UCNJ Spring 2024 Research Journal

UCNJ U N I O N C O L L E G E O F UNION COUNTY, NJ Undergraduate Research Journal Volume 6 | No. 2 | Spring 2024

UCNJ Union College of Union County, NJ | Undergraduate Research Journal Volume 6 | No. 2 | Spring 2024 UCNJ Union College of Union County, NJ | Undergraduate Research Journal Volume 6| No. 2 | Spring 2024 Editorial Team: Editor-in-Chief Mohamed Mohamed, Ph.D. Director of Student Research and Science Laboratories Associate Editor Melissa Sande, Ph.D. Associate VP of Academic Affairs & Dean of Humanities Shuchi Agrawal, Ph.D. Assistant Dean of STEM Olubisi Ashiru, Ph.D. Academic Specialist, Biology William Dunscombe Dean of STEM Amjed Hedhli, COE. Academic Specialist, Computer Science Sunjin Jo, Ph.D. Academic Specialist, Chemistry Yohan Kim, Ph.D. Academic Specialist, Biology Sanaz Oghlidos Academic Specialist, Biology Susana Sequeira, AIA Academic Specialist, Architecture Faraz Siddique, Ed.D. Associate Dean of STEM

1 UCNJ Union College of Union County, NJ | Undergraduate Research Journal Volume 6| No. 2 |Spring 2024 TABLE OF CONTENTS 03 A Qualitative GC Analysis of Low and High-Octane Gasoline Samples 09 Transforming the Help Desk Experience Using Artificial Intelligence 15 Performance Analysis of Martian Rover Wheel Designs 20 Electricity Generation by Electrogenic Bacteria in Microbial Fuel Cells Constructed from Soils 26 Exploring Feasibility: Iron Oxide Integration into poly (butylene succinate-co-adipate) (PBSA) Biodegradable Polymer 29 Growing a Greener Future: How Hemp is Revolutionizing Sustainable Insulation 35 Discover the Science Behind Your Morning Cup of Coffee: FTIR Profiles of Caffeinated Sources

2 UCNJ Union College of Union County, NJ | Undergraduate Research Journal Volume 6| No. 2 |Spring 2024 MESSAGE FROM THE EDITOR The UCNJ Undergraduate Research Journal is a valuable platform for undergraduate researchers to share their work with a wider audience. This publication allows students to gain valuable publishing experience and fosters collaboration and intellectual exchange within the UCNJ community and beyond. This issue continues the tradition of showcasing outstanding student research achievements and demonstrates the ongoing commitment and excellence of undergraduate research in the STEM Division at UCNJ. This edition of the journal presents a diverse collection of articles spanning various disciplines in the STEM fields. This issue also features valuable contributions from students at neighboring community colleges in New Jersey. The articles in this journal reflect a steady improvement in the competence of research conducted by undergraduate scholars and their faculty mentors. This is a testament to the unwavering commitment of undergraduate institutions such as UCNJ Union College of Union County, NJ to foster an environment of intellectual exploration and rigorous inquiry. We encourage you to delve into the diverse topics that these undergraduate researchers have explored. Whether your interests lie in the intricacies of microbiology, the cutting edge of engineering and architecture, the marvels of chemistry and biochemistry, or the depths of computer science, you will find something that piques your curiosity and ignites your imagination. We again thank President, Dr. Margaret McMenamin, and Provost/Vice President for Academic Affairs, Dr. Maris Lown, for their continuous support. Enjoy your exploration! Sincerely, Dr. Mohamed Mohamed Director of Student Research and Science Laboratories UCNJ Union College of Union County, NJ

3 UCNJ Union College of Union County, NJ | Undergraduate Research Journal Volume 6| No. 2 |Spring 2024 A Qualitative GC Analysis of Low and HighOctane Gasoline Samples Vivianna Luz Hodges, Juan Diego Rojas Camargo Mentor: Dr. Andrés Zavaleta STEM Division, UCNJ Union College of Union County, NJ Abstract - The analysis of 87- and 94-octane gasoline by GC is reported. Due to extensive peak overlap, the original samples exhibit a much smaller number of peaks than the hundreds expected. Fractional distillation of the samples afforded mixtures that were easier to analyze, although extensive peak overlap was still present. The presence of eight components was tentatively assigned by using standards. Within the range up to 150 °C, lower and higher-octane samples differ mainly in the quantity of isooctane and toluene, which implies that these compounds are used as additives to increase octane number. Introduction Gasoline is one of the most useful and valuable substances of the modern world as it has allowed us to power machines and engines that have elevated our standard of living and helped propel forward our civilization. It is not composed of a single chemical but a mixture of hydrocarbons whose number has been estimated in the hundreds (Purdue, 1996; Pierce; Shaff, 2017; Gonçalves et al., 2019). However, some other compounds have also been introduced throughout the years to increase octane rating, decrease smog, or serve as cleaning agents (Gonçalves et al., 2019). Tetra-ethyl lead was used from the 1920s to the 1970s (Domonoske, 2021) as an engine antiknock agent, but it was discontinued in the 1970s due to its toxicity (Classic Motorsports, 2021). It was soon replaced by an oxygenated compound (methyl tert-butyl ether, MTBE) as the presence of oxygen helps reduce smog (EPA, 2016). However, this additive has not been popular because when small amounts of it find its way into water sources, it makes water distasteful and bad-smelling (Classic Motorsports, 2021; EPA, 2016). Ethanol, another oxygenated compound, began to be used in the 1980s as an additive. It is currently added to gasoline, but due to its hygroscopic properties, it is recommended to switch to 1-butanol (Mueller et al., 2009). Within the hydrocarbons present in gasoline, branched hydrocarbons give better octane numbers than unbranched ones (ScienceDirect, 2008), while aromatic compounds such as toluene give even better octane numbers as compared to alcohols. (ScienceDirect, 2008; Waqas et al., 2018). Partial gasoline component analysis has been commonly done by GC-MS instruments (gas chromatography-mass spectrometry) (Quach et al., 1998; Pierce & Shaff, 2017). Some characterizations have been done only by GC and focused on only one of the components (Tackett, 1987). It is very well known that capillary columns are more effective than packed columns at separating the components of mixtures as they provide more theoretical plates (Millipore). This project aimed to obtain gas chromatograms that would compare side by side the composition of gasoline samples with different octane numbers, to determine major differences and identify which specific compounds were responsible for them. In this study, a gas chromatograph equipped with a packed column was used to determine a qualitative rather than a quantitative analysis of the composition of low and high-octane gasoline samples from the same vendor. Therefore, to assess the difference more clearly, the maximum possible octane-rating gap available in our area (87 vs 94) was chosen. Materials and Methods Gasoline samples (87- and 94-octane) were obtained from a local Sunoco gas station near 10 am. To prevent any potential cross-contamination

4 UCNJ Union College of Union County, NJ | Undergraduate Research Journal Volume 6| No. 2 |Spring 2024 of residual gasoline in the hose, between 7-9 gallons were first dispensed into a motor vehicle, then some gasoline was dispensed into a portable red gallon container (Scepter - Smart Control) to rinse it, and finally, the gasoline sample to be used for GC analysis was dispensed into the red container. After use, the red container was rinsed several times with acetone and allowed to dry for at least several days. A 150 mL aliquot of gasoline (original sample) was subjected to fractional distillation under a vacuum generated by a water aspirator. The Vigreux column used (33.7 cm long) was wrapped with Z-Tech fabric and then with four sheets of aluminum foil. A first fraction was collected at room temperature; later fractions were collected by heating with a heating mantle (Variac controller at 40 units). The pure sample and its fractions were analyzed in a Perkin Elmer Clarus 590 gas chromatograph equipped with a packed column (10’x18”). Stationary phase: 10% GE SE-30 Chromosorb WHP 80/100. Settings used: Injection port: 150 °C. Oven: Initial temperature, 50°C (held for 1 min), then gradual temperature increase of 10 °C per minute to 225 °C for 10 min. Total time: 18.50 min. Detector: 210 °C. Carrier gas: helium (300 psi). Flow rate 10.0 mL/min. Attenuation -6. The focus was on compounds with boiling point no higher than 150 °C. Either a 10 or a 25 μL microliter syringe (Hamilton Company) was used. A 1μL aliquot of a gasoline fraction plus 9 or 24 μL of air was injected, depending on the syringe size. The following standards were used: tert-butylbenzene, 99% (Aldrich Chemical Company), cyclopentane, 95% (Thermo Scientific), cyclohexene, 99% (Alfa Aesar), decane, 99+% (Acros Organics), absolute ethanol (Thermo Scientific), ethylbenzene, 99% (Alfa Aesar), n-heptane (J. T. Baker), n-hexane, 97% (VWR Chemicals), 1-hexene, 98% (Alfa Aesar), 2-methoxy-2-methylpropan-1-ol (AmBeed), meta-xylene, 99% (Thermo Fisher Scientific (Hesham)), 2- methylheptane, 99% (Thermo Fisher Scientific (Heysham)), n-octane, 99+% (Thermo Scientific), n-pentane, 98% (BTC;BeanTown Chemical), toluene (Supelco; EMD Millipore Corporation), 2,2,4-trimethylpentane (VWR Chemicals), p–xylene (EMD Millipore Corporation). To identify peaks, 100 μL of the gasoline sample or fraction of interest was mixed in a vial with 25 μL of a particular standard. Alternatively, the standards were injected pure (1 μL). All retention times (Rt) were determined concerning the air peak. Results and Discussion The gas chromatogram of 94 octane gasoline exhibited about 41 peaks rather than the expected hundreds of peaks (Figure 1). The reduced number of peaks is clearly due to extensive peak overlap. For example, peak 22 has a shoulder on its left side which hides at least one other component (not

5 UCNJ Union College of Union County, NJ | Undergraduate Research Journal Volume 6| No. 2 |Spring 2024 numbered). Peaks 27 and 28 overlap extensively. Peaks 15 and 17 are so broad that they are likely composed of multiple components. All the peaks showed partial overlap near the baseline (for example peaks 2 and 3). However, more peaks can be detected in a more concentrated sample as it will be described soon. Fractional distillation was performed on the 94-octane gasoline sample under reduced pressure (water-aspirator) and no heat, and the distillate was collected in an ice-water bath. The first fraction was very volatile. The next fraction collected gave mainly a broad peak (Rt = 2.0 min) between 2–3 minutes in Inset 1 (Figure 1) instead of the multiple resolved peaks shown around this same region in the original (unprocessed) gasoline sample (Figure 1). This overlap was a surprise, and it was attributed to increased sample concentration. Dilution with acetone was not recommended as the peak for acetone also appears in the same initial region of the chromatogram. Another fraction collected under some warming gave the same large and broad peak between 2-3 min just discussed, but also small quantities or traces of other components until about 10 min (See Inset 2, Figure 1). This endpoint corresponded roughly to a boiling point near 150 °C. Figure 2. Illustration of the method used to determine the components present in a gasoline sample. Gasoline (300 μL) was mixed with one standard at a time (25 μL each) to observe which peak grew. 1 μL of the mixture was then injected. For the present case, four standards were mixed at once with 87 octane gasoline. A=cyclopentane, B = cyclohexane, C = toluene, D = we observed that it showed p-xylene. Blue arrows and dotted red lines are provided for ease of comparison. Skipping now directly to the residue, many more peaks were noted between 11 to 18 min (Inset 3, Figure 1) than those discernible in the original undistilled sample. This further validated the initial assumption that a reduced number of peaks (41) seen in the original sample was due to extensive peak overlap. The retention times, Rt, of the pure standards did not tend to perfectly match their Rt values in the gasoline mixture. Therefore, one standard was mixed at a time with the gasoline sample to determine the identity of some more confidently of the gasoline components. To demonstrate the effectiveness of this mixing method in only one figure for the present article, we injected four standards at a time (See Figure 2). The tentative identification of eight components appeared in Table 1. As anticipated, the non-polar standards eluted to increase the boiling point. However, the branched alkane (2,2,4- trimethylhexane, bp 99 °C) was eluted before the linear n-heptane (98.4 °C). This can be explained in terms of their different shapes and interactions with the stationary phase. Table 1. Peaks corresponding to the gas chromatograms of Figure 3. Rt = approximate retention time in minutes; bp = boiling point. *Peak D in Figure 2. # Rt- mixture (Rt pure) Compound Bp (°C) 10 2.20(2.40) Cyclopentane 49 11 2.84(2.90) n-Hexane 69 14 4.25(4.05) Cyclohexane 80.8 16 4.53(4.60) 2,2,4-Trimethylpentane 99 17 4.80(4.96) n-Heptane 98.4 19 6.00(6.00) Toluene 110.6 7.93(8.01) p-Xylene 138.4 D* 7.97(7.91) m-Xylene 139

