Basic Oratory Modul

HPS2013

BASIC ORATORY REFERENCE MODULE

For internal use only
(students’ reference)

PREFACE

1Oratory by its definition means the rationale and practice of persuasive public
speaking. It is immediate in its audience relationships and reactions, but it may also have
broad historical repercussions. The orator may become the voice of political or social history.
In fact, as a part of communication skills that we want to cultivate in a student, this oratory
skill is fundamental.

Comprises of seven main chapters in this module which are Introduction to public speaking,
Speech preparation, Presenting the speech, Listening skills, Supporting materials, Effective
language for presentations and Varieties of public speaking; this subject offers students a
central concept in each area.

The purposes of this module are to help students understand some concepts in
learning to speak in public and developing communication skills which are critical to their
success. Students are expected to acquire knowledge of producing creative ideas for their
speeches and hence help to develop students’ overall fluency. Clarity of thought is the first
step towards developing good public speaking skills, as it allows them to be concise, deliver
their message with high impact and gain credibility.

This module perhaps can be a useful tool for undergraduates to equip themselves
with sufficient skills especially in communication in order to be among the choice of future
employers.

First Edition. July2019

1 https://www.britannica.com/art/oratory-rhetoric

2

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO PUBLIC SPEAKING

1.1 WHAT IS PUBLIC SPEAKING

Definition: 2Public speaking (also called oratory or oration) is the process or act of
performing a good speech to a live audience.

This type of speech is deliberately structured with three general purposes: to inform, to
persuade and to entertain.

Public speaking is commonly understood as formal, face-to-face speaking of a single person
to a group of listeners. Public speaking is highly structured and thus can be governed by
different rules and structures.

Quick notes: Public Speaking is a highly structured conversation as compared to everyday conversations.

There are five basic elements of public speaking that are described in Lasswell's model of
communication: the communicator, message, medium, audience and effect. In short, the
speaker should be answering the question "who says what in which channel to whom with
what effect?"

Question Element Terms
Who? Communicator Speaker
Message
Says What? Message Channel
In Which Channel? Medium Listener
Audience Feedback
To Whom? Effect
With What Effect?

Public speaking can serve the purpose of transmitting information, telling a story, motivating
people to act or some combination of those. Public speaking can also take the form of a
discourse community, in which the audience and speaker use discourse to achieve a
common goal.

2 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_speaking

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1.2 THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS

Definition: 3Communication process consists of some interrelated steps or parts
through which messages are sent form sender (speaker) to receiver (listener).

The process of communication begins when the sender wants to transmit a fact, idea,
opinion or other information to the receiver and ends with receiver’s feedback to the sender.

The main components of communication process are sender (speaker), message, channel,
receiver (listener), feedback, noise (interference) and situation.

1. Speaker 2. Message 3. Channel 4. Listener

6. Noise (Interference)

5. Feedback

7. Situation

Diagram 1: Communication Process

1. Speaker – the person who intents or delivers the message
2. Message – the information or idea or opinion that the speaker wants to send
3. Channel – the tool or the medium that the speaker selects in order to send the

message (for example: verbal, nonverbal, written).
4. Listener – the person who receives the message sent by the speaker.
5. Feedback – the response given by the listener regarding his/her understanding of the

message.
6. Noise (interference) – disturbance or barriers in the communication that might hinder

the communication process. There are 2 types of interference; internal (emotional) or
external (sound, filtering, language etc.)
7. Situation – the setting (time and place) at which the communication occurs.

3 https://thebusinesscommunication.com/what-is-communication-process/

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1.3 ETHICS IN PUBLIC SPEAKING
Definition: 4Ethics in public speaking are guidelines, unwritten rules, or code of
conduct every ambitious public speaker should master and observe.
5Public speaking should reflect the character of the speaker and should be based on a
foundation of trust, integrity, respect and dignity. The speaker should avoid behaviors like
stereotyping, damaging messages and plagiarism.

6"Ethical Pyramid"
Intent
To be an ethical speaker or listener, it is important to begin with ethical intentions. For
example, if we agree that honesty is ethical, it follows that ethical speakers will prepare their
remarks with the intention of telling the truth to their audiences.
Means
7“Means” are the tools or behaviors we employ to achieve a desired outcome. We must
realize that there are a range of possible behavioral choices for any situation and that some
choices are good, some are bad, and some fall in between.
Ends
“Ends” are those outcomes that you desire to achieve. Whereas the means are the
behavioral choices we make, the ends are the results of those choices. Like intentions and
means, ends can be good or bad, or they can fall into a gray area where it is unclear just
how ethical or unethical they are. When examining ends, we need to think about both the
source and the receiver of the message or behavior.

