends into teaching and student management practices, which support the effective planning and delivery of classes. Furthermore, the engagement of students with different learning styles has been discussed by Valsaraj et al. (2021) as one of the most crucial challenges educators faced during ERT. However, our findings suggest otherwise, as educators were surprised by the inclusivity of the online classroom, which opened up opportunities to engage students with varying personality types and learning styles. Respondents reported increased engagement from students who prefer to participate without drawing attention to themselves and how the ability to participate anonymously created a safer learning environment for those who would have otherwise not participated: Sometimes students who wouldn’t really engage face-to-face are more inclined to engage online just because they don’t necessarily have to show their faces or they can engage anonymously and I think a lot of the times they take that opportunity … And on Blackboard you can pull up a little screen where the students can type their questions and comments. And I find that I get a lot of responses on the whiteboard. [Shanti] Educators also expressed a sense of excitement drawn from the novelty and possibilities of online teaching. Many recognised the existing and upcoming possibilities of online (and Hy-Flex/Hybrid) teaching, sharing how students’ access to information online can be leveraged to enrich classes and involve students in co-creating or co-conducting lessons, thus building an environment where students contribute to each other’s learning: So, what I do is my slides are quite, they don’t have much information on them … I just pull up the slides and I get the students to go look it on Google. ‘So, go Google this word and tell me what it means.’ And then they’ll ask the question and then I’ll find another student answering the question. So, all I have to do is confirm the answer that the other students are giving is correct. And then you’ll have these other students who are acting as moderators, and they’ll start removing the questions that are on the screen that have already been answered so that I don’t lose track of what other things I’ve already spoken about and what other things I haven’t spoken about. So, it’s truly an experience in which we’re all contributing. [Shanti] 4.3. Situational factors affecting work events Various situational factors, which correspond with the work environment features in the AET, shaped how educators perceived work events and, subsequently, emotions felt during the ERT transition. Situational factors encompass the stage of transition into the work event (e.g. initial stages of ERT, later stages, reopening of campuses), characteristics of the student cohort, level of institutional support, and presence of peer support. Uncertainties that accompanied the initial stages of ERT amplified the severity of the work event, resulting in feelings of anxiety and helplessness as educators were expected to step into a new and unfamiliar territory of online teaching. Nevertheless, educators felt more at ease in the later stages of the transition due to improved familiarity with and predictability of the online teaching tools and environment, thus increasing confidence in classroom management: At the beginning of the whole pandemic when we had to do the whole shift, I think, anxiety, uncertainty, panicking at certain times. But nowadays, it’s much more of like, ‘Oh, that’s fine. It’s okay. Let’s just give the rest a few minutes to come in.’ It’s more relaxed. [Volofo] The unique characteristics (e.g., size, cultural mix, student behaviours) of each student cohort also determined the magnitude of the work event perceived by educators. As a decline in student engagement was generally seen online, actions and behaviours opposing such norms brought about a sense of surprise. For example, students turning their cameras on without being prompted and actively contributing to in-class discussions negated educators’ pre-conceived student-related and pedagogical concerns. The cultural background of students also played a significant role as culture affects students’ learning approaches and responses to the learning environment (Manikutty et al., 2007), leading to positive experiences for some educators: I really like the German cohorts because, at the end of each lecture, they always clap. That’s just a German thing. [Genevieve] Regarding institutional support, educators who received appropriate training during the ERT transition expressed feeling supported as they were familiarised with the online teaching tools, platforms, and help available to them, generating a greater sense of relief and confidence. In contrast, educators who were not provided with the necessary training C. Lee et al.

Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 57 (2023) 327–338 334 felt the need to fend for themselves, which led to feelings of anxiety and helplessness. Institutional support in the form of training, technical support, and provision of appropriate technologies has been discussed in past research as a common challenge faced by educators (Joshi et al., 2021). In this study, institutional support was also depicted as systems and pedagogical adaptations that educators sought as more permanent and solidified solutions to online teaching. Requests and concerns that remained unactioned exacerbated educators’ responses to ERT and fuelled negative emotions of frustration, defeat, and guilt as educators were left to rely on patchwork solutions. Finally, educators’ emotional experiences during the ERT transition varied depending on the extent of peer support available to them as peers offered guidance, encouragement, and comradery in the process of learning, innovating, problem-solving, and shifting of perspectives: I had a colleague, a good friend of mine who said, ‘Listen, Friedrich, there’s no chance. We have to pull this off. We better be good at it. Otherwise, it’s going to be hell for a long time.’ So, the first thing we did was we shopped for a damn good streaming camera and a decent mic to make the experience for our students as good as we possibly could with our means. [Friedrich] 4.4. Personal factors affecting emotions felt during ERT The findings of this study reveal that personal factors, which correspond with the individual dispositions in the AET, influenced the emotions felt by educators during the ERT transition. Personal factors include educators’ pre-existing (or lack of) online teaching experience, industry experience, technological literacy, and expectations regarding the duration and suitability of online teaching for hospitality education. Educators who were more receptive towards online teaching or have had previous online teaching experiences were able to alleviate negative emotions by being more flexible and creative with their teaching approach and, therefore, felt more positive about the potential of online hospitality education. As Ozüdo ¨ gru ˘ (2021) stated, educators’ readiness and pedagogic agility determine the success of ERT implementation. Interestingly, educators with a strong hospitality practitioner background felt more negatively about online hospitality education. These negative emotions were attributed to the belief that hospitality, as a “people industry”, necessitates sustained physical and emotional engagement with people, which had been adversely impacted in the transition to online teaching: I think to some degree, that potentially could be connected to a sense of teaching students how even in a challenging environment, you can still be friendly, calm, enthusiastic, supportive. These kind of character traits that I would imagine fit well to this idea of being hospitable. That even if it gets late and it gets tough and you have drunken guests and … you have waiters that’s sort of at the end of their nerve because they’ve just been working for 18 hours, you still keep up this spirit of we’re in it together. [Friedrich] More technologically inclined educators were found to be less emotionally impacted by the transition as they exhibited openness, albeit to different extents, towards online teaching. Higher technological literacy enabled educators to self-direct through the transition by seeking, learning, and utilising available tools online to compensate for the challenges and limitations of the online classroom. These educators also anticipate further advancement in online teaching technologies, which provided a sense of hope. Furthermore, educators’ emotions were influenced by their views on the duration and longevity of ERT. Educators who believed ERT to be transitory coped with changes and challenges on a week-to-week basis and held back from implementing holistic and permanent modifications to teaching delivery and subject design, thus sustaining feelings of uncertainty and denial. In the same vein, educators’ perception of the incompatibility of online teaching for hospitality education fuelled negative emotions experienced during ERT, while opposing views amplified the positive emotions felt. 4.5. Consequential work attitude and behaviours: Band-aid teaching Characteristics of the ERT transition discussed above induced a prevalence of negative emotions generating emotional baggage that prompted a work attitude, which two respondents described as “Bandaid teaching.” This was intended as the reactive approach employed in the transition to ERT, which did not lead to sustained modifications and adaptation of hospitality teaching but to a patchwork of quick and temporary solutions to compensate for the deficiencies of online teaching: I think it’s a band-aid solution. There was this old thinking, instead of saying, ‘Stop, let’s think of a new thinking,’ everybody said, ‘Let’s layer some band-aids.’ [Darina] Well, my expectations of the system are totally diminished. Who do you complain to? There’s no one. And did we just become complacent enough to accept the status quo? That’s part of the problem. Because nothing was changing … I’m doing work around. I call it Band-aid teaching. [Paddington] The “Band-aid teaching” attitude was perceived by educators to adversely impact their quality of teaching, relationship with students, job satisfaction, and workplace engagement. To minimise or compensate for these adverse effects, educators adopted a series of affective-driven behaviours to cope with the transition (see Table 1). These behaviours constitute strategies aimed at improvising and off-setting limitations of the online classroom while assisting educators and students with navigating the uncertainties of ERT. Educators sought and leveraged resources that enabled alternative teaching approaches encompassing changes to classroom delivery, learning activities, teaching disposition, social activities, assessment design, and classroom protocols. Some strategies strived for more implicit outcomes, such as evoking positive emotions and establishing a sense of trust and togetherness. In contrast, others sought more explicit outcomes, such as developing technical and soft skills - both of which are essential in delivering hospitality. Combined, these strategies offer valuable insights into different and tested approaches for teaching hospitality in various settings. It is, however, important to note that while some strategies, such as the use of alternative teaching tools and techniques, resulted in more successful and long-lasting work behaviours that remained beyond the transition, others, such as the replication of a face-to-face environment, did not lead to permanent adoption. Despite its undesirability, implementing band-aid solutions to issues facing education is not an unfamiliar phenomenon. In the context of the COVID-19 pandemic, research conducted from students’ perspective described policymakers’ adoption of online education as a ‘band-aid process’ (Cinar et al., 2021, p. 187). When narrowed to specific ethnic groups (i.e. Black and Latinx students), researchers portrayed a direr picture, labelling government and education institutions’ efforts as ‘putting a band-aid on a bullet wound’ (Moore et al., 2022, para. 1). Beyond the pandemic, research investigating educators’ well-being characterised institutional responses as ‘band-aid fixes’ that provide initial relief but lacked long-term efficacy (Hartcher et al., 2023, p. 329). Nevertheless, these studies were conducted across different disciplines and levels of education (e.g. elementary school to higher education). The “Band-aid teaching” attitude uncovered in the present study advances existing knowledge as it reveals the intricate interrelation between characteristics of the ERT transition, emotional responses, and affective-driven behaviours adopted by hospitality educators, whose role necessitates ongoing emotional work and emotional labour in an industry that relies heavily on human connection in a high-touch environment. C. Lee et al.

Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 57 (2023) 327–338 335 5. Conclusion and implications This study set out to explore the emotional experiences of hospitality educators during a significant work event - the transition to ERT explained through the lens of AET. Emotional experiences were shaped by an array of factors within and outside the control of educators, leading to the adoption of a “Band-aid teaching” attitude and coping mechanisms (work behaviours) that maximised the opportunities and minimised the limitations of ERT. While the COVID-19 pandemic has evolved into an endemic, the potential remains for future emergencies or disruptions that would require educators to pivot and respond rapidly. Thus, studying the emotional experiences of educators during the transition to ERT provides valuable insights and lessons that can be applied to future crises. This study sought to provide attention to an under-researched stakeholder group, hospitality educators, who were previously identified as being more resistant to change (Goh & Sigala, 2020) and deeply engaged in emotional work (Woo & Chan, 2020). As hospitality educators continue to navigate further transitions into Hy-Flex (Hybrid) or Table 1 Affective-driven behaviours resulting from a “Band-aid teaching” attitude. Work behaviour Descriptor Collective optimism Creating shared optimism in the classroom by incorporating elements of fun to bring about joy and happiness, albeit momentarily, during times of uncertainty. Adopting alternative teaching tools and techniques Utilising online teaching tools and techniques to facilitate the development of attitudes and soft skills crucial for hospitality work. E.g.: • Gamification: Introduces an element of fun while exemplifying what hospitableness is about. • Online teaching tools (Kahoot; Padlet, polls, whiteboard): Useful for encouraging participation, managing the learning of students who are less vocal, and assessing comprehension in the absence of physical cues. • Visual tools: Short knowledge and practical clips to visually demonstrate applied techniques (e.g., check-in/out, complaint handling, upselling). Suitable for students with short attention span. • Scenario-based activities: Using hypothetical problems or scenarios for teaching soft skills and attitudes such as teamwork, open-mindedness, respectfulness, and empathy. • Teaching by example: Setting examples by displaying behaviours educators wish to instil in students (e.g., genuine happiness, care, customer service). Examples were also set through professional written and verbal communication. • Storytelling: To emotionally connect with students by linking knowledge to real-life experiences. • Roleplaying: Implementing roleplays based on given scenarios or critical incidents, followed by classroom discussions. • Reflective exercises: Entails students’ reflection on knowledge learned and potential consequences of their actions (e.g., not attending class). • Collaboration and co-creation: Inviting students to co-contribute to the class through open discussions and activities (e.g., think-pair-share). • Leveraging the internet: Designing activities in which students utilise the internet and social media, which would have otherwise been a distraction, as a learning tool. • Interactive activities: In-class activities encouraging students to speak and actively participate to develop confidence in public speaking. • Personality tests: Utilising personality tests to detect personality types and adapting teaching approach to the needs and personality of each student. • Self-paced activities: Providing a manual or instructions for self-guided learning to accommodate students with different learning pace. • Non-assessed tasks: Incorporating nonassessed tasks to measure students’ understanding. Compensating for the lack of physical presence, mobility, and bodily movements Implementing strategies to make up for the absence of physical presence. E.g.: • Out-of-class activities: Scheduling community events (e.g., coffee mornings, campfire sessions) and online Table 1 (continued ) Work behaviour Descriptor activities (e.g., extra study week, drop-in sessions) to provide opportunities for students to get in touch and ask questions, while fostering pastoral care and trust between educators and students. • Small talks: Orchestrating small talks during class to build social connection and a sense of belonging, while allowing students to develop conversational skills and practice the English language. • Amplifying the voice: Using voice intonation and exaggeration to draw emphasis and interest to the subject of discussion. • Leveraging eye contact: Being cognizant of looking into the camera and establishing eye contact with students. • Mobilising learning tools: Mailing tools (e.g., wine tasting kits) required for students’ learning, albeit not economically sustainable. Replicating familiar face-to-face teaching approach Using functions on the online platform to replicate face-to-face learning and teaching methods educators and students are familiar with. Community of practice Turning to peers for support through practice sessions as well as knowledge and experience-sharing, akin to an informal community of practice. Shifting expectations Shifting expectations set on students considering the circumstances and limitations of the online classroom: • Focusing more on the content and process of learning, as opposed to behavioural elements (e.g., grooming). • Positioning students as future leaders, not as learners. • Granting flexibility to provide consistency, predictability, and progress in students’ learning (e.g., by allowing students to choose who they work with). Assessment design Designing assessments aimed at developing soft skills such as empathy and perspectivetaking. Classroom protocol Establishing unwritten rules in class. E.g.: • Students to turn their cameras on to enable the reading of visual cues. • Engaging in active listening by encouraging students to listen and respond to classroom discussions for soft skills development (e.g., complaint handling and problem solving) C. Lee et al.

Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 57 (2023) 327–338 336 in-person teaching, understanding their emotional experiences informs HE institutions of best practices for supporting educators during periods of change and uncertainty, providing significant theoretical and practical implications. 