6 UCNJ Union College of Union County, NJ | Undergraduate Research Journal Volume 6| No. 2 |Spring 2024 This can be explained in terms of their different shapes and interactions with the stationary phase. Mixtures of alkenes (2-methyl pentene isomers) or aromatic compounds (propyl and isopropyl substituted p-xylenes) obtained from the organic chemistry lab experiments were also injected, but the chromatographs did not seem to find any of these in the gasoline samples. Other tested compounds that could not be detected in the gasoline samples at all or with good certainty are listed under Materials and Methods. Note that m-Xylene appeared in the same position as Peak D (p-xylene) in Figure 2 and ethanol overlapped the broad peak near 2.5 minutes in Figure 2. It is known that exposure to most of the components of Table 1 by inhalation can depress the central nervous system (CVS), which can cause lightheadedness, and irritate the nose, eyes, and throat. Prolonged exposure can have more adverse effects. For example, toluene can cause numbness in the upper and lower extremities and affect pregnancy (OSHA; Donald et al., 1991). n-Hexane can affect the male reproductive system and lead to coma (New Jersey Department of Health, 2012). Therefore, it is recommended that attendants at gasoline stations wear gloves and masks to minimize exposure. We then proceeded to compare the chromatograms of 94- and 87-octane gasoline samples. The chromatograms exhibited great resemblance, except for the fact that all peaks from 1 to 15 appear to decrease in height (quantity) while peaks 16,17, and 19 increase in height (quantity) in the 94-octane gasoline sample. The region where peaks 16 and 17 appear corresponds to the region where n-heptane and 2,2,4-trimethylpentane appear. The latter compound is better known by the name of isooctane, which is arbitrarily given an octane number of 100. By contrast, n-heptane is arbitrarily given an octane number of 0. We, therefore, assume that the larger peak after 6.0 minutes in the 94-octane gasoline sample is due to a larger quantity of isooctane being present. The larger quantity of isooctane present can help explain the larger octane number of the mentioned gasoline sample. However, this also suggests that perhaps isooctane is being added to increase the octane number as a general rule. As an apparent confirmation of this, the chemical literature also showed a larger quantity of isooctane in 93- versus 87-octane gasoline from Exxon (Sherlock; Taylor, 2010). Peak 19 also increased in the 94-octane sample. This peak corresponds to toluene, which has an octane number of 120. Thus, it would seem as if 87-octane gasoline is diluted with some octane and toluene to increase its octane number. Figure 3. Gas chromatograms comparing the composition of 94- (top) and 87- (bottom) octane gasoline samples from Sunoco. Dotted red lines are provided for ease of comparison. Conclusion Gasoline was shown to be a complex mixture of numerous hydrocarbons. Extensive peak overlap was observed. More peaks were evident in more concentrated fractions obtained by fractional distillation of the original gasoline sample. Standards were mixed one at a time with gasoline to increase the probability of correctly identifying the components. The presence of eight hydrocarbons (linear,

7 UCNJ Union College of Union County, NJ | Undergraduate Research Journal Volume 6| No. 2 |Spring 2024 branched, cyclic, and aromatic) was tentatively confirmed (Table 1). A more certain identification of components by using standards is needed for better peak separation. The chromatograms for low and high-octane gasoline samples from different vendors appears to be essentially the same except for the fact that higher octane samples have a larger quantity of isooctane and toluene. Thus, it seems that these compounds are being used as additives to increase octane numbers. Future Work A capillary column instead of the packed column with a different stationary phase preferable. The literature recommends Petrocol DH Octyl for a detailed analysis of petroleum products (Millipore). Using a capillary column as well as developing an alternative GC method that concentrates on a specific region rather than on a panoramic view of the samples is expected to improve peak identification. Acknowledgments This research was made possible by the National Science Foundation (NSF), IRAP grant 1832425. Its contents are solely the award recipient’s responsibility and do not necessarily represent the official views of the National Science Foundation. We thank Dr. Mohamed Mohamed and Mrs. Beata Mourad from the STEM Division at UCNJ Union College of Union County for their continuous support. Contact Information Vivianna.Hodges@owl.ucc.edu Juan.RojasCamargo@owl.ucc.edu Andres.Zavaleta@ucc.edu References Classic Motorsports. (2021). Fuel Facts: Why Is There Ethanol in Our Gasoline? Retrieved from https://classicmotorsports.com/articles/fuel-factswhy-there-ethanol-our-gasoline/ Domonoske, C. (2021). The World Has Finally Stopped Using Leaded Gasoline. Alegria Used The Last Stockpile. NPR. https://www.npr.org/2021/08/30/1031429212/theworld-has-finally-stopped-using-leaded-gasolinealgeria-used-the-last-stockp Donald, JM.; Hooper, K.; Hopenhayn-Rich, C. (1991). Reproductive and developmental toxicity of toluene: a review. Environmental Health Perspectives, 94, 237–244. doi:10.1289/ehp.94-1567945. Gonçalves, BF.; Botelho, G.; Medeiros, MJ.; Smith, MJ. (2019). Student Skill Development with the Real World: Analyzing tert-Butyl Alcohol Content in Gasoline Samples. Journal of Chemical Education, 96, 8, pages 1782–1785. doi:10.1021/acs.jchemed.9b00085. Handbook of Analytical Separations. (2008) Octane Number. ScienceDirect. Retrieved from https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/chemistry/octane-number Millipore Sigma. Gas Chromatography (GC) Column Selection Guide. https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/technicaldocuments/technical-article/analytical-chemistry/gas-chromatography/gc-column-selectionguide Mueller, Sherry A. Anderson, James E.; Wallington, Timothy J. (2009). A Classroom Demonstration of Water-Induced Phase Separation of Alcohol-Gasoline Biofuel Blends. Journal of Chemical Education, 86(9), 1045-1048. New Jersey Department of Health. (2012). Hazardous Substance Fact Sheet. Retrieved from https://nj.gov/health/eoh/rtkweb/documents/fs/1340.pdf OSHA. Toluene. Retrieved from https://www.osha.gov/toluene Pierce, T.; Shaff, A. (2017). Gasoline Analysis by GC-FID and GC-MS. Whitman College. https://www.whitman.edu/chemistry/edusolns_software/GC_LC_CE_MS_2017/CH% 208f%20GasolineComposition.pdf

8 UCNJ Union College of Union County, NJ | Undergraduate Research Journal Volume 6| No. 2 |Spring 2024 Purdue University Instrument Van Project (1996). Determining the Composition of Gasolines Using a Gas Chromatograph. https://www.purdue.edu/ science/science-express/labs/labs/GAS_GC.doc Quach D. T.; Ciszkowski, N. A.; Finlayson-Pitts, B.J. (1998). A New GC-MS Experiment for the Undergraduate Instrumental Analysis Laboratory in Environmental Chemistry: Methyl-t-butyl Ether and Benzene in Gasoline. Journal of Chemical Education, 75, 12, 1595-1598. doi:10.1021/ed075p1595 Sherlock, Terrence P.; Taylor, E. (2010). Determination of the Ethanol level in commercial gasoline by gas chromatography. Journal of Undergraduate Chemistry Research, 9(1), 27. Department of Chemistry, Burlington County College, NJ 08054, USA. Tackett, Stanford L. (1987) Determination of Methanol in Gasoline by Gas Chromatography: A Laboratory Experiment. Journal of Chemical Education, 64, 12, 1059. doi:10.1021/ed064p1059 Waqas, Muhammad Umer; Masurier, Jean-Baptiste; Sarathy, Mani; Johansson, Bengt. (2018). Blending Octane Number of Toluene with Gasoline-like and PRF Fuels in HCCI Combustion Mode. SAE Technical Paper 2018-01-1246, doi: https://doi.org/10.4271/2018-01-1246. https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/2018-01-1246/

9 UCNJ Union College of Union County, NJ | Undergraduate Research Journal Volume 6| No. 2 |Spring 2024 Transforming the Help Desk Experience Using Artificial Intelligence Brandon Kaplun, Kayla Lugo, Daniel Ivanov, Maria Arias Miranda, Karen Lazo, & Ricardo Rodriguez Mentor: Academic Specialist Amjed Hedhli STEM Division, UCNJ Union College of Union County, NJ Abstract - Artificial Intelligence (AI) has the potential to significantly enhance help desk experience in higher education. By creating a chatbot that imitates human interaction, educational institutions can provide students, parents, and staff with instant responses to their queries. This AI-powered virtual assistant serves as a centralized source of information, equipped with a vast knowledge base that includes information about admission requirements, academic programs, campus facilities, extracurricular activities, financial aid options, and important dates and deadlines. The chatbot uses AI algorithms to efficiently analyze and retrieve the most relevant and up-to-date information, ensuring its responses are accurate and effective. This AI-powered system could allow colleges and universities to provide students with a seamless and efficient support system that ultimately enhances their overall experience and facilitates their academic journey. Introduction Artificial Intelligence (AI) has emerged as a game-changing innovation in the rapidly evolving world of technology. As the new era where the boundaries between human intelligence and machine capabilities are becoming increasingly blurred, there is a need to explore the profound depths of AI and understand how it is transforming different aspects of our lives. The rise of artificial intelligence has undoubtedly surged to new heights. Within a year, we’ve collectively witnessed a surge in the popularity, exploration, and utility of artificial intelligence, captivating the attention and resources of individuals, industries, and societies at an unprecedented pace. The interest over time for the search term ‘AI’, as measured by Google Trends, over the past few years, has soared 20-fold (Google Trends, 2023). NVIDIA, a well-known technology company famous for its groundbreaking advancements in graphics processing units (GPUs), has recently experienced significant growth. "Since the beginning of the year, Nvidia has gained $220 billion in market shares, with the stock skyrocketing by 165% in 2021." This growth is largely attributed to the company's focus on artificial intelligence (Trends, 2023). NVIDIA is just one of the numerous companies that are reaping the benefits of technology. The increasing prominence of AI reflects the growing realization of its potential impact on society (O’Neill et al., 2021). Artificial Intelligence has rapidly become an indispensable tool with widespread utility, revolutionizing numerous aspects of our lives. Its usefulness lies in its ability to process and analyze vast amounts of data, enabling us to extract valuable information, make informed decisions, and solve complex problems with unprecedented efficiency. ChatGPT for instance, “OpenAI’s new AI text generation tool currently offers sophisticated, lengthy, and even fun responses to textual prompts, currently all for free” (Hachman, 2023). ChatGPT can write a short paper on the French Revolution or even solve complicated homework problems. According to Hachman 2023, “ChatGPT feels a little like peering into the future of the internet. However, this idea looks fascinating and a bit scary. AI's applications span diverse domains, including healthcare, finance, transportation, education, and entertainment, It can enhance diagnostic accuracy, predict market trends, optimize logistics, personalized learning experiences, and power immersive experiences. The utility of AI lies in its capacity to augment human capabilities, unlock new frontiers of innovation, and create transformative solutions that have the potential to reshape our world for the better. The potential impact of AI on the college and university help desk experience is

10 UCNJ Union College of Union County, NJ | Undergraduate Research Journal Volume 6| No. 2 |Spring 2024 significant, promising to transform the delivery of these services. Developing a human-like chatbot to provide useful information is a progressive leap forward for the student experience and improves access to essential resources. This AI-powered chatbot can act as a virtual assistant, offering instant and personalized responses to queries from prospective and current students, as well as parents and staff. The college chatbot can serve as a central hub of knowledge, consolidating information about various aspects of college life. It would provide details about admission requirements, programs and courses offered, campus facilities, extracurricular activities, financial aid information, and important dates and deadlines. By utilizing AI algorithms, the chatbot can quickly analyze and retrieve the most relevant and up-to-date information, ensuring accuracy and efficiency in responses. Materials and Methods To develop an AI-powered chatbot capable of revolutionizing the college and university help desk experience, a systematic approach was undertaken. The primary objective of this research project was to create a virtual assistant with human-like capabilities, providing real-time and personalized responses to inquiries from prospective and current students, parents, and staff. The chatbot served as a centralized repository of information. Admission requirements, academic programs, campus facilities, extracurricular activities, financial aid options, and important dates and deadlines were all crucial details to consider. To accomplish this, a comprehensive data gathering phase was initiated, collecting relevant information from diverse UCNJ sources including the college's official website, departmental websites, admissions portals, and course catalogs. Python web scraping techniques were employed to efficiently extract the required data. Subsequently, in-depth data analysis was conducted to identify patterns and establish effective categorization, organizing the collected information into a structured knowledge base for the chatbot. Leveraging OpenAI's API with advanced Natural Language Processing (NLP) and machine learning capabilities, a conversational interface was developed, enabling the chatbot to understand and generate human-like responses to user inquiries. The resulting AI-powered chatbot offers the potential to significantly enhance the overall student experience and streamline access to essential resources in real-time, thereby transforming the college help desk support system. Results and discussion I. Design and Development of the AIpowered chatbot. A. Data Gathering To begin, it was required to collect relevant data that formed the knowledge base for the chatbot. To ensure comprehensive coverage, the data collection process included a wide range of information such as admission requirements, different academic programs, campus facilities, extracurricular activities, financial aid options, as well as important dates and deadlines. A Python web scraper was used, which employed the requests and Beautiful Soup libraries to gather the necessary information to create an AI chatbot. This approach allowed for efficient searching through various college and departmental websites, and other online resources. The first step involved using the requests library in Python to send HTTP GET requests to the target websites and retrieve their HTML content (Figure 2). This library facilitated the interaction with web servers and fetching of the required web pages (Figure 1). By specifying the URLs of the college's official website and other pertinent sources, the necessary information was accessed programmatically. Figure 1. Importing Requests and necessary libraries.