4 https://toughnickel.com/business/the-ethics-in-public-speaking
5 https://study.com/academy/lesson/being-an-ethical-speaker.html
6 Tilley, E. (2005). The ethics pyramid: Making ethics unavoidable in the public relations process. Journal of Mass
Media Ethics, 20, 305–320.
7 McCroskey, J. C., Wrench, J. S., & Richmond, V. P. (2003). Principles of public speaking. Indianapolis, IN: The
College Network.

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1.4 PRESENTATION ANXIETY

Definition: Presentation anxiety or 8Public speaking anxiety (PSA) is the fear
experienced by a person when delivering (or preparing to deliver) a speech to an
audience.

Public speaking anxiety is sometimes referred to as stage fright or communication
apprehension.

Stage fright symptoms may include:

• Dry mouth and tight throat
• Trembling hands, knees and lips
• Nausea and an uneasy feeling in your stomach
• Vision changes, blurry
• Rapid pulse and breathing
• Sweaty and cold hands
• Trembling voice

1.4.1 UNDERSTAND YOUR NERVOUSNESS

9Confronting your fears and vulnerabilities, accepting yourself for who you are, and not
feeling like you have to prove yourself to others, is the first step toward overcoming
performance anxiety. Keep in mind that nobody is perfect, nobody expects you to be perfect,
and it is OK to make mistakes.

The second step is learning how to redirect your negative thoughts, beliefs, images, and
predictions about performing in public. Doing this is not as difficult as you might think.

Keep in mind that stage fright is usually worse before the performance and often goes away
once you get started.

Confronting your fears and learning ways to reduce and manage them can be empowering.
Not only will it make you feel good about yourself, you may discover that you are a more
confident performer, too.

8 https://www.thoughtco.com/public-speaking-anxiety-psa-1691551
9 https://www.webmd.com/anxiety-panic/guide/stage-fright-performance-anxiety#1

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1.4.2 DEALING WITH NERVOUSNESS

10Six Steps to Conquering Your Presentation Nerves

1. Know Your Audience

Consult your audience before your presentation. The more confident you are that you are
presenting them with useful and interesting material for them; the less nervous you will be
overall.

2. Know Your Material

Nothing is worse for nerves than trying to give a presentation on a topic you are not well
prepared for. This doesn't mean you have to be an expert beforehand, but you'd better know
it backward on presentation day. And making sure you've understood your audience and
their needs properly will help you ensure that your material is on target to meet their needs.

Another important point to remember is that you can't possibly cover everything you know in
your presentation. That would probably be long and boring. So select the most pertinent
points from your subject base and then supplement with other material if time allows.

Tip:
To make your material interesting and memorable, include occasional questions to the audience to encourage
audience participation. This enhances the learning experience and gives you a break from presenting. It also
allows you to deliver your information in a more conversational manner which is often more believable.

3. Structure Your Presentation

A common technique for trying to calm nervousness is memorizing what you intend to say. It
is far better to structure your presentation so that you give yourself clues to what is coming
next.
• Have a set of key phrases listed on a cue card.
• Refer to these phrases to trigger your mind as to what is coming up next.
• If you're using slides, use these key phrases in your transitions.

This approach helps you control your own uncertainty about whether you will remember
what you want to say and the order you want to say it.

Tip:
A simple, widely used, and highly effective structure is to tell the audience what you're going to say, then say it,
and then recap what you've said.

10 https://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/PresentationNerves.htm

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4. Practice, Practice, Practice

Although you should avoid memorizing your presentation, you do want to be very
comfortable with your delivery. Familiarity brings confidence, and practice helps you to
deliver the words naturally.

5. Prepare, Prepare, Prepare

Once you know what you are going to say, you need to prepare yourself for the actual
delivery.

• Decide what you are going to wear – make it comfortable and appropriate.
• Arrive early and get your equipment set up.
• Anticipate problems and have backups and contingencies in place in case something

doesn't work, you forget something, etc.
• If possible, give everything one last run through in the real environment.
• Prepare responses to anticipated questions. Try to think like that one person in the

front row who always tries to trip the presenter up.

6. Calm Yourself from the Inside

Nervousness causes physiological reactions which are mostly attributed to the increase of
adrenaline in your system. You can counteract these effects with a few simple techniques:

• Practice deep breathing
• Drink water
• Smile
• Use visualization techniques
• Press and massage your forehead
• Just before you start talking, pause, make eye contact, and smile
• Speak more slowly than you would in a conversation
• Move around during your presentation
• Stop thinking about yourself

WHAT SHOULD YOU DO BEFORE YOUR PRESENTATION?

i. Sleep early
ii. Stretch out and watch your breathing
iii. Work on your introduction
iv. Work on your gestures, eye contact and visual aids.