5.1. Theoretical implications This study expands understanding of the emotional experiences and identifies characteristics of the ERT transition that directly impact the emotional states and, consequently, attitudes and behaviours of hospitality educators. In doing so, it provides original theoretical contributions to the fields of organisational behaviour and psychology and hospitality education, particularly in times of change and transition. Several theoretical implications can be drawn from the findings. Firstly, this study’s molecular-level analysis unpacks characteristics of the ERT transition that drive positive and negative emotions in educators, uncovering the impact of this transition and thus explaining the emergence of a “Band-Aid teaching” attitude. The Band-Aid teaching attitude refers to the adoption of a temporary and quick-fix approach to teaching to cope with the shift and limitations of ERT, resulting in lowered satisfaction and engagement at work while driving a series of work behaviours. This implication builds on Weiss and Beal’s (2007) call for an in-depth exploration of the causes of positive and negative affective states at work and the consequences of such affective states. Secondly, this study uncovers a broader concern that demands a more systemic approach, as opposed to reactive responses, to issues facing education. While “band-aid fixes” may assist with achieving short-term solutions and alleviating immediate concerns, they often fail to address deeper and more fundamental issues such as long-term teaching efficacy and equity in education. Applying temporary solutions perpetuates a cycle where educators are expected to continually adapt and improvise while more sustainable and systemic improvements are overlooked and neglected. This calls for a more equity-focused approach to existing and future issues in education through a comprehensive review of educational policies and practices. Thirdly, this study contributes to a significant gap in hospitality education and organisational psychology literature by giving voice to educators engaged in emotional labour. The study recognises the importance of emotions in shaping educators’ experiences and highlights the need to acknowledge and manage emotions in the workplace (Manfreda et al., 2023). Educators’ emotions are an essential aspect of their work, influencing their teaching practices, relationships with students and colleagues, job satisfaction, and work engagement. Therefore, this study emphasises the need for theory and practice to recognise the fundamental role and impact of emotions at work while encouraging increased attention to and support for educators in managing emotions during significant work events. Lastly, this study demonstrates the applicability of AET (Affective Events Theory) in different service contexts. The findings and framework of this study were inductively constructed but aptly mirror the AET, thus proving the theory’s utility in investigating and explaining real-life situations and work events. This contribution offers a robust basis for further research on emotions at work in other service organisations. 5.2. Practical implications Hospitality education has undergone tremendous changes and challenges in recent years, particularly with the shift to ERT. Several practical implications can be drawn from this study for both hospitality educators and institutions. Firstly, it is crucial for institutions to recognise the importance of a customer-centric culture towards employees to promote employee satisfaction and well-being, which in turn leads to improved student and institutional outcomes. Institutions must be reminded that happy employees lead to happy customers and, as such, should provide ongoing support, including pedagogical, financial, and emotional support to educators. The increasing hidden workload imposed on educators needs to be addressed, and institutions should be sensitive to the growing demands educators face. Secondly, the findings of this study can enhance empathy and understanding towards educators as they navigate the ongoing and lingering effects of the pandemic. Specifically, our findings suggest that HE institutions, administrators, and policymakers should take a leading role in making academia more humane by investing more broadly in faculty well-being. Understanding the emotional experiences of hospitality educators provides insights into the implications of sudden changes and uncertainty in the workplace. As the need to manage emotions creates tension that negatively impacts well-being (Nyanjom & Naylor, 2021), support for educators’ mental and physical health becomes pivotal as they transition back to in-person or Hy-Flex (Hybrid) teaching. Psychological support, such as well-being programs, an open-door policy, and emotions regulation workshops, can assist educators with managing emotions and maintaining a healthy work-life balance. Recognising emotions as a significant part of the work in hospitality education is also essential to ensure educators are not overwhelmed by their roles and responsibilities. Thirdly, this study reveals various coping strategies employed by educators as a result of the “Band-Aid teaching” attitude. While not all strategies showed long-term efficacy, such insights offer a valuable roadmap for educators and institutions, delineating what worked and what fell short during the ERT transition. This is particularly critical for future preparedness, enabling educators and institutions to more adeptly manage similar transitions in the face of inevitable crises. Specifically, institutions and managers should foster collegiality and peerto-peer support within the organisation, which our findings showed to be an effective tool for navigating change. This reinforces past research that found peer support, in the form of coaching and mentoring, to be crucial in the learning stages for educators (Valsaraj et al., 2021). Institutions can also promote a culture of peer support by hiring and supporting inclusive leaders who can create a harmonious team environment and a sense of belonging. This can be achieved by inclusive leaders listening to, being available for, and responding to individual team members’ unique needs and characteristics. Moreover, institutions should create avenues for educators to share and demystify mistakes, particularly during times of transition and change. This can help reduce anxiety and promote transparency, thereby building a culture of learning and growth. By creating an environment of openness and support, institutions can ensure educators feel safe, valued, and motivated to perform at their best. 5.3. Limitations and recommendations for future research This study has some limitations, which highlight opportunities for future research. Firstly, the representativeness of the sample is limited. While data saturation was reached well within the sample size, future studies may wish to extend the sample to achieve increased heterogeneity in the profile of participants. Future research may also wish to extend the investigation by considering other stakeholder perspectives, including hospitality institutions and students, and the broader effects of the ERT transition on these stakeholder groups. This would provide a more holistic understanding of ERT and its effects, specifically in hospitality education. Secondly, while this study included participants from different countries representing a mix of cultural backgrounds, a predominance of Asia-Pacific institutional affiliations is seen, which can be attributed to the convenience and snowball sampling techniques used. While including respondents from various cultural backgrounds can enhance the transferability of the findings, it was not within the scope of this study to undertake a cross-cultural analysis of the data. Hence, future research may extend the study by exploring the phenomenon across a broader cultural context to identify the role of culture in influencing the emotional experiences faced by educators. C. Lee et al.

Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 57 (2023) 327–338 337 Thirdly, data for this study were collected at a particular stage (the middle mark) of the COVID-19 pandemic. The findings depict the emotional experiences of educators during the ERT transition, which offer relevance to future crises and for continued educational practice. Scope exists for a longitudinal extension of this study to compare the emotional experiences of educators during the descending phase of the transition and the subsequent shift to in-person or Hy-Flex (Hybrid) teaching. This could provide further evidence of the long-term effect of emotions on hospitality educators’ attitudes, work behaviours, and their careers, thus extending the conceptualisation of “Band-Aid teaching” and its impact on educators. Lastly, this study focused primarily on exploring the causes of emotions at work during the ERT transition. The findings touched on the consequences of these emotions, related to the “Band-aid teaching” attitude and subsequent work behaviours. Future studies may wish to extend the investigation to more holistically capture attitudes, such as satisfaction or work engagement, and judgment-driven behaviours (long-term persistent work behaviours) to better encapsulate the effects of educators’ emotional experiences during significant work events. Contribution statement Cindy Lee: Conceptualisation, methodology, investigation, data analysis, visualisation, and writing, reviewing, and editing of the manuscript. Anita Manfreda: Conceptualisation, methodology, investigation, data analysis, visualisation, writing, reviewing, and editing of the manuscript, and overall project administration. Antoine Bisson: Conceptualisation, methodology, investigation, data analysis, and reviewing, and editing of the manuscript. Madalyn Scerri: Reviewing, editing, and revising the manuscript. Rajka Presbury: Reviewing, editing, and revising the manuscript. Financial disclosure None. Funding None. Declaration of competing interest None. Appendix A. Supplementary data Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi. org/10.1016/j.jhtm.2023.11.001. References Adedoyin, O. B., & Soykan, E. (2023). Covid-19 pandemic and online learning: The challenges and opportunities. Interactive Learning Environments, 31(2), 863–875. https://doi.org/10.1080/10494820.2020.1813180 Babalola, M. T., Ren, S., Kobinah, T., Qu, Y. E., Garba, O. A., & Guo, L. (2019). Negative workplace gossip: Its impact on customer service performance and moderating roles of trait mindfulness and forgiveness. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 80, 136–143. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2019.02.007 Baker, S. E., & Edwards, R. (2012). How many qualitative interviews is enough? Expert voices and early career reflections on sampling and cases in qualitative research. National Centre for Research Methods. Retrieved from. http://eprints.ncrm.ac. uk/2273/ Bennett, L. (2014). Putting in more: Emotional work in adopting online tools in teaching and learning practices. Teaching in Higher Education, 19(8), 919–930. https://doi. org/10.1080/13562517.2014.934343 Blau, P. M. (1964). Exchange and power in social life. Wiley. Bond, M., Bedenlier, S., Marín, V. I., & H¨ andel, M. (2021). Emergency remote teaching in higher education: Mapping the first global online semester. International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education, 18(1), 50. https://doi.org/10.1186/ s41239-021-00282-x Castellacci, F., & Vinas-Bardolet, ˜ C. (2021). Permanent contracts and job satisfaction in academia: Evidence from European countries. Studies in Higher Education, 46(9), 1866–1880. https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2019.1711041 Cheung, F. Y.-L., Wu, A. M. S., Lam, C. C., & Cindia). (2019). Effect of job insecurity, anxiety and personal resources on job satisfaction among casino employees in Macau: A moderated mediation analysis. Journal of Hospitality Marketing & Management, 28(3), 379–396. https://doi.org/10.1080/19368623.2019.1525332 Cinar, M., Ekici, M., & Demir, O. (2021). Medication or band-aid? Revisiting university students’ readiness for online education. The Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education, 176–191. https://doi.org/10.17718/tojde.906848 Creswell, J. W. (2013). Qualitative inquiry & Research design (3rd ed.). SAGE Publications Inc. Decrop, A. (1999). Triangulation in qualitative tourism research. Tourism Management, 20(1), 157–161. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0261-5177(98)00102-2 Denzin, N. K., & Lincoln, Y. S. (2011). The SAGE handbook of qualitative research. SAGE Publications Inc. Downing, J. J., & Dyment, J. E. (2013). Teacher educators’ readiness, preparation, and perceptions of preparing preservice teachers in a fully online environment: An exploratory study. The Teacher Educator, 48(2), 96–109. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 08878730.2012.760023 Ferri, F., Grifoni, P., & Guzzo, T. (2020). Online learning and emergency remote teaching: Opportunities and challenges in emergency situations. Societies, 10(4), 86. https://doi.org/10.3390/soc10040086 Fuchs, K. (2021). Advances in tourism education: A qualitative inquiry about emergency remote teaching in higher education. Journal of Environmental Management and Tourism, 12(2), 538. https://doi.org/10.14505//jemt.v12.2(50).23 Garrison, D. R., Anderson, T., & Archer, W. (1999). Critical inquiry in a text-based environment: Computer conferencing in higher education. The Internet and Higher Education, 2(2–3), 87–105. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1096-7516(00)00016-6 Ghasemy, M., Erfanian, M., & Gaskin, J. E. (2021). Affective events theory as a theoretical lens for improving the working environment of academics in developing economies. Journal of Applied Research in Higher Education, 13(1), 300–324. https:// doi.org/10.1108/JARHE-02-2020-0030 Gilmore, S., & Warren, S. (2007). Themed article: Emotion online: Experiences of teaching in a virtual learning environment. Human Relations, 60(4), 581–608. https://doi.org/10.1177/0018726707078351 Goh, E., & Sigala, M. (2020). Integrating Information & Communication Technologies (ICT) into classroom instruction: Teaching tips for hospitality educators from a diffusion of innovation approach. Journal of Teaching in Travel & Tourism, 20(2), 156–165. https://doi.org/10.1080/15313220.2020.1740636 Harkison, T., Hemmington, N., & Hyde, K. F. (2018). Creating the luxury accommodation experience: Case studies from New Zealand. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 30(3), 1724–1740. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJCHM-05- 2017-0247 Hartcher, K., Chapman, S., & Morrison, C. (2023). Applying a band-aid or building a bridge: Ecological factors and divergent approaches to enhancing teacher wellbeing. Cambridge Journal of Education, 53(3), 329–356. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 0305764X.2022.2155612 Hasan, N., & Khan, N. H. (2020). Online teaching-learning during covid-19 pandemic: Students’ perspective. The Online Journal of Distance Education and E-Learning, 8(4), 202–213. Hobfoll, S. E. (1989). Conservation of resources: A new attempt at conceptualizing stress. American Psychologist, 44(3), 513–524. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003- 066X.44.3.513 Hodges, C., Moore, S., Lockee, B., Trust, T., & Bond, A. (2020). The difference between emergency remote teaching and online learning. Educause Review, 1–12. https://er. educause.edu/articles/2020/3/the-difference-between-emergency-remote-teachingand-. Hwang, Y. H., Shi, X., Crystal), & Wang, X. (2021). Hospitality employees’ emotions in the workplace: A systematic review of recent literature. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 33(10), 3752–3796. https://doi.org/10.1108/ IJCHM-12-2020-1426 Iglesias-Pradas, S., Hern´ andez-García, A., ´ Chaparro-Pel´ aez, J., & Prieto, J. L. (2021). Emergency remote teaching and students’ academic performance in higher education during the COVID-19 pandemic: A case study. Computers in Human Behavior, 119(June), Article 106713. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2021.106713 Joshi, A., Vinay, M., & Bhaskar, P. (2021). Impact of coronavirus pandemic on the Indian education sector: Perspectives of teachers on online teaching and assessments. Interactive Technology and Smart Education, 18(2), 205–226. https://doi.org/ 10.1108/ITSE-06-2020-0087 Khan, H. S. U. D., Siddiqui, S. H., Zhiqiang, M., Weijun, H., & Mingxing, L. (2021). “Who champions or mentors others”? The role of personal resources in the perceived organizational politics and job attitudes relationship. Frontiers in Psychology, 12 (March), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.609842 Kuwaiti, A. Al, Bicak, H. A., & Wahass, S. (2019). Factors predicting job satisfaction among faculty members of a Saudi higher education institution. Journal of Applied Research in Higher Education, 12(2), 296–310. https://doi.org/10.1108/JARHE-07- 2018-0128 Lazarus, R. S. (1991). Cognition and motivation in emotion. American Psychologist, 46(4), 352–367. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.46.4.352 Lee, S. H., & Deale, C. S. (2021). Moving to online education virtually overnight due to a pandemic: Perceptions of hospitality and tourism students and faculty member. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Education, 33(4), 223–241. https://doi.org/ 10.1080/10963758.2021.1963970 C. Lee et al.

Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 57 (2023) 327–338 338 Lee, L., & Madera, J. M. (2019). A systematic literature review of emotional labor research from the hospitality and tourism literature. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 31(7), 2808–2826. https://doi.org/10.1108/ IJCHM-05-2018-0395 Lee, C., Richardson, S., Goh, E., & Presbury, R. (2023). From the tourist gaze to a shared gaze: Exploring motivations for online photo-sharing in present-day tourism experience. Tourism Management Perspectives, 46, Article 101099. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.tmp.2023.101099 Lei, S. I., & So, A. S. I. (2021). Online teaching and learning experiences during the COVID-19 pandemic – a comparison of teacher and student perception. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Education, 33(3), 148–162. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 10963758.2021.1907196 Lincoln, Y. S., & Guba, E.g. (1985). Naturalistic inquiry. SAGE Publications. Maddrell, J. A., Morrison, G. R., & Watson, G. S. (2020). Presence and learning in a community of inquiry. In Social presence and identity in online learning (pp. 109–122). Routledge. Manfreda, A., Presbury, R., Richardson, S., Melissen, F., & King, J. (2023a). A balancing act: Negotiating authenticity in luxury lodges. Journal of Vacation Marketing. https:// doi.org/10.1177/13567667231172995 Manfreda, A., Presbury, R., Richardson, S., Melissen, F., & King, J. (2023b). Walking the talk: A high engagement research implementation framework in the qualitative study of tourism and hospitality experiences. Tourism Management Perspectives, 48 (September), Article 101142. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tmp.2023.101142 Manfreda, A., Ye, I. Q., & Nelson-Miles, K. (2023). Transforming tourism’s “field(work) of view.”. Annals of Tourism Research, 103, Article 103665. https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.annals.2023.103665 Manikutty, S., Anuradha, N. S., & Hansen, K. (2007). Does culture influence learning styles in higher education? International Journal of Learning and Change, 2(1), 70. https://doi.org/10.1504/IJLC.2007.014896 Mejia, C., & Phelan, K. V. (2014). Hospitality instructors’ preference for blended teaching: A bridge to full online course delivery. Journal of Teaching in Travel & Tourism, 14(4), 343–364. https://doi.org/10.1080/15313220.2014.955304 Misirli, O., & Ergulec, F. (2021). Emergency remote teaching during the COVID-19 pandemic: Parents experiences and perspectives. Education and Information Technologies, 26(6), 6699–6718. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-021-10520-4 Moore, D. P., Wilkinson, B. C., Field, O., & Ramirez, A. (2022). Placing a band-aid on a bullet wound?. In The color of COVID-19 (pp. 12–28). Routledge. https://doi.org/ 10.4324/9781003268710-2. Munoz, K. E., Wang, M. J., & Tham, A. (2021). Enhancing online learning environments using social presence: Evidence from hospitality online courses during COVID-19. Journal of Teaching in Travel & Tourism, 00(00), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 15313220.2021.1908871 Naylor, D., & Nyanjom, J. (2021). Educators’ emotions involved in the transition to online teaching in higher education. Higher Education Research and Development, 40 (6), 1236–1250. https://doi.org/10.1080/07294360.2020.1811645 Nyanjom, J., & Naylor, D. (2021). Performing emotional labour while teaching online. Educational Research, 63(2), 147–163. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 00131881.2020.1836989 Ogbonna, E., & Harris, L. C. (2004). Work intensification and emotional labour among UK university lecturers: An exploratory study. Organization Studies, 25(7), 1185–1203. https://doi.org/10.1177/0170840604046315 Orlowski, M., Mejia, C., Back, R., & Fridrich, J. (2021). Transition to online culinary and beverage labs: Determining student engagement and satisfaction during COVID-19. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Education, 33(3), 163–175. https://doi.org/ 10.1080/10963758.2021.1907193 Ozüdogru, ¨ F. (2021). Turkish preservice teachers’ experiences with emergency remote teaching : A phenomenological study. Issues in Educational Research, 31(1), 166–187. Patwardharr, V., Rao, S., Thirugnanasambantham, C., & Prabhu, N. (2020). Community of Inquiry (Col) framework and course design as predictors of satisfaction in emergency remote teaching: Perspectives of hospitality management students. Journal of e-Learning and Knowledge Society, 16(4), 94–103. https://doi.org/ 10.20368/1971-8829/1135315 Pope, M. (2005). Constructing teacher and teacher education worldwid. In F. Fransella (Ed.), The essential practitioner’s handbook of personal construct psychology (pp. 303–310). Wiley. Pu, P., Cheng, L., Samarathunga, W., & Wall, G. (2023). Tour guides’ sustainable tourism practices in host-guest interactions: When Tibet meets the west. Tourism Review, 78 (3), 808–833. https://doi.org/10.1108/TR-04-2022-0182 Rapanta, C., Botturi, L., Goodyear, P., Gu` ardia, L., & Koole, M. (2020). Online university teaching during and after the Covid-19 crisis: Refocusing teacher presence and learning activity. Postdigital Science and Education, 2(3), 923–945. https://doi.org/ 10.1007/s42438-020-00155-y Ray, A., Ray, A., Bala, P. K., & Rana, N. P. (2023). What affects the use of green technology in hotels? Assessing hotel management viewpoint using natural language processing based qualitative study. Journal of Hospitality Marketing & Management, 32(7), 917–946. https://doi.org/10.1080/19368623.2023.2221256 Shi, X., Gordon, S., & Tang, C.-H. (2021). Momentary well-being matters: Daily fluctuations in hotel employees’ turnover intention. Tourism Management, 83, Article 104212. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2020.104212 Smith, R. A. (2021). Pandemic and post-pandemic digital pedagogy in hospitality education for Generations Z, Alpha, and beyond. Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research, 45(5), 915–919. https://doi.org/10.1177/10963480211000818 Strauss, A. L. (1987). Qualitative analysis for social scientists. Cambridge University Press. Swan, K. P., Richardson, J. C., Ice, P., Garrison, D. R., Cleveland-Innes, M., & Arbaugh, J. B. (2008). Validating a measurement tool of presence in online communities of inquiry. E-Mentor, 2(24), 1–12. http://online.purdue.edu/sites /purdue/files/Validating-a-Measurement-Tool-of-Presence-in-Online-Communities -of-Inquiry.pdf. Valsaraj, B. P., More, B., Biju, S., Payini, V., & Pallath, V. (2021). Faculty experiences on emergency remote teaching during COVID-19: A multicentre qualitative analysis. Interactive Technology and Smart Education, 18(3), 319–344. https://doi.org/ 10.1108/ITSE-09-2020-0198 Veal, A. J. (2011). Research methods for leisure and tourism: A practical guide (4th ed.). Financial Times Prentice Hall. Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society. Harvard University Press. Weiss, H. M., & Beal, D. J. (2007). Reflections on affective events theory. In N. M. Ashkanasy (Ed.), The effect of affect in organizational settings (Vol. 1, pp. 1–21). Emerald Group Publishing Limited. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1746-9791(05) 01101-6. Issue 05. Weiss, H. M., & Cropanzano, R. (1996). Affective events theory: A theoretical discussion of the structure, causes and consequences of affective experiences at work. Organizational Behavior, 18, 1–74. Woo, K., & Chan, B. (2020). “Service with a smile” and emotional contagion: A replication and extension study. Annals of Tourism Research, 80, Article 102850. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2019.102850 Anita Manfreda is a Senior Lecturer at the Blue Mountains International Hotel Management School at Torrens University Australia. Anita has extensive hospitality and tourism industry experience, having held various managerial roles in independent and chain luxury hotels in Europe and Australia. Anita’s research explores authentic experiences in luxury accommodation from the perspectives of guests, employees, and managers. Anita’s research and teaching interests include customer and service experience, authenticity, luxury travel, luxury accommodation, and qualitative methods. Anita was awarded the TGE Fellowship at Torrens University Australia in 2021 for research in the area of higher hospitality education and e-learning. Antoine Bisson is a Senior Lecturer at the Blue Mountains International Hotel Management School at Torrens University Australia. Antoine first worked in the hotel industry in diverse workforces in France, China and Australia, and evolving in various departments including Revenue Management, Night Audit, Purchasing and Storeroom. His research focuses on hospitality higher education. His research interests lie with hotel revenue management, revenue management education, hospitality education, and action research. Cindy Lee is a Senior Lecturer at the Blue Mountains International Hotel Management School at Torrens University Australia. Her research focuses on exploring the evolving tourist experience with attention paid to tourists’ photo-taking and online photo-sharing behaviours and motivation. She has also previously published in the area of hospitality career perceptions. Having been in tourism and hospitality education for over a decade, she has recently taken interest in exploring hospitality education in the shifting landscape, from an on-site to an online environment, as well as how educators can teach or train empathy. Madalyn Scerri is a Senior Lecturer at the Blue Mountains International Hotel Management School at Torrens University Australia. Her research focuses on the dynamics of service language as talk and interaction in the context of hotels and other service settings, including residential aged care. Her other research interests focus on inclusive service design and delivery, interpersonal skill development in hospitality graduates and enhancing meaningful employment and training opportunities for people with disability in hospitality and tourism. Rajka Presbury is an Adjunct Associate Professor at the Blue Mountains International Hotel Management School at Torrens University Australia. Her research focuses on service quality and service experience, exploring perceptions of customers, managers, and employees in hotels. More recently, she became fascinated by the triadic service relationship of educational institutions, corporate service providers, and students as current and future hospitality industry employees, thus exploring topics such as Work-Integrated Learning and Mentoring. She is also on the current auditor panel for the International Centre of Excellence Tourism Hospitality Education, which has taken her to Europe and Asia to collaborate with International Hospitality Programs and accreditation agencies. C. Lee et al.

Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 57 (2023) 143–144 Available online 4 October 2023 1447-6770/© 2023 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. on behalf of CAUTHE - COUNCIL FOR AUSTRALASIAN TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY EDUCATION. All rights reserved. Book review Control, abuse, bullying and family violence in tourism industries. Author by Elisa Zentveld. Publisher by Channel View Publications. ISBN 9781845418700. https://doi.org/10.21832/9781845418724. This book explores the role of control, harassment, intimidation, and family violence in the tourism system, written by Elisa Zentveld, a professor in the tourism and management field. This book consists of 15 chapters that examine the increased risk of family violence during family outings, sports events, and within the tourism system. The book also explains that the risk persists and may even increase after being separated from the perpetrator of family violence. The topics in this book are interesting and rarely discussed in tourism management. However, this book could have been much more interesting with more pictures that could attract readers’ attention. Chapter one examines the impacts of family control, abuse, intimidation, and violence on the tourism industry. From the tourism management perspective, this chapter illustrates the significance of a comprehensive understanding of the tourism system and the urgency to create a safe work environment for employees. Furthermore, this chapter also discusses weaknesses in legislation related to family violence and labor laws. This chapter relatively provides valuable insight into these issues within the tourism industry and the significance of dealing with them honestly and transparently. Chapter two introduces the concept of tourism systems and their understanding to comprehend tourism as a whole. This chapter discusses general system theories and their application to tourism systems. Moreover, this chapter also introduces the concept and various elements which establish tourism systems, for instance, the use of tourism models, particularly the overall tourism system model, in understanding tourism. Chapter three discusses control, abuse, and violence in the context of domestic violence. This chapter introduces key concepts and a conceptual framework that helps understand how domestic violence occurs and why it is difficult to give up domestic violence. This chapter also presents a conceptual framework explaining the steps to escape domestic violence. Chapter four discusses the tourism industry and how tourism is comprised of several related industries. This chapter interprets the concept of industry and why tourism comprises several industries. This chapter also discusses the partial industrialization of the tourism industry. It provides a basic understanding of the complex aspects of tourism that will help the reader understand the aspects of the industry discussed in later chapters. Chapter five discusses major labor-related issues found in some businesses within the tourism system, for example, in industries such as hospitality, retail, and fast food (given that these industries also cater to tourists). This chapter can be valuable to those interested in improving their understanding of workplace agreements and identifying areas in which tensions can arise in businesses that cater to tourists. In addition, the chapter also outlines how widespread the impact of problematic behavior can be when discussed within a tourism framework. Chapter six discusses the issues of harassment and bullying in the tourism industry. This chapter constitutes the third section addressing the components of the ‘industry’ of the tourism system. It specifically focuses on two components, namely workplace bullying related to harassment that occurs in industries relevant to serving tourists and addressing primary and secondary education on how family violence impacts children in schools. Chapter seven examines the issue of the spike in family violence occurring in the large tourism industry and outlines the correlation between these events and familial violence. Chapter eight deals with the issue of family violence in tourism destinations and focuses on the element of ‘destination tourism’. This chapter explains Maslow’s hierarchy of human needs theory regarding the importance of stability and predictability of security in tourist destinations. Chapter nine is the second chapter focusing on elements of the ‘destination tourism’ system, addressing the various elements of said tourism system overall, but placing them within the destination so that the impact of mobility due to common parental responsibility can be highlighted. This chapter outlines how the 1975 Family Law Act provides for the standard position of ‘equal parental responsibility’ and what this means. This chapter describes how a position of equal parental responsibility impacts parents and children after separation. Chapter 10 examines the tourism system elements, ‘transit routes’ in the Whole Tourism System Model. This chapter examines problematic behaviors (bullying, control, abuse, family violence) along the path between tourist-producing areas (where tourists live) and tourist destinations (both to and from). However, the solutions to solve problem behaviors in tourist destinations are still unclear. Chapter 11 focuses on elements of the ‘producing area’ tourism system and focuses on problematic behavior within the home; in particular, it relates to controlling and abusive behavior. This chapter examines cases of gaslighting, children siding with the perpetrator, intentional self-harm, and effects on children that parents may wish to deny. An interesting sentence in this chapter is that self-harm can lead to suicide. Chapter 12 focuses on the final tourism system element – the tourists. This chapter explores hidden aspects of being a tourist from the perspective of a family violence victim and emphasizes to the reader that tourists are an important asset in developing sustainable tourist destinations. Chapter 13 outlines the role of friends and relatives in supporting victims of family violence and how Visiting Friends and Relatives (VFR) can be an important method of recovery and support. This chapter emphasizes the importance of understanding family violence and teaches us to act appropriately. Chapter 14 develops the complex elements of a domestic violence escape, using the framework of domestic violence on the run to describe the stages and problems that may arise. This chapter examines stories of victims’ continued hardships and pain, even after escaping abuse. Chapter 15 is the final chapter which summarizes and synthesizes the Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jhtm https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhtm.2023.08.023 Received 23 August 2023; Accepted 30 August 2023