11 UCNJ Union College of Union County, NJ | Undergraduate Research Journal Volume 6| No. 2 |Spring 2024 Figure 2. Requests Python library documentation. To extract relevant information from the collected web pages, a Python web scraping script was employed, making use of the Beautiful Soup library. This library allowed for parsing and navigating the HTML structure of the web pages, enabling the extraction of specific data elements (Richardson, 2006). To illustrate the usage of web scraping, a code snippet was implemented as follows (Figure 3): Figure 3. Python scrape website function from ‘web_scraper.py’ Once the HTML content was obtained, Beautiful Soup, a powerful Python library, was utilized to parse and extract data from the web pages. Beautiful Soup offered a convenient means of navigating and searching through the HTML structure, simplifying the process of locating specific elements such as admission requirements, academic programs, campus facilities, extracurricular activities, financial aid options, and important dates and deadlines. When a markup document was fed into any of Beautiful Soup’s parser classes, Beautiful Soup transformed the markup into a parse: a set of linked objects representing the structure of the document (Richardson, 2006). By employing various methods and functions, the HTML tree could be traversed, and the desired data could be extracted. To illustrate the process, a mock parse tree is provided (Figure 4). Figure 4. Mock parse tree navigation. In this case, the specific sections on the college's website containing information about admission requirements or financial aid options could be identified. The flexibility of the library allowed for adaptation to different website structures and retrieval of data in a structured manner. The Web Scraping process can be simplified as follows: 1. ‘Scrape website (URL)’ sends an HTTP GET request to the provided URL using the requests. Get (URL) method. 2. If the request is successful (HTTP status code 200), the HTML content of the webpage is parsed using Beautiful Soup with 'HTML. parser'. 3. The desired information is extracted from the parsed HTML. In this example, the code extracts text from all <p> (paragraph) tags, joins them together, and checks the length of the extracted data. 4. If the extracted data has at least 20 paragraphs, it uses the summarize function with a word count limit of 20 to create a summary. Otherwise, it uses a ratio-based summarization with a ratio of 0.2.

12 UCNJ Union College of Union County, NJ | Undergraduate Research Journal Volume 6| No. 2 |Spring 2024 5. If the HTTP request is not successful, it prints an error message with the response status code. B. Analysis By continuously collecting and analyzing data, a strong foundation was established for constructing a comprehensive knowledge base for the college help desk chatbot. This knowledge base is a crucial resource that offers precise and tailored responses to users' queries, ultimately improving the overall user experience and effectiveness of the chatbot. C. Bot Development When developing a bot, it's essential to integrate a neural network model. This model acts as the foundation of the bot's decision-making process. The neural network's architecture is designed as a multi-layer feedforward system, which is proven effective in various tasks such as natural language processing and classification. Figure 5. Neural network model using the PyTorch library. In Figure 5, there is a code provided that defines a neural network model utilizing the PyTorch library. This model is known as Neural Net and is a feedforward neural network that has three linear layers along with ReLU activation functions. The input data passes through these layers sequentially where the first linear layer transforms the input data, ReLU activation introduces non-linearity, the second linear layer continues the transformations, ReLU activation is applied again, and finally, the third linear layer produces the output, as shown in Figure 6. Figure 6. How to input data flows through the neural network’s layers. The neural network model described in Figure 5 was specifically designed to perform classification tasks. When the model is instantiated, the user specifies the input size, hidden layer size, and number of output classes. The model architecture is such that it can process input data and generate output without requiring any final activation or SoftMax function to be applied. This design enables the model to accurately classify input data into the specified number of output classes, making it a useful tool for a wide range of tasks. D. Website Development A web application was developed utilizing Flask and Python for the backend. Python and Flask are ideal tools for creating an interactive and fulfilling online application that involves AI. Python is a widely recognized programming language for AI, and Flask is a lightweight web framework that simplifies the process of designing web applications.

13 UCNJ Union College of Union County, NJ | Undergraduate Research Journal Volume 6| No. 2 |Spring 2024 For the front end of the web application, react was employed as shown in Figures 7 and 8. Figure 7. ELECTRABOT front end using React. Figure 8. ELECTRABOT chat front end using React. The use of React for constructing the front end of the AI chatbot was found to be highly suitable due to its component-based structure. This structure allowed for the development of modular features that could be seamlessly integrated within the user interface, thereby optimizing the overall user experience. Additionally, React's virtual DOM management enhanced the application's responsiveness, to ensure smooth real-time interactions between users and the AI chatbot. Various essential files were created to establish the framework of the application. These included the server file, database file, passport Config file, and the package JSON file. The server file functions as the core component, responsible for initiating the server, defining the application's routes, and enforcing user authentication before granting access to specific routes (Crockett, 2023). The database file plays a pivotal role in linking the application to the database, utilizing its pool to execute queries and retrieve necessary information. The Passport Config file is dedicated to user authentication, ensuring secure access. It validates user credentials by cross-referencing their email and password against stored data. Upon successful validation, a session is generated and stored on the server, granting authorized passage throughout the app. In cases where a user is not found, the file suggests initiating an account creation process. Additionally, this module handles user logouts by deleting the session established during login. Figure 9. Account login page. The Package JSON file serves as a comprehensive record of all installed dependencies for the application. Notably, the installed dependencies include BCrypt, Cors, Express, Express-flash, Express-session, Nodemon, Passport, Passport-Local, and pg. BCrypt is particularly significant, as it handles password hashing, safeguarding user passwords in the database through encryption. This dependency also facilitates password comparison, utilizing consistent output for identical inputs. Ultimately, this framework ensures enhanced security and functionality for the AI chatbot application for our account feature (Forbes, 2023 and NPM, 2023) (Figure 9). Conclusion In conclusion, the revolution artificial intelligence has sparked in higher education admission has made the selection of classes for students much easier. Educational institutions can utilize AI

14 UCNJ Union College of Union County, NJ | Undergraduate Research Journal Volume 6| No. 2 |Spring 2024 technologies to provide intelligent recommendation systems that assist students in selecting the right courses. Selecting classes can be a daunting task for students due to the complexity of course catalogs and the need to match their interests with available options while accounting for prerequisites. However, with the help of AI-powered recommendation systems, this process has become much simpler. These systems analyze vast amounts of data, such as student preferences, academic records, and career aspirations, to create personalized course recommendations that align with each student's unique requirements and goals. By leveraging the power of AI, students can now make more informed decisions about their academic paths and achieve greater success. Future Work Future upgrades for the AI-powered college help desk chatbot include improving language processing and machine learning for accuracy, incorporating sentiment analysis for personalized interactions based on user emotions, integrating voice recognition for ease of use, and expanding the knowledge base with real-time campus life updates. Continuous improvement through user feedback can enhance user satisfaction and streamline access to information in a dynamic educational environment. Acknowledgment This research was made possible by the National Science Foundation, IRAP grant 1832425. Its contents are solely the award recipient’s responsibility and do not necessarily represent the official views of the National Science Foundation. We thank the STEM Division, for their continuous support. Contact Information Professor Amjed Hedhli: amjed.hedhli@ucc.edu Brandon Kaplun: brandon.kaplun@owl.ucc.edu Kayla Lugo: kayla.lugo@owl.ucc.edu Daniel Ivanov: daniel.ivanov@owl.ucc.edu Maria Miranda: maria.ariasmiranda@owl.ucc.edu Karen Lazo: karen.lazo@owl.ucc.edu Ricardo Rodriguez: ricardo.rodriguez@owl.ucc.edu References Crockett, A. (2023, April 4). Folder structure for modern web applications. DEV Community. Retrieved March 12, 2024, from https://dev.to/adam_cyclones/folder-structure-formodern-web-applications-1p8p Forbes. (2023). Nvidia Stock Surges Off Huge AIFocused Earnings Report [Internet]. Retrieved June 12, 2023, from https://www.forbes.com/sites/qai/2023/05/26/nvidi a-stock-surges-off-huge-ai-focused-earnings-report/?sh=60f9accc29a4 Google Trends. (2023). Search Term 'ai' Interest Over Time [Internet]. Retrieved June 12, 2023, from https://trends.google.com/trends/explore?date=today%205-y&geo=US&q=ai&hl=en Hachman, M. (2023). ChatGPT is the dazzling, scary future of AI chatbots. PCWorld, 41(1), 20–24. NPM (2023). bcrypt. Retrieved March 12, 2024, from https://www.npmjs.com/package/bcrypt O’Neill, K., Lopes, N., Nesbit, J., Reinhardt, S., & Jayasundera, K. (2021). Modeling undergraduates’ selection of course modality: A large sample, multidiscipline study. Internet & Higher Education, 48, N.PAG. https://doi-org.unioncc.idm.oclc.org/10.1016/ j.iheduc.2020.100776 Richardson, L. (2006). How to Use Beautiful Soup. Retrieved August 16, 2023, from https://www.crummy.com/software/BeautifulSoup/bs3/download/2.x/documentation.html

15 UCNJ Union College of Union County, NJ | Undergraduate Research Journal Volume 6| No. 2 |Spring 2024 Performance Analysis of Martian Rover Wheel Designs Kaylie D. Charco, Benjamin T. Hopper, Mario S. Mucha, Nicole Resende, Sam Schaeffer Mentor: Professor Jennifer Ebert STEM Division, UCNJ Union College of Union County, NJ Abstract - The performance of rover tires on extraterrestrial terrains is crucial for the advancement of space exploration missions. This research presents an observational comparative analysis of four distinct tire designs, aimed at discerning their adaptability and efficacy for Martian landscapes. The selected tires encompassed a standard all-terrain tire, a specialized paddle tire informed by Lunar and Mars mobility studies, an avant-garde rubber flex tire with a 36-paddle configuration, and a replication of the Mars Curiosity rover tire. All were scrutinized while mounted on a 4WD rover with notable ground low clearance, navigating a simulated Martian terrain within a controlled setting. This observational methodology prioritized indicators such as traction, soil interaction, and adaptability across varied speed settings. Our observations indicated that the standard all-terrain tire, while efficient at lower speeds, faced challenges of static embedment as velocity increased. The paddle tire, tailored for sandy environments, displayed tendencies of lateral drift and notable soil displacement at augmented speeds. The rubber flex tire, initially showcasing commendable traction, was observed to be hampered by soil accumulation in its treads over extended use. Significantly, the Curiosity rover tire replica demonstrated unparalleled performance and adaptability throughout, underscoring the value of informed, specialized designs. Introduction In the quest to explore extraterrestrial terrains, many components of space rovers have garnered attention from researchers and engineers worldwide. Among these, tires, often overlooked in the broader context of rover design, emerge as indispensable elements that can significantly impact the overall performance of a rover. They bear the weight of the entire vehicle and play a decisive role in its mobility, dictating its ability to traverse the unpredictable and challenging landscapes of planets like Mars. The design of tires for terrestrial vehicles is largely driven by the specifications of their intended functionality. In contrast, Martian rovers have unique requisites that deviate substantially from the needs of an everyday commuter vehicle on Earth (Tire Traction, 2021). These requirements are shaped by the Martian environment and the specific objectives of the exploration mission. As such, understanding the critical components of a tire becomes paramount. The bead, tread, sidewall, carcass, and belt are the fundamental elements that determine a tire's functionality (Tire Tread Patterns, 2021). The durability and adaptability of these components can influence the rover's performance in distinct ways. For instance, a robust tread can enhance traction, while an extended sidewall can provide added durability for long expeditions. While traditional rubber tires offer certain advantages in terms of flexibility, their applicability on Mars is limited due to the planet's extreme temperatures and the intrinsic nature of the Martin soil. These conditions necessitate innovations such as shape-shifting tires or spring tires, developed to meet the unique challenges posed by Mars, while also adhering to space exploration standards of durability and maintenance (Atkinson, 2023). Choosing the right tire design is not merely a matter of technical preference, but also can be the differentiator between the success and failure of a mission. This research aims to provide a comprehensive analysis of various tire designs, assessing their suitability for Martian terrains, and offering insights into the optimal choices for future exploration endeavors. (The Mars, 2020, Mars, 2023).