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CHAPTER 2: SPEECH PREPARATION

2.1 SELECTING A TOPIC AND PURPOSE

There are various phases that go into the speech-making process. Some people do not
approach speech preparation in an informed and systematic way, which results in many
poorly planned or executed speeches Good speaking techniques can help the speaker
to stand out from the crowd and thus making the presentation a great success.

2.1.1 SELECT AND NARROW YOUR TOPIC

Speaker can easily discover a topic by asking three standard questions:

a. Who is the audience?
b. What are my interests, talents and experiences?
c. What is the occasion?

By asking these questions, you can start to narrow down the topic that you want to
present by making sure that it is related to both the audiences as well as the occasions.

2.1.2 DETERMINE YOUR PURPOSE

Three general purposes of speeches are:
i. To inform – informing the audience on a certain specific topic.
ii. To persuade – to change or reinforce the beliefs or attitude of the listener about

certain specific topic.
iii. To entertain – to provide pleasure or entertainment for the listener.

2.2 ANALYZING THE AUDIENCE

Audience analysis includes recognizing the audience and adjusting a speech to
their interests, level of comprehension, attitudes, and views.

Taking an audience-centered approach is important because a speaker’s success will be
enhanced if the presentation is shaped and conveyed in a proper manner.

2.2.1 AUDIENCE – CENTEREDNESS

Definition: Audience-centered refers to placing the audience as the focus of your
presentation.

Audiences react to presentations that are plausible, relevant to them and also sound
interesting. Successful speakers care for their audiences, share their knowledge from the
audiences’ perspectives and thus deliver speeches which are up to the audiences’
expectations. These are the connection and bond that result from a good knowledge
sharing between both.

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2.2.2 YOUR CLASSMATES AS AUDIENCE

Presentations are a good means to have students exercise all language systems and
build confidence. Students who are good presenters possess better communication skills
since they are able to construct and articulate their ideas evidently.

Having classmates as audiences is a great benefit to the presenter as they already feel
comfortable with them. Respect your classmates as they are your audience and you
should address them equally as other audiences from outside of the class too.

Presenting in front of the class, addressing the classmates as the audiences is easier to
handle as compared to addressing the strangers in the public. Even so, presenter still
needs to conduct audience analysis so that you can come out with the best topic, most
influential and benefited your classmates.

2.2.3 11DEMOGRAPHIC AUDIENCE ANALYSIS

Demographic traits refer to the characteristics that make someone an individual,
but that he or she has in common with others. Demographic factors include:

1. Age - goal is to minimize differences if they exist; do not point out differences; be
yourself and not who the audience is; audiences care about what you have to say.

2. Gender - while there will always be speeches that are more interesting to men than to
women and vice versa; our goal is to present topic that can be relevant to both genders.

3. Sexual Orientation - you are entitled to have whatever view you wish about this topic,
but never forget that your audience will interpret your message in their own frame of
reference. Just be careful how you use language; and the words you choose.

4. Racial/Ethnic/Religious/Cultural Background - recognize that many in your audience
may come from different countries, ethnic grounds, etc. Try to present topics that appeal
to a broad base of people; not just to those of a single group if your audience is largely
heterogeneous (means diverse in character/background).

5. Group Membership - be sure to focus on issues relevant to this group; what their
interests and needs are.

6. Socioeconomic Status – a general estimation of your audience economic status which
includes financial background, education and employment.

7. Diverse Listeners – the multiracial, multi background, multi religion, multi-cultural of the
audiences.

Key notes: You should avoid stereotyping when analyzing your audience. Stereotyping refers to creating an
oversimplified image of a particular group of people by assuming that all members of the group are alike.

11 http://www.uta.edu/faculty/mputnam/COMS1301/Notes/AnalyzingYourAudience.html

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2.3 GATHERING YOUR MATERIALS AND SUPPORTING YOUR IDEAS

12Regardless of whether your presentation is going to be delivered formally, you should
always aim to give a clear, well-structured delivery. That is, you should know exactly what
you want to say and the order in which you want to say it.

Having thought about and planned a good structure will also help to alleviate any
nervousness you may be feeling in the build up to your talk.

Clarity of ideas and good organization should help result in a lively, logical and compelling
message, delivered in a confident and professional way.