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17 UCNJ Union College of Union County, NJ | Undergraduate Research Journal Volume 6| No. 2 |Spring 2024 Materials and Methods The objective of this study was to evaluate the performance of various tire designs on a simulated Martian surface. Four distinct tire types were selected: a standard all-terrain tire, a paddle tire modeled after NASA's lunar and Mars mobility research designs, a rubber flex tire with 36 paddles, and a replication of the tire used on the Mars Curiosity rover (Rover Kits, 2023). These tires were fitted on a 4WD rover with notable ground low clearance. The testing environment was constructed using a 6ft x 4ft x 2ft plastic container filled with synthetic Mars soil to replicate Martian terrain. The standard all-terrain tire, being a common choice for robot and rover kits, was factory-fitted with the rover. The paddle tire's design was inspired by lunar and Mars-based mobility research, with its shape seemingly favorable for sandy terrains. An enhancement of the paddle design resulted in the rubber flex tire, which possesses 36 paddles, providing it with a spring-like effect. The Curiosity rover tire was 3D printed after making necessary adjustments to fit the rover chassis. Two 3D printers were used for manufacturing: the Formlabs Form3 (resin) and the Stratasys F270 (ABS FDM). The Curiosity tire was printed using white solid resin, while the rubber flex tire and the rims for the Curiosity model were produced using flexible resin. The paddle tire was constructed using the Stratasys printer's standard material. The rover's operational programming and speed settings, encompassing low, medium, and high, were employed to test each tire's performance. Throughout the testing, observations were made concerning each tire's traction, the potential for digging or sliding in the simulated Martian soil, and their overall adaptability to the terrain challenges presented. Results and discussion In the testing of rover tire performance on synthetic Martian soil, a diverse range of characteristics and reactions to the terrain were observed, each illuminating the complex interplay between design philosophy, real-world performance, and rover ergonomics, including ground clearance (Figures 1-4). The standard all-terrain tire, typically found in off-the-shelf robot and rover kits, initially presented a satisfactory performance at slow speed settings. But as speeds ramped up, its limitations became evident (Figures 5-8). By the medium speed setting, the tire began to demonstrate wheel sinkage, with its propensity to embed itself into the soil intensifying. At high speeds, this escalated to pronounced static embedment, leading to the rover's immobilization due to excessive digging. Historically designed for adaptability across a range of Earth terrains, its performance is hindered because of its potential inadequacy in handling the distinctiveness of Martian terrains (Figures 9-12). Contrastingly, the paddle tire, crafted with extraterrestrial terrains like the Moon and Mars started showing lateral sliding tendencies even at lower speeds. As we pushed its limits, especially at medium speeds, the tire took on an excavation-like behavior, displacing significant volumes of soil, a trait that became even more pronounced at high speeds. While its design aimed for superior grip in sandy or loose terrains, the actual performance raises questions about possible overcompensation in its design, which leads to excessive soil displacement (Figures 13-16). The rubber flex tire's design, featuring a dense 36-paddle configuration, initially seemed promising. While it showcased superior traction and minimal soil displacement at slower speeds, its inherent spring-like nature permitted the rover to navigate out of the container (Free STL, 2023). However, challenges emerged in the form of soil accumulation within its treads, particularly evident at high speeds, which compromised its performance and led to traction loss (Figures 5-8). The Curiosity rover tire replication consistently delivered exemplary results across all speed settings. Its mesh-like design minimized soil interaction, offering a seamless navigation experience through the synthetic Martian soil, even when faced with obstructions. An essential factor in its superior performance is the tire's slightly larger size

18 UCNJ Union College of Union County, NJ | Undergraduate Research Journal Volume 6| No. 2 |Spring 2024 compared to the others, which resulted in increased ground clearance for the rover. This additional clearance can be instrumental in preventing the issues of sinkage and embedment faced by the other tires. This replication, based on years of research and Martian expeditions, underscores the necessity of real-world data, precision in tire design, and the importance of rover ergonomics for Martian exploration. Reflecting on the performances, it's evident that while each tire's design philosophy has its merits, Martian terrains demand a more specialized approach. The challenges observed, from static embedment to dynamic sinkage, soil accumulation, and the significance of ground clearance, emphasize the need to strike a balance between adaptability, design, and the unique conditions of Martianlike terrains. Furthermore, it should be noted that there are differences between the actual Martian soil, which has been compacted over millennia, and our synthetic testing soil, in terms of cohesiveness and granularity. Conclusion Considering the conducted research, this study has provided insightful delineations on the optimal tire design tailored for Mars rovers operating in the planet's distinctive terrain. Each tire's performance rendered unique implications for rover mobility, emphasizing the importance of design specialization and adaptability for Martian conditions. The observed challenges with the paddle tire and the rubber flex tire, particularly in terms of soil displacement and accumulation, respectively, accentuate the necessity for a meticulous balance between traction and soil interaction. While these designs showcased specific strengths, the observed limitations offer critical areas for refinement. Among the tested designs, the Curiosity rover tire replication stands as a paragon, substantiating its value through consistent performance across varied speed settings and terrain challenges. This outcome not only emphasizes the utility of realworld data but also underscores the potential pitfalls of transitioning from Earth-centric designs to those needed for extraterrestrial landscapes. As the realm of space exploration continues its forward trajectory, research endeavors must align with the intricacies of the Martian landscapes. Future design efforts should prioritize adaptability, longevity, and minimal soil interaction while maintaining effective traction. Harnessing the lessons from this study will be instrumental in sculpting the future of rover tire designs, ensuring seamless navigation and exploration of the Martian expanse. Future Work Mars exploration offers endless opportunities for innovations and enhancements. Although the current study has provided great insight into various tire designs suitable for Martian terrains, additional research and development activities remain promising avenues of future research. The following are some possible areas of future research: codifications: incorporating an advanced suspension system to enhance the rover's ground clearance, improving adaptability and maneuverability on Martian terrains. Enlarged Testing Environment: a larger container for testing would allow for extended traversal patterns, offering a closer simulation of actual rover expeditions. Enhanced Environmental Challenges: in order to mimic Martian conditions more accurately, introducing elements like larger rock obstacles and varying gradients is crucial. Additionally, simulating Martian dust storms could provide a deeper understanding of tire performance under diverse situations. Acknowledgment This research was made possible by the National Science Foundation, IRAP grant 1832425. Its contents are solely the award recipient’s responsibility and do not necessarily represent the official views of the National Science Foundation. We thank Ms. Nora Bruno, and the STEM Division of

19 UCNJ Union College of Union County, NJ | Undergraduate Research Journal Volume 6| No. 2 |Spring 2024 UCNJ Union College of Union County, NJ, for their continuous support. Contact Information Kaylie D. Charco: kaylie.charco@owl.ucc.edu Benjamin T. Hopper: benjamin.hopper@owl.ucc.edu Mario S. Mucha: mario.mucha@owl.ucc.edu Nicole Resende: nicole.resende@owl.ucc.edu Sam Schaeffer: samatha.schaeffer@owl.ucc.edu Prof. Jennifer Ebert: ebert@ucc.edu References Atkinson, N., “Better Tires to Drive on Mars” May 13, 2023, https://www.universetoday.com/ 146047/better-tires-to-drive-on-mars. Free STL file Mars Curiosity Rover Wheel Assembly, Design to download and 3D print, Cults. (n.d.). Retrieved November 7, 2023, from https://cults3d.com/en/3d-model/game/mars-curiosity-rover-wheel-assembly “Mars” Curiosity Rover, Wheels and Legs” https://mars.nasa.gov/msl/spacecraft/rover/wheels (accessed: July 2023). Rover Kits https://wiki.lynxmotion.com/info/wiki/lynx motion/view/roverkits/a4wd3-wheeled/a4wd3-wheeled-quickstart/a4wd3-wheeled-wheels/(accessed: July 2023) Rover kits wheeled https://wiki.lynxmotion.com/info/wiki/lynx motion/view/roverkits/a4wd3-wheeled/(accessed: July 2023). Suntup, M. Paddle Wheels, LinkedIn, 2022 https://www.linkedin.com/posts/matthewsuntup_ive-finally-returned-from-nasa-jet-propulsionugcPost-7090542629867687936-cBd3?utm_ source=share&utm_medium=member_ios “The Mars” 2020 Perseverance Rover Wheels and Legs” https://mars.nasa.gov/mars2020/ spacecraft/rover/wheels/ (accessed: July 2023). Tire Traction: Understanding How It Works”, March 15, 2021, https://rnrtires.com/ tipsguides/tire-traction-understanding-how-it-works. Tire Tread Patterns Shopping for Tires”, April 1, 2021, https://www.bridgestonetire.com/ learn/shop/tire-tread-patterns/ Tire, 3D CAD Model Library, Grab CAD. (n.d.). Retrieved November 7, 2023, from https://grabcad.com/library/tire-215

20 UCNJ Union College of Union County, NJ | Undergraduate Research Journal Volume 6| No. 2 |Spring 2024 Electricity Generation by Electrogenic Bacteria in Microbial Fuel Cells Constructed from Soils Ana Rumora, Liliana Hopkins, Kayla Yim, Melissa Bakus, Luisa Martinez Mentor: Dr. Luis Jimenez Biology and Horticulture Department, Division of Mathematics, Science, and Technology, Bergen Community College Abstract-Microbial fuel cells (MFCs) are bioelectrical devices powered by the oxidation of organic and inorganic compounds due to microbial activity. Twelve soils from Bergen Community College (BCC) or areas nearby were used to generate mud suspensions. MFCs with their anodes were buried within the mud, while the cathodes rested on top. MFCs were incubated at 37ºC. Electrical output and numbers of electrogenic bacteria were measured using an application developed for i Phones. The most productive MFC generated a maximum of 161 microwatts with 3.38 x 109 electrogenic bacteria after the addition of cellulose. The addition of cellulose optimized electrical output and electrogenic bacteria with more than double the numbers compared to previously reported studies. Clones’ libraries of 16S rRNA genes showed the presence of different types of electrogenic bacteria in the anodes related to bacterial phyla, such as uncultured members of Chloroflexi, Bacteroidetes, and Acidobacteria. Some bacteria did not match any known bacterial phylum. Bioelectrical devices such as MFCs provide sustainable and clean alternatives to future applications for electricity generation, waste treatment, and biosensors. Introduction Microorganisms in soils oxidize organic and inorganic substrates to generate adenosine triphosphate (ATP) to sustain their viability and growth. Microbial fuel cells (MFCs) have been shown to harness the natural metabolism of microbes in soils to produce electrical power (Wang et al., 2022). Substrate oxidation by microbes in the anode is the only source of electron generation in the MFC system. Microbial electron transfer to the anode electrodes can be achieved directly by transferring the electrons produced via bacterial cell membrane cytochromes, pili, microbial nanowires, and protein complexes. Alternatively, certain microbes transfer electrons indirectly using environmental or selfproduced extracellular electron mediators (Rabey et al., 2004). Microbes from soils and sediments have been shown to generate electricity using different MFC formats (Bond et al., 2022; Dunaj et al., 2012; Wang et al., 2015; Zhao et al., 2012). Aerobic and anaerobic MFCs have been constructed with single and multiple chambers, optimizing electricity generation and microbial activity. In the MFCs, two of the most important parameters affecting electricity generation are the types of microbes and soil chemical composition (Hodgson et al., 2016; Jimenez et al., 2020). Soil types and microbial dynamics can influence MFC performance. The interaction between the different bacterial species affects the function, activity, and stability of the community providing optimal metabolic capabilities leading to the production of electricity. Furthermore, the availability of organic compounds in soil may limit the production of electrical power by bacterial communities. Forest and agricultural soils were shown to be completely different when it came to developing and sustaining an electrogenic bacterial community capable of significant electrical production (Dunaj et al., 2012). Previous studies in our laboratory demonstrated sustainable electrical production lasting a maximum of 23 days with a power output of 73 microwatts (Jimenez et al., 2020). The maximum power output by any MFC developed was reported to be 80 microwatts but it lasted only 12 days. 16S rRNA analysis showed the most abundant bacteria in the

21 UCNJ Union College of Union County, NJ | Undergraduate Research Journal Volume 6| No. 2 |Spring 2024 anodes were members of Proteobacteria, Firmicutes, Actinobacteria, Chloroflexi, and Planctomycetes. MFC lacking large numbers of bacteria belonging to Firmicutes did not generate electricity. However, only six soil samples from different locations were used to build the MFCs (Jimenez et al., 2020). There must be other sites around the Bergen Community College campus (BCC) or nearby locations with soils that might provide a greater potential to develop a better MFC with longer operational time and higher electrical output. The major objective of this study was to sample different soils around the Bergen Community College campus or near locations to determine the microbial community’s potential to generate electricity and to identify electrogenic bacteria by genetic analysis using direct DNA extraction and cloning libraries of 16S rRNA genes. Materials and Methods A. Soil sampling Ten surface soils were collected from different backyard locations at BCC and 2 from Saddle River County Park located in the city of Paramus, New Jersey. Samples were aseptically taken as previously described (Jimenez et al., 2020). Each soil was immediately used to make mud suspensions as described below. B. Microbial fuel cell assembly Mud suspensions in deionized water were constructed using the collected soils. The mud suspensions were placed into the Mud Watt cells (Keego Technologies (http://www.mudwatt.com) (Figure 1). The electrodes were constructed from a circular carbon cloth. The cylindrical MFC was made of a plastic material with a plastic lid. For each MFC, about 1 cm of soil was placed at the bottom of the plastic container before installing the anode; additional soil was added on top of the anode until the MFC was 90% full. The cathode was placed on top of the soil. The hacker board was placed on the indentation of the lid. The board has a microchip that will take the power generated by the MFC and will convert the voltage to 2.4 Volts in short bursts, which will power the light-emitting diode (LED). The anode and cathode were connected to the hacker board and the lid was attached to seal the container. Finally, the LED and capacitor were connected to the hacker board and the MFCs were incubated at 35C. C. Electricity and electrogenic bacteria measurements The electrical power output and numbers of electrogenic bacteria were measured using an Application (App) downloaded into an iPhone 14. The App was developed by Keego Technologies (http://www.mudwatt.com) and was freely available from the Apple App Store. D. Addition of organic compounds to MFC. After MFCs were set up, blood agar or cellulose were added to different MFCs to determine whether they inhibit or enhance electrical output and electrogenic bacteria. E. DNA extraction and PCR analysis of bacterial 16S rRNA genes in MFC MFCs were stopped after the last time point, and microbial DNA from the biofilm grown on the anodes was extracted using the ZR Soil Microbe DNA Miniprep Protocol (Jimenez et al., 2015). DNA concentration was determined as previously described by Jimenez et al. (2018). PCR amplification of extracted DNA was performed using primers 341f (CCTACGGGNGGCWGCAG) and 785r (GACTACHVGGGTATCTAATCC ), which amplified the v3-4 region of the 16S gene of approximately 465 base pair (bp) or primers 27f (AGA GTT TGA TCC TGG CTC AG) and 1492r (GGT TAC CTT GTT ACG ACT T), which amplified the whole 1.5 kilobases (kb) 16S rRNA gene. Reaction conditions for primer pair 27f and 1492r were described by Partanen et al. (2010) with the following modifications, annealing temperature was changed from 55 to 50C and cycle number Figure 1. Microbial Fuel Cells - Set up.