The following elements are important items to be considered when preparing for a speech:

• The objective
• The subject
• The audience
• The place
• Time of day
• Length of talk

Quick tips:

If you do have a choice of when to give your presentation - consider the following points:

Morning:

The morning is the best time to speak because people are generally at their most alert. However, late morning
may start to present problems as people begin to feel hungry and think about lunch.

Afternoon:

Early afternoon is not an ideal time to make presentations since after lunch people often feel sleepy and
lethargic. Midafternoon is a good time, whereas at the end of the afternoon people may start to worry about
getting home, the traffic or collecting children from school.

Evening or Weekend:

Outside regular office hours, people are more likely to be present because they want to be rather than have to be
there. There is a higher likelihood of audience attention in the evening, providing of course that the presentation
does not go on for too long when people may have to leave before the presentation has finished.

12 https://www.skillsyouneed.com/present/organise-material.html

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2.4 ORGANIZING AND OUTLINING A SPEECH

Not only will good preparation ensure that you have thought carefully about the messages
that you want (or need) to communicate in your presentation but it will also help boost your
confidence.

Select Your Main Points

The talk/presentation should be divided into three sections:

• Introduction (beginning)
• The Body / Main Content (middle)
• Conclusion (end)

A useful structure would be the following:

• Tell the audience in the introduction what your subject is and how you have
organized the presentation (by stating the key elements).

• Then tell them the details of the key elements and/or messages (by expanding and
qualifying the key points in more detail and providing supporting evidence).

• Then tell the audience what you have just told them (by summarizing the key points,
concluding with the main subject again).

From your notes decide on the most important things that need to be said. If you have too
much material, be selective.

As a guide:

• 3 key points are sufficient for a 10-15 minute presentation.
• 6 key points are sufficient for a 30 minute presentation.
• 8 key points are sufficient for a 45 minute presentation.

Arrange the key points in logical order and expand them with supporting material -
discussion, argument, analysis and appeal. If you are hoping to persuade people then it is
advisable to address potential objections within the presentation so that you present a
reasoned, well-balanced view.

Decide Whether to Illustrate

If the presentation is short and informal it is probably not necessary to use any visual
aids. Use visual illustrations if anything requires expanding, clarifying or
simplifying. Illustrations of any type should be relevant and fully explained. Bear in mind
that a talk will last longer if visual aids are used.

PowerPoint or other presentation software is often used to support a presentation, although
care needs to be taken to ensure that this technology aids the presentation and does not
detract from the main essence of your talk. Do not use visual aids or PowerPoint just for the
sake of it or to show off your technological prowess, there is nothing more distracting than
whizzy and pointless PowerPoint animations in a presentation.

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2.4.1 ORGANIZING THE BODY SPEECH

There are four steps that a speaker needs to consider when organizing a body speech:

i. List all the subtopics – focus on writing all the ideas that might come to your mind.

ii. Narrow your subtopics – review your list of subtopics and select only the most
relevant ones that will best develop your speech within the time allocated.

iii. Arrange your subtopics – arrange your points in a logical order for smooth delivery.
iv. Develop your subtopics – expand and elaborate your subtopics.

2.4.2 BEGINNING AND ENDING THE SPEECH

Introduction and Conclusion

The introduction should give a preview of what you are going to say and should gain the
attention of the listeners with a statement of purpose. Make it clear whether you wish to
accept questions as they arise during the presentation, thereby breaking your flow and risk
being side-tracked, or will invite questions at the end.

The conclusion should repeat the main points but this time try to use different words and
summarize the main point and argument. End decisively, so that no-one is in any doubt that
your presentation is finished. This is also the time to ask the audience whether they have
any questions.

2.4.3 OUTLINING THE SPEECH

13A speech outline can increase your confidence and help you keep your place so you sound
authoritative and in control. As you write your speech outline, focus on how you'll introduce
yourself and your topic, the points you'll cover, and the interests of your audience.

Start with a greeting. The first thing people want to know when you stand to speak is who
you are. If someone else has introduced you, take the time to thank them as well as anyone
responsible for organizing the event or inviting you to speak.

• Keep in mind you may be nervous when you start your speech. Include this in your
outline so you won't forget.

• If there's anything about you that relates you to your audience, or to the group that
organized the event, you want to include that in your brief greeting as well –
especially if you didn't have the benefit of an introduction from someone else.

13 https://www.wikihow.com/Write-a-Speech-Outline

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Open your speech with an attention-getter. You want to grab their attention and hold on
to their attention throughout the whole speech. This could be a joke, a personal story, or an
interesting observation on your topic that doesn't really fit elsewhere in your speech.

• If you're not sure whether your attention-getter will work, try practicing it in front of
friends or family members who are similar in age and interests to the people who will
be in the audience when you give your speech.

Give your audience a reason to listen to your speech. In this part of your introduction,
you'll transition from your attention-getting anecdote into the subject matter of the speech
itself. This section should only be a sentence or two.

• Briefly explain the importance of the topic or issue you'll be discussing in your
speech.

• If your speech is an informative one, explain why the information is important or
relevant to your audience.

• For argumentative speeches, explain what might happen if action isn't taken on the
issue.

Present your thesis statement. Your thesis statement, broadly, tells the audience the
scope of your speech. The structure and content of this statement will vary based on the
type of speech you're giving.
Establish your credibility. You've made your point, but now you need to let the audience
know why they should listen to you. Credibility doesn't necessarily have to be as formal as a
specific degree or years of research – it could be a personal story.
Preview your main points. Now that the audience knows what you're going to talk about,
why you're going to talk about it, and why they should listen to you, give them a neat
summary of the points you're going to make during your speech.

Quick Tips

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CHAPTER 3: PRESENTING THE SPEECH
3.1.1 WHAT IS GOOD DELIVERY?

14Effective, confident public speaking should look effortless. In reality most people need
considerable time and practice before they can talk confidently in front of an audience. You
can use a number of techniques to overcome stage fright, present yourself confidently and
keep your audience engaged.

As long as you appear calm, it doesn’t really matter that you’re feeling nervous. Avoid these
signs of worry:

• Fidgeting: Avoid touching your face or playing with jewelry. Keep your hands in front of
you. If using a rostrum, place your hands on either side of it.

• Pacing: Rather than pace in a random, panicky manner, move strategically. Move a few
steps and then stop. This can help keep an audience engaged, and you can use it to
emphasize the message you’re communicating.

• Hands shaking: Use cards rather than sheets of paper for your notes. This will make
your shakiness much less apparent.

3.2 METHODS OF DELIVERY

15Speaking in public has more formality than talking. During a speech, you should present
yourself professionally. This doesn’t mean you must wear a suit or “dress up” (unless your
instructor asks you to), but it does mean making yourself presentable by being well groomed
and wearing clean, appropriate clothes. It also means being prepared to use language
correctly and appropriately for the audience and the topic, to make eye contact with your
audience, and to look like you know your topic very well.

There are four basic methods of delivery namely;
i. Manuscript speaking,
ii. Memorized speaking,

iii. Impromptu speaking
iv. Extemporaneous speaking.

14 https://www.dummies.com/careers/business-communication/public-speaking/how-to-deliver-an-effective-
presentation-or-speech/
15 https://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/public-speaking-practice-and-ethics/s17-01-four-methods-of-
delivery.html

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3.2.1 MANUSCRIPT SPEAKING

Manuscript speaking is the word-for-word iteration of a written message.

In a manuscript speech, the speaker maintains his or her attention on the printed page
except when using visual aids.

The advantage to reading from a manuscript is the exact repetition of original words. As we
mentioned at the beginning of this chapter, in some circumstances this can be extremely
important. In reading one word at a time, in order, the only errors would typically be
mispronunciation of a word or stumbling over complex sentence structure.

However, there are also disadvantages in manuscript speaking. First, it’s typically an
uninteresting way to present. Unless the speaker has rehearsed the reading as a complete
performance animated with vocal expression and, the presentation tends to be dull. Keeping
one’s eyes glued to the script precludes eye contact with the audience.

3.2.2 IMPROMPTU SPEAKING

Impromptu speaking is the presentation of a short message without advance
preparation.

Impromptu speeches often occur when someone is asked to “say a few words” or give a
toast on a special occasion. You have probably done impromptu speaking many times in
informal, conversational settings. Self-introductions in group settings are also examples of
impromptu speaking.

The advantage of this kind of speaking is that it’s spontaneous and responsive in an
animated group context. The disadvantage is that the speaker is given little or no time to
contemplate the central theme of his or her message. As a result, the message may be
disorganized and difficult for listeners to follow.

Here is a step-by-step guide that may be useful if you are called upon to give an impromptu
speech in public.

• Take a moment to collect your thoughts and plan the main point you want to make.
• Thank the person for inviting you to speak.
• Deliver your message, making your main point as briefly as you can while still

covering it adequately and at a pace your listeners can follow.
• Thank the person again for the opportunity to speak.
• Stop talking.

As you can see, impromptu speeches are generally most successful when they are brief and
focus on a single point.

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3.2.3 MEMORIZED SPEAKING

Memorized speaking is the rote recitation of a written message that the speaker has
committed to memory.