22 UCNJ Union College of Union County, NJ | Undergraduate Research Journal Volume 6| No. 2 |Spring 2024 was increased from 24 to 30. Reaction conditions for primer pair 341f and 785r were described by Klindworth et al. (2012). Ready-To-Go (RTG) PCR beads (GE Healthcare, Buckinghamshire, UK) were used for each PCR reaction volume as previously described (Jimenez et al., 2018). Reaction mixtures were added to the T100TM thermal cycler (Bio-Rad Laboratories, Hercules, CA) or Mastercycler thermal cycler (Eppendorf Scientific, Westbury, NY). After PCR amplification, amplicon detection was analyzed by gel electrophoresis using the FlashGelsystem (Lonza Inc., Rockland, ME) as described by Jimenez et al. (2018). II. Cloning and DNA sequencing analysis of 16S rRNA genes The purified DNA fragments from the PCR amplification of bacterial 16S rRNA genes were ligated onto plasmid pCR®4-TOPO (Life Technologies, Thermo Fisher Scientific, Grand Island, NY) as described by Jimenez et al. (2015). Cloned inserts were reamplified using M13 PCR primers. Amplicon detection was carried out by gel electrophoresis using the FlashGel system (Lonza Inc., Rockland, ME) as described by Jimenez et al. (2018). DNA sequencing reactions of the cloned fragments using either M13 forward or reverse primers were performed by Azenta US, Inc. (South Plainfield, NJ). Homology searches were performed using the GenBank server of the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI; http://blast.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Blast.cgi) and also the BLAST (blastn) algorithm (Altschul et al., 1997). Results and discussion Twelve MFCs were developed from soil samples taken from different BCC locations or nearby areas during the spring and summer of 2023 (Table 1). Ten out of twelve generated some electricity and enriched electrogenic bacteria (Tables 1 and 2). Only MFC1 and MFC-AT did not show any positive results. The fastest generation of electricity by any MFC was obtained after 1 day. MFC-CT showed 15 microwatts of electricity with 3.19 x 108 electrogenic bacteria (Figure 2)(Tables 1 and 2). A B. Table 1 – MFC Electrical Output S = Electricity start day, M= Microwatts, H = Electricity highest day. Sample Date started S M H M MFC1 2/10/23 0 0 0 0 MFC2 2/10/23 5 6 7 20 MFC3 2/10/23 3 13 12 80 MFC-B1 6/1/23 1 7 14 143 MFC-B2A 6/1/23 11 2 26 50 MFC-B2B 6/1/23 11 24 21 31 MFC-B1A 6/20/23 8 1 16 24 MFC-B1B 6/20/23 9 3 16 152 MFC-CT 6/21/23 151 1 15 MFC-AT 6/21/23 0 0 0 0 MFC-B1C 7/11/23 6 14 161 MFC-B1D 7/11/23 6 45 8 88 Figure 2 – Electrical Output (Microwatts) over Time (days) (A) and Electrogenic Bacteria (B)in MFC-CT. 0 20 0.00E+00 5.00E+08

23 UCNJ Union College of Union County, NJ | Undergraduate Research Journal Volume 6| No. 2 |Spring 2024 Table 2. MFC Numbers of Electrogenic Bacteria EBS = Electrogenic bacteria start day, EBH= Electrogenic bacteria highest day However, after 24 hours, numbers for electricity and electrogenic bacteria decreased and never recovered. The MFC-CT sustained electrical production for 28.5 days with an average of 11 microwatts/day. It was the only MFC that produced electricity for all the data points analyzed. Previous studies from our laboratory reported similar electrical production after 1 day by a different MFC (Jimenez et al., 2020). That sample named MFC7 originated from a different location at BCC and showed an average of 41 microwatts/day with a high of 73 microwatts (Jimenez et al., 2020). The highest electrical output by any MFC previously reported by our laboratory was 80 microwatts with 1.67 x 109 electrogenic bacteria (MFC5) (Jimenez et al., 2020). MFC5 took 12 days to generate those numbers (Jimenez et al., 2020). However, MFC3, constructed in the spring of 2023, generated similar electrical output and electrogenic bacteria (Tables 1 and 2). When other soils were tested during the summer of 2023, we detected higher electrical production and electrogenic bacteria. Of the three MFCs started on 6/1/2023, MFCB1 showed 1.5x more electrical output and electrogenic bacteria than MFC3 (Tables 1 and 2). After 14 days of incubation at 35-37C, it showed a maximum of 143 microwatts and 2.99 x 109 electrogenic bacteria. A. B. To replicate the performance of the MFCB1, another sample was taken on 6/20/2023 from the same location and used to develop a new MFC. MFC-B1B showed a higher electrical output and electrogenic bacteria after 16 days (Table 1). An increase of 6% was detected as compared with the previous MFC-B1. MFC-B1B produced a high of 152 microwatts and 3.16 x 109 electrogenic bacteria (Tables 1 and 2). The time needed for MFC-B1B electrical generation was longer, 9 days, than MFC3 and MFC-B1. However, after that point, electrical output increased exponentially (Figure 3). Sample EBS EBH MFC1 0 0 MFC2 1.37E+08 4.33E+08 MFC3 2.71E+08 1.67E+09 MFC-B1 1.51E+08 2.99E+09 MFC-B2A 5.43E+07 1.06E+09 MFC-B2B 5.08E+08 6.53E+08 MFC-B1A 3.70E+07 5.15E+08 MFC-B1B 8.14E+07 3.17E+09 MFC-CT 3.19E+08 3.19E+08 MFC-AT 0 0 MFC-B1C 1.55E+08 3.37E+09 MFC-B1D 9.49E+08 1.84E+09 Figure 3 – Electrical Output (Microwatts) over Time (Days) (A) and Electrogenic Bacteria (B) in MFC-B1B. 0 100 200 1 6.5 8.5 13.516.5 0.00E+00 5.00E+09

24 UCNJ Union College of Union County, NJ | Undergraduate Research Journal Volume 6| No. 2 |Spring 2024 This research is designed to understand the effect of different types of organic compounds on the performance of MFCs. Cellulose was added to a new MFC built from the same location as MFC-B1 and MFC-B1B. This new sample was named MFCB1C (Table 1). The addition of cellulose increased the production of electricity compared to MFC-B1 and MFC-B1B (Table 1). Furthermore, electrical output doubled the values previously reported by our laboratory from 80 to 161 microwatts after 13 days (Table 1) (Jimenez et al., 2020). That was a 6% increase in electricity when compared to the previous high, 152 microwatts detected with MFCB1B. This sample also showed the highest numbers of electrogenic bacteria with 3.37 x 109 (Table 2). The addition of cellulose provided additional organic substrates to be oxidized to supply electrons which could be transferred to an anode to produce electricity. Compared to cellulose, blood agar was inhibitory for MFC-B1A, the highest electricity values detected were 24 microwatts after 16 days (Table 1). Electrical output was 24 microwatts accounting for an 84% reduction when compared to MFC-B1B. However, MFC-B2A showed a 38% increase when compared to MFC-B2B. It took a longer time, 26 days, for that MFC to generate 50 microwatts of electrical power. Preliminary results of bacterial identification using 16S rRNA sequences from clone libraries showed 50% of bacteria in some of the MFCs are uncultured unidentified, clones 4, 12 and 5t (Table 3). The other clones were identified as uncultured members of the phyla Acidobacteria, Chloroflexi, and Bacteroidetes. Homology values for the detected bacteria ranged from 99 to 89%. Previous studies showed members of the Chloroflexi and Bacteroidetes contributing to the development of electricity in MFCs (Dunaj et al., 2012; Jimenez et al., 2020; Wang et al., 2022). Table 3. 16S rRNA Clones from Microbial Fuel Cells Conclusion In conclusion, we found that MFCs constructed from different soil samples at BCC were selected for highly electrogenic sustainable bacterial communities. This was demonstrated when 4 new MFCs exceeded the electrical output and numbers of electrogenic bacteria previously reported with one sample doubling electricity production through the addition of cellulose. Future Work Future studies will expand the genetic analysis of electrogenic bacteria using next-generation sequencing of 16S rRNA in all MFC samples showing significant electrogenesis. We will also analyze the soil chemistry to determine the most important factors affecting the bacterial community composition of MFCs. Acknowledgment The project was funded by a grant from the Department of Education of the United States of America to Hispanic Serving Institutions (HIS) for Science Technology Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) education. Funding was also received Clone M FC Phylum/Genera % Identity 1 FC3 Uncultured Chloroflexi 98 3 FC3 Uncultured Acidobacteria 89 4 FC3 Uncultured bacterium 99 12 FC3 Uncultured bacterium 97 14 FC3 Uncultured Bacteroidetes 99 5t FCB1 Uncultured bacterium 94

25 UCNJ Union College of Union County, NJ | Undergraduate Research Journal Volume 6| No. 2 |Spring 2024 through a United States National Science Foundation (NSF) Grant #0903168. Contact information Dr. Luis Jimenez: ljimenez@bergen.edu Melissa Baykus: mbaykus@me.bergen.edu Liliana Hopkins: llhopkins145705@me.bergen.edu Kayla Yim: kyim142129@me.bergen.edu Ana Rumora: arumora@me.bergen.edu Luisa Martinez: lmartinez144129@me.bergen.edu References Miller, W., & Lipman, D.J. (1997). Gapped BLAST and PSI-BLAST: a new generation of protein database search programs. Nucleic Acid Research 25, 3389—3402. Bond, D.R., Holmes, D.E., Tender, L.M., & Lovley, D.R. (2002). Electrode-reducing microorganisms that harvest energy from marine sediments. Science 295, 483–485. Dunaj, S.J., Vallino, J.J., Hines, M.E., Gay, M., Kobyljanec, C., & Rooney-Varga, J.N. (2012). Relationships between soil organic matter, nutrients, bacterial community structure, and the performance of microbial fuel cells. Environmental Science and Technology 46, 1914-1922. Hodgson, D.M., Smith, A., Dahale, S., Stratford, J.P., Li, J.V., Gruning, A., Bushell, M.E., Marchesi, J.R., & Avignone Rossa, C. (2016). Segregation of the anodic microbial communities in a microbial fuel cell cascade. Fontiers in Microbiol. 7, 699. doi: 10.3389/fmicb.2016.00699. Jimenez, L., Kulko, E., Veloz, E., Barron, E., Ibrahim, B., Flannery, T., Margolies, B., Das, P., Mateo, J., & Aponte, T. (2015). 16S rRNA identification of microorganisms and direct detection of functional genes in waste material generated by an in-vessel rotating compost system. EC Microbiology 1.3, 129-142 Jimenez, L., Jashari, T., Vasquez, J., Zapata, S., Bochis, J., Kulko, M., Ellman, V., Gardner, M., & Choe, T. (2018). Real-Time PCR detection of Burkholderia cepacia in pharmaceutical products contaminated with low levels of bacterial contamination. PDA Journal of Pharmaceutical Science and Technology 72, 73—80. Jimenez, L., Kulko, M., Kim, R., Jashari, T. & Choe, T. (2020). 16S rRNA analysis of electrogenic bacterial communities in microbial fuel cells developed from temperate soils. BIOS 91, 9-20. Klindworth, A., Pruesse, E., Schweer, T., Peplies, J., Quast, C., Horn, M., & Glockner, F.O. (2012). Evaluation of general 16S ribosomal RNA gene PCR primers for classical and next-generation sequencing-based diversity studies. Nucleic Acids Research doi:10.1093/nar/gks808. Partanen, P., Hultman, J., Paulin, L., Auvinen, P., & Romantschuk, M. (2010). Bacterial diversity at different stages of the composting process”. BMC Microbiol. Mar 29; 10:94. Doi: 10.1186/1471- 2180/10/94. Rabaey, K., Boon, N., Siciliano, S.D., Verhaege, M., & Verstraete, W. (2004). Biofuel cells select for microbial consortia that self-mediate electron transfer. Appl. Environ Microbiol 70, 5373–5382. Wang, N., Chen, Z., Li, H.B., Su, J.Q., Zhao, F., & Zhu, Y.G. (2015). Bacterial community composition at anodes of microbial fuel cells for paddy soils: the effects of soil properties. Journal of Soils and Sediments 15, 926-936. Wang, J., Ren. K., Zhu, Y., Huang, J. & Liu, S. (2022). A review of recent advances in microbial fuel cells: preparation, operation, and application. BioTech 11, 44. https://doi.org/10.3390/ biotech11040044. Zhao, J., Li, X., Ren Y., Wang X., & Jian, C. (2012). Electricity generation from Taihu Lake cyanobacteria by sediment microbial fuel cells. J. Chem. Technol. Biotech. 87, 1567–1573.