The advantage to memorization is that it enables the speaker to maintain eye contact with
the audience throughout the speech. Being free of notes means that you can move freely
around the stage and use your hands to make gestures. If your speech uses visual aids, this
freedom is even more of an advantage.

However, there are some real disadvantages. First, unless you also plan and memorize
every vocal cue (the subtle but meaningful variations in speech delivery, which can include
the use of pitch, tone, volume, and pace), gesture, and facial expression, your presentation
will be flat and uninteresting, and even the most fascinating topic will suffer. You might end
up speaking in a monotone or a sing-song repetitive delivery pattern. You might also present
your speech in a rapid “machine-gun” style that fails to emphasize the most important points.
Second, if you lose your place and start trying to ad lib, the contrast in your style of delivery
will alert your audience that something is wrong. More frighteningly, if you go completely
blank during the presentation, it will be extremely difficult to find your place and keep going.

3.2.4 EXTEMPORANEOUS SPEAKING

Extemporaneous speaking is the presentation of a carefully planned and rehearsed
speech, spoken in a conversational manner using brief notes.

By using notes rather than a full manuscript, the extemporaneous speaker can establish and
maintain eye contact with the audience and assess how well they are understanding the
speech as it progresses. The opportunity to assess is also an opportunity to restate more
clearly any idea or concept that the audience seems to have trouble grasping.

Speaking extemporaneously has some advantages. It promotes the likelihood that you, the
speaker, will be perceived as knowledgeable and credible. In addition, your audience is likely
to pay better attention to the message because it is engaging both verbally and nonverbally.
The disadvantage of extemporaneous speaking is that it requires a great deal of preparation
for both the verbal and the nonverbal components of the speech. Adequate preparation
cannot be achieved the day before you’re scheduled to speak.

Quick tips:

• There are four main kinds of speech delivery: impromptu, extemporaneous, manuscript, and
memorized.

• Impromptu speaking involves delivering a message on the spur of the moment, as when someone
is asked to “say a few words.”

• Extemporaneous speaking consists of delivering a speech in a conversational fashion using
notes. This is the style most speeches call for.

• Manuscript speaking consists of reading a fully scripted speech. It is useful when a message
needs to be delivered in precise words.

• Memorized speaking consists of reciting a scripted speech from memory. Memorization allows the
speaker to be free of notes.

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3.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF EFFECTIVE DELIVERY

Making a presentation puts you on public display. An audience not only listens to your
ideas, it also responds to the way you use your voice and your body. You need more
than a well written presentation to make an impact. You will also need to deliver it in a
lively, flexible and interesting way.

3.3.1 EYE CONTACT

16Eye contact is part of everyday communication and an audience can feel uncomfortable if
they are denied it. Making eye contact with individuals gives them a sense of involvement in
your presentation and helps to convey your objectives on a personal level. Make sure that
you share eye contact with all members of a small audience and all areas of a large
audience. Regularly shift your focus around the room, not so that you look nervous, but to
help involve as many people as possible in your talk.

A handy tip: if you can’t make eye contact in a large group, don’t look at the floor or ceiling
(this looks like boredom or rudeness). Try looking at people’s foreheads. The people sat
around them will read this as eye contact even if the individual won’t.

3.3.2 GESTURES

Beebe and Beebe (2010), said that, effective gesture is important in delivering a speech to
the public. Gestures must be:

• Natural – Gestures must be relaxed and naturally flow with the message. Avoid
unusual or unnatural gesture that will show nervousness.

• Be definite – Gesture must demonstrate that you are confident with your act.
• Consistent – Gesture must be reliable with your message and facial expressions. For

example if the message is about sadness, show gestures and expression of
sadness.
• Vary – show different kinds of gestures so that the audience may not be bored.
• Don’t overdo it – Make sure your act of gestures do not overshadow the message
that you are trying to send.

16 https://www2.le.ac.uk/offices/ld/resources/presentations/delivering-presentation

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3.3.3 MOVEMENT

When you move your entire body in a controlled, purposeful manner during a speech, you
can benefit in three ways;

• Body movement can support and reinforce what you say.
• Motion will almost always attract an audience’s attention.
• Using body movement is the fastest, most effective means of burning up nervous

energy and relieving physical tension.

Quick Tips:

Never move without a reason because it would only display your nervousness to the audience.

3.3.4 POSTURE

Your posture is an important part of any presentation. Your objective is to be comfortable
and show authority. You are the leader throughout your speech. You want your audience to
see you relaxed and comfortable. This puts them at ease as well.

Here are some tips of a good posture:

• Keep a good posture, stand straight with shoulders back, relaxed and feet shoulder width
apart.