26 UCNJ Union College of Union County, NJ | Undergraduate Research Journal Volume 6| No. 2 |Spring 2024 Exploring Feasibility: Iron Oxide Integration into poly (butylene succinate-co-adipate) (PBSA) Biodegradable Polymer Nas Ennasraoui Mentor: Assistant Professor Clive Li School of STEM, Hudson County Community College, NJ Abstract- This study investigates the viability of integrating Iron Oxide into a biodegradable polymer matrix, with a focus on its benefits for earthworms. Specifically, Iron Oxide was introduced into poly (butylene succinate-co-adipate) (PBSA), a widely used biodegradable polymer. Iron Oxide is beneficial to earthworms. This research explored the concept of incorporating Iron Oxide into the PBSA matrix, aiming to create a biodegradable composite that not only degrades in soil but also enriches it with Iron Oxide, thereby benefiting earthworms. 0.30 wt. % of Iron Oxide was incorporated into the PBSA matrix by using a plastic extruder operating at 135 degrees Celsius. Also, the results demonstrated the feasibility of incorporating Iron Oxide into PBSA, thereby enhancing its functional properties and potential applications of the biodegradable composite. Introduction In response to the increasing environmental concerns associated with traditional plastics, there has been a significant rise in the development and adoption of biodegradable plastics as eco-friendly alternatives. Biodegradable plastics, derived from renewable resources such as corn starch, cellulose, or biopolymers, offer the promise of reduced environmental impact through their ability to degrade into harmless compounds under natural conditions (Jambeck et al., 2015). These materials have garnered considerable attention from industries, policymakers, and consumers alike, driven by the imperative to mitigate plastic pollution and foster a more sustainable future. Numerous research efforts have been devoted to exploring the properties, degradation kinetics, and environmental fate of biodegradable plastics across diverse ecosystems. Several studies have investigated the mechanical properties, degradation rates, and microbial interactions of biodegradable polymers such as polylactic acid (PLA), polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA), and polybutylene succinate (PBS) under various environmental conditions (Injorthor et al. 2023; Aliotta et al., 2022). Additionally, researchers have explored innovative approaches to enhance the biodegradability and functional performance of biodegradable materials through chemical modifications, blending with natural additives, or incorporation of nanoparticles (Bordes et al., 2009; Chiellini et al., 2003). However, despite the advancements in biodegradable plastic technology, a critical aspect often overlooked is the potential ecological implications of their degradation products on soil-dwelling organisms, particularly earthworms. Earthworms, as keystone species in soil ecosystems, play a crucial role in soil structure maintenance, nutrient cycling, and organic matter decomposition (Lavelle et al., 1995). Yet, the biodegradation of conventional biodegradable plastics may not necessarily confer ecological benefits upon earthworms once they degrade, as these materials often lack essential ingredients that are beneficial to earthworm health and vitality. Iron oxide, commonly known as rust, is a ubiquitous compound found in various natural environments, including soils. While traditionally viewed as a product of oxidation and decay, recent research has unveiled the profound positive effects that Iron oxide exerts on soil-dwelling organisms, particularly earthworms. Earthworms, belonging to the class Oligochaeta, are crucial contributors to soil

27 UCNJ Union College of Union County, NJ | Undergraduate Research Journal Volume 6| No. 2 |Spring 2024 health and ecosystem functioning, playing a pivotal role in nutrient cycling, soil aeration, and organic matter decomposition (Edwards and Bohlen, 1996). Moreover, Iron oxide exhibits chemo-attractive properties toward earthworms, influencing their behavior and habitat selection within the soil matrix. Studies have demonstrated earthworms' preference for soils enriched with Iron oxide, suggesting a potential role for this compound in enhancing soil biodiversity and ecosystem resilience (Jones et al., 2004). Furthermore, the presence of Iron oxide in soil has been correlated with increased earthworm activity and population density, indicating a positive feedback loop between iron availability and earthworm abundance (Chahal et al., 2018). This study investigated the viability of integrating Iron oxide into a biodegradable polymer matrix. Specifically, Iron oxide was introduced into poly (butylene succinate-co-adipate) (PBSA), a widely used biodegradable polymer, using a plastic extruder operating at 135 °C. Through this method, we demonstrated the feasibility of incorporating Iron oxide into PBSA, thereby enhancing its functional properties and potential applications. Materials and Methods In this study, a custom-made plastic extruder featuring three heating zones was utilized for the experimental setup, with the processing temperature set at 135 °C. A photo of the extruder is shown in figure 1. The materials included PBSA biodegradable polymer sourced from Spectra Polymers & Colors, as well as Iron oxide provided by the same supplier. The chemical structure of PBSA is shown in figure 2. Prior to extrusion, the Iron oxide -PBSA blend was prepared by mixing 0.3 wt. % of Iron oxide with the PBSA polymer, achieved by vigorously shaking the materials in a plastic bag to ensure thorough dispersion. Subsequently, the premixed blend was fed into the extruder, which operated at a speed of 30 revolutions per minute (rpm). Within the extruder, the polymer blend underwent heat and shear, resulting in its softening and malleability. As the softened mixture passed through the heating zones, the Iron oxide particles were uniformly dispersed within the polymer matrix. The molten polymer mixture was then transported through a die by the extruder's screw mechanism, shaping it into a continuous strand. Following extrusion, the polymer strand was pulled through a cooling system to solidify. Finally, the solidified strand was cut into pellets of 3–5-millimeter lengths using a cutting mechanism. This process effectively integrated Iron oxide into the PBSA polymer matrix, yielding pellets suitable for further analysis and testing. Results and discussion Through plastic extrusion, Iron oxide particles were uniformly dispersed within the PBSA polymer, as shown in Figure 3. This addition of Iron oxide not only enhanced the pellets' properties but also offers benefits for soil health upon biodegradation, particularly for earthworms. This environmentally beneficial feature, coupled with the pellets' versatility for industrial applications, highlights their potential as sustainable alternatives to biodegradable plastics. This achievement underscored the importance of further research in sustainable materials, driving innovation and environmental conservation efforts. Figure 2 – Chemical structure of PBSA. Figure 1 – Custom made Plastic Extruder

28 UCNJ Union College of Union County, NJ | Undergraduate Research Journal Volume 6| No. 2 |Spring 2024 Conclusion In conclusion, this study demonstrated the successful integration of Iron oxide into PBSA biodegradable pellets, representing a significant advancement in sustainable plastics technology. Through plastic extrusion, Iron oxide particles were uniformly dispersed within the polymer matrix, enhancing the pellets' properties and potential applications. Importantly, the incorporation of Iron oxide offers environmental benefits upon biodegradation, particularly for soil health and earthworm vitality. Future Work In future research, we plan to bury the PBSA incorporated with Iron oxide in a controlled worm farm environment to investigate the biodegradation of the composite and its impact on earthworms. This study will provide valuable insights into the long-term environmental behavior of the composite material and its interaction with soil-dwelling organisms. Acknowledgment We would like to express our sincere gratitude to Hudson County Community College for their unwavering support and encouragement throughout our research activities. Contact information Nas Ennasraoui: aennasraoui8904@live.hccc.edu Clive Li: cli@hccc.edu References Aliotta, L., Seggiani, M., Lazzeri, A., Gigante, V., & Cinelli, P. (2022, February 21). A Brief Review of Poly (Butylene Succinate) (PBS) and Its Main Copolymers: Synthesis, Blends, Composites, Biodegradability, and Applications. Polymers, 14(4), 844. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14040844 BORDES, P., POLLET, E., & AVEROUS, L. (2009, February). Nano-bio-composites: Biodegradable polyester/nanoclay systems. Progress in Polymer Science, 34(2), 125–155. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.progpolymsci.2008.10.002 Chiellini, E., Corti, A., D’Antone, S., & Solaro, R. (2003, June). Biodegradation of poly (vinyl alcohol) based materials. Progress in Polymer Science, 28(6), 963–1014. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0079- 6700(02)00149-1 Injorhor, P., Trongsatitkul, T., Wittayakun, J., Ruksakulpiwat, C., & Ruksakulpiwat, Y. (2023, March 2). Biodegradable Polylactic Acid-Polyhydroxyalkanoate-Based Nanocomposites with Bio-Hydroxyapatite: Preparation and Characterization. Polymers, 15(5), 1261. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15051261 Kamboj, N., Kumar, A., Kamboj, V., Bisht, A.,Pandey, N., Bharti, M., In: Biological Diversity: Current Status and Conservation Policies Volume 1 (2021), 230-241. Jambeck, J. R., Geyer, R., Wilcox, C., Siegler, T. R., Perryman, M., Andrady, A., Narayan, R., & Law, K. L. (2015, February 13). Plastic waste inputs from land into the ocean. Science, 347(6223), 768–771. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1260352 Jones, C. G., Lawton, J. H., & Shachak, M. (1997, October). Positive and Negative Effects of Organisms as Physical Ecosystem Engineers. Ecology, 78(7), 1946–1957. http://dx.doi.org/10.1890/0012- 9658(1997)078 Lavelle, P., Lattaud, C., Trigo, D., & Barois, I. (1995, March). Mutualism and biodiversity in soils. Plant and Soil, 170(1), 23–33. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf02183052 Figure 3 – Pellets

29 UCNJ Union College of Union County, NJ | Undergraduate Research Journal Volume 6| No. 2 |Spring 2024 Growing a Greener Future: How Hemp is Revolutionizing Sustainable Insulation Luis O. Fiallos and Gabrielle S. Mojena Mentor: Academic Specialist Susana L. Sequeira STEM Division, UCNJ Union College of Union County, NJ Abstract - This study compared the efficacy of hempcrete (a composite composed of hemp and a limebased binder) as an insulation material for construction with rigid foam board insulation. The comparison involved various tests, including moisture retention, flammability, cold/hot air conductivity, and impact resistance. Results showed while hempcrete exhibits higher moisture retention than rigid board insulation, it outperforms the latter in direct sunlight, flammability, and cold/hot air conductivity. Introduction The building industry is responsible for producing about 39% of the world's greenhouse gas emissions (World Green Building Council, 2019). According to Sylvie Pretot (2014), global warming has caused extreme temperatures which have led to an increase of 60 million tons of carbon dioxide because of the increase in the heating and cooling of buildings. In the United States, it is common to use rigid board insulation as an insulator for both commercial and residential buildings (U.S. Department of Energy). The use of such materials produces a lot of carbon emissions during its creation. In recent years, many individuals have explored the use of alternative building materials as a means of reducing greenhouse gas emissions during construction. Hemp is a plant fiber used as a lignin-cellulose raw material that comes from a plant's stem. It takes around 120 days to grow (Schmidt, 2020). It typically does not require pesticides or insecticides, and materials made from hemp naturally absorb carbon dioxide from the air. Hempcrete is a composite material made from hemp fibers, lime, and water. Due to its thermal insulation properties, durability, and low environmental impact, it has been suggested as a potentially sustainable alternative for insulation in construction. (Natural Building Alliance, 2018). In Europe and Canada, hempcrete is commonly used to insulate buildings. Since the 1990s, these countries have used this method to restore historical buildings with poor insulation, where traditional insulation was not allowed by historical societies. However, in the United States, due to the stigmatization of the hemp plant, which is a cousin species of marijuana, it was illegal to cultivate hemp until recently. The 2018 United States Farm Bill legalized the cultivation of commercial hemp, introducing hempcrete as a new material in the US market. Many people have become interested in its applications for new construction due to its environmentally friendly advantages. The current project aimed to examine hempcrete thermal and mechanical characteristics and determine whether it may be used as a suitable replacement for rigid board insulation in exterior applications. These findings could guide designers, engineers, and architects in utilizing hempcrete for greener, and more sustainable construction. . Figure 1-Stucco plaster for finish

30 UCNJ Union College of Union County, NJ | Undergraduate Research Journal Volume 6| No. 2 |Spring 2024 Figure 2- Hemp Hurd's with lime concrete binder Figure 3- Rigid board with stucco samples Figure 4- Dry hempcrete Materials and Methods A block of typical rigid board insulation (Fig.3) was used and compared to a block of about equal size of hempcrete (Fig 4). A hempcrete sample kit was ordered from Hemp Traders, a company that has been offering hemp-related products since 1994. Hempcrete samples were prepared based on instructions from the hempcrete kit (Hemp Traders Fig. 2). One side of each hempcrete block and rigid board was covered with about a ½ inch thick of stucco plaster (Fig. 1). This was done to simulate how insulation is typically finished in public buildings such as retail, food, and pharmacy centers. Each material was set up as follows. Hempcrete materials Hemp Hurd, water, lime binder, lime plaster (stucco), and rigid Board materials were used to make Hempcrete. To simulate various environmental conditions that these insulation materials may encounter in public settings, the hempcrete and the rigid board samples underwent impact, fire resistance, moisture, and cold/hot air insulation tests. Moisture test The moisture test was conducted first. It took 27 days for the hempcrete samples to fully dry. A wood moisture meter was used to measure the corresponding percentage of moisture in the samples throughout the test. The top, sides, and bottom of each sample were tested to see if there were any changes throughout the samples. The hemp and rigid board samples' tops (stucco side) were lightly sprayed with water and left for ten minutes. After confirming that no water penetrated the stucco, samples were then dunked in 1/2 inch of water, top side down. Upon checking the samples of hempcrete, an increase in moisture percentage was observed on the top and sides. The moisture percentage of the rigid board remained unchanged at 30%. These samples were then rinsed for ten minutes to simulate light rain. Observations showed that rigid board displayed no change, while hempcrete had little to no change. Subsequently, samples of hempcrete and rigid board were soaked for 30 minutes to simulate heavy rain. Changes were observed on the tops of the rigid board samples. After 30 minutes of soaking, there was an increase in the moisture percentage on the top and sides of the rigid board 2). As for hempcrete 4), the top had the same percentage as hempcrete 2), but the sides of hempcrete 4) exhibited more than double the moisture percentage of hempcrete 2). After wetting, the samples were dried for a couple of days in the college’s greenhouse and were then checked. The test confirmed that hempcrete was permeable, while rigid board was not. Tables 1 and 2 below present these findings.