• Do not cross your arms, put your hands in your pocket or slouch.
• Face the audience as much as possible and keep your body open.

3.3.5 FACIAL EXPRESSION

17Appropriate facial expressions are an important part of effective communication. In fact,
facial expressions are often the key determinant of the meaning behind the message.
People watch a speaker's face during a presentation. When you speak, your face - more
clearly than any other part of your body - communicates to your audience your attitudes,
feelings, and emotions.

17 http://www.ljlseminars.com/facial.htm

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3.3.6 VOCAL DELIVERY

Vocal delivery includes components of speech delivery that relate to your voice. These
include rate, pitch, articulation, pronunciation, and pause.

• 18Pitch refers to how high or low a speaker’s voice is. As with other vocal qualities, there
are natural variations among people’s vocal pitch. Changing pitch is a good way to
communicate enthusiasm and indicate emphasis or closure.

• Articulation refers to the clarity of sounds and words we produce. If someone is
articulate, they speak words clearly, and speakers should strive to speak clearly. Poor
articulation results when speakers do not speak clearly.

Recording yourself speak and then becoming a higher self-monitor are effective ways to
improve your articulation.

• 19Pronunciation refers to speaking words correctly, including the proper sounds of the
letters and the proper emphasis. Mispronouncing words can damage a speaker’s
credibility, especially when the correct pronunciation of a word is commonly known.

• Pauses are used for variety, understanding, and emphasis. A pause is a form of oral
punctuation that can help your audience reflect on what you just said.

Consider using a pause either before or after the following types of content:

• Key points and critical messages
• Vital facts, statistics, or other shocking information
• Important quotations
• A rhetorical or thought-provoking question
• During the buildup of suspenseful parts of your story

• Rate of speaking refers to how fast or slow you speak. If you speak too fast, your
audience will not be able to absorb the information you present. If you speak too slowly,
the audience may lose interest. The key is to vary your rate of speaking in a middle
range, staying away from either extreme, in order to keep your audience engaged.

Quick Tips:

Don’t speak too slow or too fast
Speakers should use vocal variety, which is changes in rate, volume, and pitch, to make a speech more
engaging.
Speakers should use proper articulation and pronunciation to make their message clear.

18 https://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/a-primer-on-communication-studies/s10-03-vocal-delivery.html
19 https://www.ministrymagazine.org/archive/1933/04/pronunciation-in-public-speaking

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3.3.7 PERSONAL APPEARANCE

20First impressions and the overall appearance of a speaker are important. An audience
often forms an impression of a speaker before any words are spoken. A number of things
contribute to the appearance of a speaker including grooming, style and fit of clothing,
posture, facial expression, and appearance of confidence.

The following list of appearance boosters may be helpful to the public speaker:
✓ Body is clean.
✓ Clothes are clean.
✓ Appearance is neat.
✓ Nails are clean and suitably manicured.
✓ Make-up is appropriate.
✓ Posture is good.
✓ Poise is evident.
✓ Movements are easy and smooth as the speaker walks, sits, stands.
✓ Expression is pleasant.
✓ Positive presentation of self is made; speaker shows confidence.

3.4 INTEGRATING VISUAL AIDS INTO PRESENTATIONS

Audio-visual aids are used to enhance the presentation. They can be handouts, photos,
whiteboard, flip chart, OHT, PowerPoint slide show, microphone, music. Be sure to focus
your preparation on the speech more than the audio-visual aids.

The purposes of using audio visual aids are as follows:

i. To support the speakers’ idea and enhance audience’s comprehension on the
subject matter.

ii. To add variety to the presentation so that audience will not feel bored.
iii. To help illustrate complex ideas and concepts such as graphs, charts etc.
iv. To make the presentation more lively and interesting.
v. To assist and act as a guideline for the presenter when delivering the topic.

20 http://florida4h.org/news/files/TropTakingChargeAppearance.pdf

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3.4.1 NO – TECH PRESENTATION AIDS
21The term “no-tech” visual aids refers to flipcharts, poster boards, blackboards,
whiteboards, and actual physical objects which speakers use as visual aids while conducting
their presentation. “No-tech” visual aids are those which can be created using readily
available materials. “No-tech” visual aids are easy to create, easy to handle, and allow class
time to be used more efficiently.

3.4.2 LOW – TECH PRESENTATION AIDS
Low-tech presentation aids refers to the type of visual aids that a speaker uses to assist
him/her in a presentation. A presenter does not need to have good computer and technology
skills to use this type of aids. Overhead projectors (OHP) and video recorded aids are
among the example of low-tech presentation aids.