31 UCNJ Union College of Union County, NJ | Undergraduate Research Journal Volume 6| No. 2 |Spring 2024 Table 1: Light rain moisture test Table 2: Hard rain moisture Direct sunlight test This experiment aimed to test the insulating properties of different materials when exposed to direct sunlight. Temperature readings were taken from the top and bottom of each sample to compare their ability to prevent heat transfer. Each material sample was placed outside at 9 am for 2 hours and 30 minutes under direct sunlight. An egg carton was used to prevent heat transfer from the ground to the samples. Temperatures were recorded before and after the 2-hour exposure. Care was taken to ensure that no shadows were cast on the samples as the sun moved throughout the day. Table 3: Temperatures before and after 2 hours 30min of direct sunlight Cold air test The cold air test was designed to assess how effectively each sample could resist the transfer of cold temperatures through the material. A fan blowing air at 60 degrees Fahrenheit was used to push cold air towards the samples. A paper air duct was constructed to ensure that the cold air reached the front and center of each sample (Fig. 5). Temperature readings were taken on the front and back of the samples before and after they were exposed to the cold air for 10 minutes (Table 4). Figure 5 Cold air fan w/ air duct on hempcrete sample. Table 4: Temperatures before and after cold air Test Days Hemp 2 Rigid wet 1 Dry 7/24 b:0 s:0 p:10 b:0 s:0 p:31 10 mins after b:0 s:0 p:21.5 b:0 s:0 p:30.1 1 st Soak b:0 s:6.5 p:27.1 b:0 s:0 p:30.8 2 nd Soak b:0 s:6.9 p:30.9 b:0 s:0 p:30.3 7/25 b:7.1 s:11.3 p:11.3 b:0 s:0 p:9.9 7/26 b:10.6 s:37 p:10.4 b:0 s:0 p:8 7/27 b:11.5 s:10.9 p:7.9 b:0 s:0 p:8.8 Hemp 4 Rigid 2 Dry 7/24 b:0 s:0 p:10.3 b:0 s:0 p:10.1 Soak b:8.5 s:14-37 p:30.6 b:0 s:19.3 p:30 7/25 b:23 s:40+ p:23 b:0 s:0 p:12.3 7/26 b:20 s:34.7 p:15.5 b:0 s:0 p:7 8/1 b:0 s:0 p:8 b:8.8 s:7.6 p:12.3 Recorded Time Hemp Rigi d 9:06 am Top 60F 60F Bottom 62F 60F 11:33 am Top 84F 86F Bottom 78F 86F Time side emp Rigid Before temp. Top 0F 70F Bottom 7F 65F Air conditioning temp. 62F After temp. Top 65F 65F Bottom 67F 68F

32 UCNJ Union College of Union County, NJ | Undergraduate Research Journal Volume 6| No. 2 |Spring 2024 Flammability Test This experiment was designed to test how quickly each material could ignite and how long it took for the material to be significantly burned or charred. One gram each of rigid board and hempcrete material was broken down into smaller pieces and placed inside a crucible (Figs. 6 and 7). Then, using a stopwatch, samples were timed to see how long it took for each of the materials to ignite and for most of it to be burned (Figs 8 and 9). Table 5. Burn times for materials. A second flammability and burn time experiment was conducted to assess the impact of combining hempcrete and rigid board fibers. Five mixtures with varying concentrations of materials (20/80%, 40/60%, 50/50%, 60/40%, 80/20%) were prepared and subjected to ignition. Time data was then recorded for each 1g mixture Fig. 10 and 11). The data gathered for this experiment was inconclusive. Only the rigid board, within each mixture, melted and burned away. The hempcrete material remained and only showed minimal charring or burning exhibited. The only instance of the hemp hurds catching on fire was when the melted rigid board paste stuck to the pieces. Even then, the fire stopped after the melted paste was burned away. Impact Test The final test attempted to simulate how these materials would react to possible destructive human interaction, such as a person striking a wall. The average mass of a human fist is about 400 grams. Therefore, this test involved dropping a weight of approximately 400 grams from both a 2-foot and 4- foot distance (Table 6). Table 6. Damage data of impact test. weights distance Result Hemp 400 g 2ft No damage Rigid 400 g 2ft Dented in the middle Hemp 400 g 4ft Stucoo slight damaged and hemp sample cracked Rigid 400 g 4ft Stucco cracked and rigid is smashed in Burning 1g Rigid Hemp Ignite time 30 sec. Never caught on fire Total burn time 1min 6 sec 4 min 10sec of direct flame Figures 6 and 7 - One-gram hempcrete before and after-burn. Figures 8 and 9- One-gram rigid board before and after burn Figures 10 and 11- Mixtures of rigid board and hempcrete, before and after burn.

33 UCNJ Union College of Union County, NJ | Undergraduate Research Journal Volume 6| No. 2 |Spring 2024 Results and discussion The hempcrete performed better than the rigid board insulation in the direct sunlight, flammability, and impact tests, despite showing greater moisture retention during the moisture test. It maintained a colder temperature under direct sunlight, was comparable to a rigid board in maintaining heat in cold temperatures, and demonstrated impressive flame resistance. Additionally, the impact test revealed that hempcrete is more structurally sound against forces, with minimal damage shown on the stucco side of the hemp sample. Flame test results indicated that the rigid board material had a negative reaction to the flame. The rigid board pieces would instantly melt and form a flammable paste that would stick to the other samples in the mixture thus decreasing the flame resistance of the overall mixture. In contrast, the hempcrete pieces in these mixtures never ignited and exhibited only minimal charring. During the burning of the rigid board material, a toxic gas smell was also emitted, whereas the hempcrete had a cleaner, wood-burning smell. Hempitecture, a hempcrete company, recently achieved a perfect score of "0" in their ASTM fire testing in the United States for "Flame-spread" and "Smoke Developed" indices, which is the best possible score of 0 out of 450 (Hemp Today). Conclusion Hempcrete material demonstrated itself to be a viable candidate as an alternative building insulator. Along with its flame resistance, insulation properties, and impact resistance, hempcrete also contributes to reducing climate change. This is because of the significance of photosynthesis-mediated carbon sequestration and carbonation which serve to reduce the negative environmental impact. Increasing the use of sustainable materials, such as hempcrete, instead of traditional materials would be beneficial for the environment by cutting down on carbon dioxide emissions and improving our health. Future work Exploring the long-term performance of hempcrete in various environmental conditions and building designs would provide valuable insights for its practical application. Acknowledgment This research was made possible by the National Science Foundation, IRAP grant 1832425. Its contents are solely the award recipient’s responsibility and do not necessarily represent the official views of the National Science Foundation. We would also like to thank Professor Heidary, Academic Specialist Shahrzad Taghdissi, Ms. Tamiko Carman, Ms. Beata Mourad, and UCNJ Union College of Union County, NJ, STEM Division, for their continuous support. Figure 12 and 13- Hempcrete and rigid board impact of 400g from 2ft Figure 14 and 15- Hempcrete and rigid board impact of 400g from 4 ft.

34 UCNJ Union College of Union County, NJ | Undergraduate Research Journal Volume 6| No. 2 |Spring 2024 Contact information. Luis O. Fiallos, luis.fiallos@owl.ucc.edu Gabrielle Mojena, gabrielle.mojena@owl.ucc.edu Susana Sequeira, susana.sequeira@ucc.edu References Accerbi M, Schmidt SA, Paoli E, Park S, Jeong DH, Green PJ (2009) Methods for isolating total RNA to recover miRNAs and other small RNAs from diverse species. In: Meyers BC, Green PJ (eds) Plant micro RNAs, methods in molecular biology. Humana Press, New York, pp 31–50. doi:10.1007/978-1-60327-005-2_3 ACS Laboratory. (n.d.). How and When to Harvest Hemp.www.acslab.com . https://www.acslab.com/blog/cultivation/cultivatio n-how-and-when-to-harvest-hemp Boyer JS (1982) Plant productivity and environment. Science 218(4571):443–448. doi:10.1126/science.218.4571.443 Boyer JS, Westgate ME (2004) Grain yields with limited water. J Exp Bot 55(407):2385–2394. doi:10.1093/jxb/erh219 Chafe Z (2005) Bioinvasions. State of the world 2005: redefining global security. W.W. Norton and Company, New York, pp 60–6 Hemp Today. (n.d.). Hempcrete scores a perfect “O” under ASTM fire testing in the USA. Retrieved April 2, 2024, from https://hemptoday.net/astm-fire-tests/#:~:text=The %20company%20also%20posted%20a Hemp Traders. (n.d.). SPC: Sample Hempcrete Kit. HempTraders.com. Retrieved April 1, 2024, from https://www.hemptraders.com/SPCp/spc.htm Natural Building Alliance. (2018, January 1). Hempcrete – Natural Building Alliance. Natural Building Alliance. https://natural-building-alliance.org/hempcrete/ Pretot, S., F. Collet, and C. Garnier, “Life cycle assessment of a hemp concrete wall: Impact of thickness and coating.” Building and Environment, vol. 72, pp. 223-231, 2014, Doi: 10.1016/j.buildenv.2013.11.010. U.S. Department of Energy. (n.d.). Insulation Ahmad J, Bashir H, Bagheri R, Baig A, Huqail A, Ibrahim MM, Qureshi MI (2017) Drought and salinity induced changes in ecophysiology and proteomic profile of Parthenium hysterophorus. PLoS ONE (Under Production). doi:10.1371/journal. Pone. 0185118 Materials. Energy.gov. Retrieved March 31, 2024, from https://www.energy.gov/energysaver/insulationmaterials#:~:text=XPS%20is%20most%20com monly%20used United States Department of Agriculture. (2018, December 20). Farm Bill. Www.usda.gov. https://www.usda.gov/farmbill World green building council. (2019). Bringing embodied carbon upfront. World Green Building Council. https://worldgbc.org/advancing-net-zero/embodied-carbon/

35 UCNJ Union College of Union County, NJ | Undergraduate Research Journal Volume 6| No. 2 |Spring 2024 Discover the Science Behind Your Morning Cup of Coffee FTIR Profiles of Caffeinated Sources Kimberly Chibbaro, Christopher Moniz, Arezo Natiq, Maria Castano, Oluwafisayo Oluwarayi Mentor: Academic Specialist Shahrzad Tagdhissi STEM Division, UCNJ Union College of Union County, NJ Abstract - This study examined the various types of caffeinated beverages consumed by more than 1 billion people globally daily. The research aimed to understand the differences in color, taste, smell, preparation time, and process of these drinks and why they appear to work differently in the body. Initially, the focus was on extracting caffeine from coffee to determine differences in color, texture, and quantity. However, the extracted caffeine residue was found to be almost identical, with very little difference in physical appearance. Further investigation revealed that the chemical properties of the extracted caffeine were dependent on the source they came from. For example, traces of methamphetamine were found in one of the coffees used, making it unique. Also, this research focused on the identification of organic, polymeric, and inorganic materials present in different forms of caffeine. The Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) was utilized as the analytical technique to accomplish this objective. Introduction Coffee-based drinks and dietary supplements have gained immense popularity due to their physical and psychological benefits (Bhatti, et al., 2019). In this project, we aimed to explore the molecular profiles of three common beverages, regular coffee, mushroom coffee, and pre-workout powder. Regular coffee is a globally beloved beverage that derives its stimulating properties from caffeine and a complex blend of organic compounds (Nehlig, 2016). Mushroom Coffee, on the other hand, is a variant that incorporates Ganoderma Lucidum, a medicinal mushroom known for its potential health benefits (Wang et al., 2020). Both beverages may share similarities, but they also exhibit unique chemical components, which can impact their taste, aroma, and medicinal attributes. The pre-workout powder is a widely used supplement by fitness enthusiasts. It is composed of various compounds, including amino acids, stimulants, and other performance-enhancing agents. To ensure its safe use, it is necessary to understand its chemical composition. FTIR spectroscopy is a reliable method for determining the chemical composition of many everyday products. This method uses the interaction between infrared light and molecular vibrations to provide information about the functional groups, chemical bonds, and molecular structures present in a sample. Materials and Methods For the extraction of caffeine from the coffee samples, we combined ground coffee with 4.0 g of sodium carbonate in regular black coffee. Sodium carbonate reacts with coffee molecules, which makes them more soluble in water. Sodium carbonate was used because it is less likely to be extracted by dichloromethane (DCM). Sixty mL of distilled water was added to the mixture and boiled in a covered beaker. After boiling, the mixture was allowed to cool and then filtered through a filter paper. The filtrate was extracted with 3 x 25 mL of dichloromethane (DCM), which was then combined and dried with anhydrous sodium sulfate (Na2SO4). The DCM was then evaporated using a rotary evaporator to obtain the crude caffeine extract. The crude caffeine extract was then purified by sublimation. The same procedure was followed for the 1st Phorm Project-1 Pre-Workout and Mushroom Coffee Classic Coffee samples. The

36 UCNJ Union College of Union County, NJ | Undergraduate Research Journal Volume 6| No. 2 |Spring 2024 amount of ground coffee used for each sample was adjusted accordingly to ensure comparability. The method employed for the extraction of caffeine from the coffee samples involved reducing the heat and letting it simmer for 15 minutes. After this, the vacuum filtration method was used with a Buchner funnel to remove the undissolved coffee particles. The coffee was then transferred to a separatory funnel, and 15 mL of DCM was added. Since the organic molecules in the coffee are soluble in DCM, it helped to separate them from the water. The separating funnel was shaken to aid in the separation process and vented to prevent an emulsion from forming. This resulted in two layers in the funnel. The bottom layer was clear and contained DCM. and caffeine. The top layer retained the typical brown color of coffee. This process was repeated three times, each time using 15 mL of DCM. Clean extracts were obtained using organic solvent and then transferred to a clean separatory funnel. The solvent was found to appear cloudy at this stage, which is considered normal. To extract water from the organic solvent, a saturated salt solution was added to the funnel. The funnel was then capped, vented, and shaken. The bottom layer, which contained DCM and caffeine, was collected into a beaker. The solution appeared clear in color. To ensure that there was no excess water, a drying agent was added to the solution and dried for about 20 minutes. Then, the solution was decanted into a clean beaker and washed with a small amount of DCM. To remove DCM, the organic solvent was heated, ensuring not to overheat it due to its low boiling point of 39.6°C. The remaining amount of crude caffeine was very small, and to purify it, the process of recrystallization with 95% ethanol was employed, as described in Yurkanis Paula's 8th edition of Organic Chemistry (2007). Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) FTIR spectroscopy was used to identify the compounds and determine their components in mixtures. To analyze caffeinated beverages, a small sample of each was placed on an attenuated total reflection (ATR) crystal, and an auto sample presser was placed over it. The system recorded the radiation that passed through the sample molecules with covalent bonds absorbing specific wavelengths, which changed the vibrational energy of the bond, resulting in a different transmittance pattern for every molecule or sample. The graph of the spectrum with wavenumber (intensity of the spectra) on the x-axis showed absorbance bands separated into group frequencies and molecular fingerprint frequencies. The y-axis showed the transmittance (amount of infrared light transmitted/absorbed by the sample being analyzed). The different structures of molecules resulted in different spectra, allowing the determination of any molecules present in a sample. Results and discussion The results of the study showed that the yield obtained from the experimental procedure was unsuitable for the analysis of caffeine compounds using FTIR spectroscopy. The spectrums that were observed mainly represented solvents used in the process. Through literature research and FTIR spectroscopy analysis, we confirmed that specific procedures are required for the extraction of caffeine from different sources. The findings highlight the need to consider the content of the source material when designing the caffeine extraction process. Furthermore, it was found that caffeine extraction is a complex process, as there is no convenient and affordable method to measure caffeine content. The method used for caffeine extraction relies more on personal recipes than the brewing devices or tools used, as suggested by Jiyoon Han, co-founder of Bean & Bean Coffee Roasters in New York City (Alonso, 2023). The results confirmed that coffee contains protein. Additionally, it was found that coffee contains a compound called Ergotoxine KBr, which has been linked to the constriction of arterioles which can lead to a decrease in blood flow. This effect is observed when an individual drinks a caffeinated beverage, as the blood vessels surrounding the brain narrow and constrict the blood flow source. However, when the consumption of caffeine stops, the blood vessels enlarge,

37 UCNJ Union College of Union County, NJ | Undergraduate Research Journal Volume 6| No. 2 |Spring 2024 which can cause headaches. This effect is experienced frequently by daily caffeine users. The findings of this research highlight the importance of understanding the effects of caffeine on the human body and the potential risks associated with its consumption. Figure: IR Spectrum of pre-workout sample Table 1: FTIR peaks (FTIR Library) The results obtained from the FTIR analysis of the pre-workout and Mushroom Coffee samples are presented in Figures 1 & 2. The spectrum shows that the top line of the sample closely resembles Amino propyl trimethoxy silane or C9H23NO3Si, an amino silane. The presence of an amine salt can be inferred from the peaks between 3000-2800 cm-1 , which indicate N-H stretching. Furthermore, a strong peak at around 1650 cm-1 indicates the presence of δ-lactam (C=O Figure 2: IR spectrum for mushroom coffee stretching). The spectrum also shows several peaks between 1175-1000 cm-1 , which indicate the presence of primary and secondary alcohols. Interestingly, one of the Coffee samples surprised us by showing a resemblance to the spectrum of Methamphetamine HCl from the FTIR Library. These findings highlight the importance of conducting detailed analyses of food products, especially those that are marketed as health supplements. Further studies are needed to investigate the possible presence of any harmful substances in Mushroom Coffee. The results of our study revealed the presence of barium sulfate, BaSO₄, in the medicinal mushroom coffee sample. While this coffee is known for its many benefits, our findings suggest that excessive consumption may lead to various health issues. Moving on to the pre-workout sample, the results showed a strong peak at around 3200 cm-1 indicating the presence of carboxylic acid (O-H stretching). Previous studies suggest that the intake of excessive pre-workout and other stimulants may increase the risk of kidney stones. This is because oxalic acid, a dibasic carboxylic acid found in cabbage, spinach, and other brassicas, can combine with calcium to form calcium oxalate, which is the most common component in developing kidney stones. Another significant peak we observed in the pre-workout sample was at 1550 cm-1 , indicating the presence of a nitro compound (N-O stretching).

38 UCNJ Union College of Union County, NJ | Undergraduate Research Journal Volume 6| No. 2 |Spring 2024 We also detected two amino acids, L-Isoleucine and L-Methionine and Cystine, which play important roles in protein synthesis, energy production, immune system regulation, blood glucose management, and red blood cell production. Additionally, we found Ergotoxine in the pre-workout sample, a substance that often combined with caffeine treated migraines. Pre-Workout and Mushroom Coffee Caffeine anhydrous is a commonly used ingredient in energy drinks and pre-workout supplements. It is widely believed that caffeine anhydrous is much more concentrated than the caffeine found in coffee as it is extracted by removing all the water molecules from plants such as coffee beans and yerba mate leaves. The addition of caffeine anhydrous in pre-workout supplements is often aimed at attracting people who engage in physical activity. The high concentration of caffeine in these supplements is believed to provide better endurance and focus during workouts compared to drinking coffee. Apart from caffeine, pre-workout supplements also contain several other ingredients such as branch-chain amino acids, electrolytes, and betaalanine. These ingredients are believed to play a significant role in enhancing the overall performance and endurance of individuals during exercise. Branch chain amino acids are essential amino acids that help in protein synthesis and prevent muscle breakdown. Electrolytes help in maintaining the proper balance of fluids in the body and play a vital role in nerve and muscle function. Beta-alanine is an amino acid that helps in reducing muscle fatigue during high-intensity workouts. Though pre-workout supplements are widely popular among fitness enthusiasts, it is important to note that excessive consumption of caffeine or other stimulants can have adverse effects on health. It is crucial to conduct detailed analyses of dietary supplements to ensure their safety and efficacy. Further research is needed to investigate the potential adverse effects of excessive consumption of caffeine anhydrous and other dietary supplements. Several studies have investigated the potential health benefits of mushroom extracts found in mushroom coffee. For example, a study published in the Journal of Traditional and Complementary Medicine found that Reishi mushroom extracts may have anti-tumor and immune-boosting properties. Another study published in the International Journal of Medicinal Mushrooms found that Chaga mushroom extracts may have anti-cancer and anti-inflammatory effects. Additionally, a study published in the Journal of Alzheimer's Disease found that Lion's Mane mushroom extracts may improve cognitive function in people with mild cognitive impairment. Mushroom coffee is a new and trendy coffee alternative that contains medicinal or "functional" mushroom extracts. These extracts are believed to have various health benefits, including boosting immunity, potentially preventing cancer, reducing inflammation, and improving cognitive function. However, it is crucial to consume mushroom coffee in moderation and to be aware of the possible risks associated with consuming mushrooms, including triggering the immune system and causing adverse reactions. Further research is needed to investigate the potential health benefits and risks of consuming mushroom coffee. Conclusion In conclusion, the experiments provided valuable insights into the extraction process of caffeine from various sources, including black coffee, preworkout supplements, and mushroom coffee. Using detailed methods such as mixing, boiling, filtration, and extraction with dichloromethane, followed by purification and recrystallization, the Figure 3: Caffeine structure

39 UCNJ Union College of Union County, NJ | Undergraduate Research Journal Volume 6| No. 2 |Spring 2024 study highlighted differences in caffeine concentrations and additional ingredients between products. The Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) analysis revealed the stimulating effects of caffeine on the central nervous system and the ability of the FTIR technique to identify compounds based on their infrared absorption patterns. The experiment's unexpected outcomes contributed to a better understanding of caffeine-related processes, including extraction challenges and physiological effects. Future Work Future research could focus on developing hormone-balancing supplements as alternative strategies for managing caffeine's effects on hormones, as women are increasingly opting for natural hormone regulation methods over birth control. Caffeine consumption can disrupt hormone balance by increasing estrogen levels, leading to symptoms like fatigue and weight gain. Further research is needed to develop effective solutions for managing caffeine's effects on hormones. Acknowledgment This research was made possible by the National Science Foundation, IRAP grant 1832425. Its contents are solely the award recipient’s responsibility and do not necessarily represent the official views of the National Science Foundation. and UCNJ Union College of Union County, NJ, STEM Division, for their continuous support. Contact information Shahrzad Tagdhissi shahrzad.taghdissi@ucc.edu Kimberly Chibbaro, kimmychibbaro@gmail.com Christopher Moniz, cmoniz921@gmail.com Arezo Natiq, arezo.natiq@yahoo.com Maria Castano, majo.casta1412@gmail.com Oluwafisayo Oluwarayi, oluwafisayo.oluwarayi@owl.ucc.edu References Alonso, N. (2023, February 24). Do some coffee brewing methods extract more caffeine than others? we asked an expert. Well+Good. https://www.wellandgood.com/coffee-brewing-methods-caffeine/ Benzie, I. F. F, Buswell, J. A., Wachtel-Galor, S., & Yuen J. (n.d.). Ganoderma lucidum (Lingzhi or reishi) - herbal medicine - NCBI bookshelf. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK92757/ Bhatti, A., Siddiqui, A. A., & Ahmad, S. (2019). Coffee: A comprehensive review of its impact on human health. Journal of Food Science and Technology, 56(5), 2216-2227. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13197-019-03780-6 Ergotoxine. Ergotoxine - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics. (n.d.). https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/ergotoxine#:~:text=Ergotamine%20and%20ergotoxine%20are%20used,%CE%B1%2Dadrenergic%20 and%20serotonin%20receptors. Nehlig, A. (2016). Effects of coffee/caffeine on brain health and disease: What should I tell my patients? Practical Neurology, 16(2), 89-95. https://doi.org/10.1136/practneurol-2015-001162 Paula Yurkanis Bruice,8th edition, Organic Chemistry Organic Chemistry, 8th edition Pearson, California, Santa Barbara, 2017. https://www.pearson.com/en-us/subject-catalog/p/organic-chemistry/P200000006995/9780135213711 Wang, Z., Luo, D., Liang, Y., Dong, Z., & Xiao, Y. (2020). Ganoderma lucidum polysaccharides: immunomodulation and potential anti-tumor activities. American Journal of Translational Research, 12(8), 2974-2988. PMID: 32886627 What is FTIR Spectroscopy? (n.d.). https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/technicaldocuments/technical-article/analytical- chemistry/photometry-and-reflectometry/ftir-spectroscopy.

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2 UCNJ Union College of Union County, NJ | Undergraduate Research Journal Volume 6 | No. 2 | Spring 2024 Union County Board of County Commissioners Kimberly Palmieri-Mouded Commissioner – Chairwoman Lourdes M. Leon Commissioner – Vice Chair James E. Baker, Jr. Commissioner Joseph C. Bodek Commissioner Michèle S. Delisfort Commissioner Sergio Granados Commissioner Bette Jane Kowalski Commissioner Alexander Mirabella Commissioner Rebecca L. Williams Commissioner UCNJ does not discriminate and prohibits discrimination, as required by state and/or federal law, in all programs and activities, including employment and access to its career and technical programs.