3.4.3 HIGH – TECH PRESENTATION AIDS
Presentation can be more effective with the use of personal computers, and presenters can
improve their presentations with the use of high-tech presentation aids. Speakers in
professional contexts are expected to be familiar with presentation software, such as
PowerPoint and Prezi.
Many presenters are not aware that they can actually embed animations in their PowerPoint
slides. There is an animation menu for any text or image you may want to use. Now they can
fly in and out, appear and then fade out, and you can control how long they stay on the slide,
and how you trigger them to come in and leave. Several other tools are available for creating
animations in slides as well, including Prezi, and the technology will only improve as we
move forward. Having movement on slides increases audience interest and engagement.
There are also many types of high-tech presentation aids that a speaker may apply in their
presentations such as animations, videos and many more.

21 Dale, P., & Wolf, J. C. (2006). Speech communication made simple (3rd ed.).New York: Pearson Education.

22

3.5 FAMOUS SPEAKERS

Famous speakers who are both well-known for their incredible talent, but also possess
charm are charisma is hard to come by. It’s that rare quality that gives an individual
influence over large numbers of people or a presence that instantly illuminates a room.

There many influential and famous speakers throughout the history such as Adolf Hitler,
Abraham Lincoln, Obama and many more.

3.5.1 THE SPEAKER’S ABILITY TO SPEAK
22To become a better speaker, use the following strategies:

• Plan appropriately.
• Practice.
• Engage with your audience.
• Pay attention to body language.
• Think positively.
• Cope with your nerves.
• Watch recordings of your speeches.

3.5.2 TACTICS OF SPEAKING BY PROFESSIONAL SPEAKERS

People remember how we make them feel. Public speaking helps listeners to uncover new
ideas, affirm core beliefs, and inspire them to act. It’s a way to quickly build trust and
credibility with large audiences.

In order to deliver a speech that would be remembered along the centuries, a speaker needs
to consider the following points when preparing for the speech.

i. Speaker’s Objective

Identify the main purpose for your speech whether to inform, persuade or to
entertain. Having a clearly defined set of objectives helps a speaker determine the
kind of speech they should prepare (to inform, persuade or entertain), create an
appealing title, organize your material and select appropriate props and visual aids.
Knowing your objectives is essential for effectively publicizing your presentation.

22 https://www.mindtools.com/CommSkll/PublicSpeaking.htm

23

ii. The audience and context for the speech

23Audiences vary in values, knowledge, and style of communication, and intellectual
capacity — among other qualities. Depending on the topic and purpose,
effectiveness could be influenced by whether the audience is young or old, rich or
poor, female or male, highly religious or less believing, college graduates or high
school dropouts, ethnic minorities or majorities. In addition, audiences carry different
expectations to a speaking occasion: some want to be there, others do not; some
want to be entertained, others are looking to be informed; some are open to being
persuaded while others are unlikely to change their minds anytime soon; some
expect a highly polished presentation with sophisticated visual aids while others are
looking for less formal comments. All of these expectations help shape a speaking
situation. There is also a reason that the speech is happening, the occasion for which
the audience has gathered.

iii. Speech content and structure

The speech opening, the speech body and the speech conclusion are important to
give a prominent impact to the listeners. 24A great speech puts the occasion, the
audience, and the speaker together in an unforgettable way. All three pieces of the
rhetorical puzzle are important. Begin by considering the audience’s needs.
Ultimately a great speech is only partially about you. It’s also about the audience and
the moment in history when you’re speaking.

iv. Delivery skills and techniques

In the context of public speaking, delivery refers to the presentation of the speech
you have researched, organized, outlined, and practiced. Delivery is important, of
course, because it is what is most immediate to the audience. Delivery relies on both
verbal communication and nonverbal communication.

While we often think of delivery as happening at the moment of the speech, the fact
is that the foundations of effective delivery should be laid out well before you step up
to the podium. Let’s look at some of these key issues.

i. Overcoming Anxiety
ii. Preparing Carefully
iii. Setting the Tone
iv. Considering Language and Style
v. Incorporating Visual Aids
vi. Being Aware of Time Limits
vii. Choosing a Delivery Method
viii. Projecting a Persona
ix. Practicing Your Speech

23 https://www.comm.pitt.edu/approaching-speaking-situation-audience-occasion-purpose
24 https://publicwords.com/2018/12/13/how-to-structure-a-great-speech/

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v. Visual Aids

Visual aids help listeners understand abstract concepts and allow complex data to be
organized and reduced to make a point clearly and concisely. Furthermore, effective
visual support maintains listener interest and increases audience retention of the
material being presented.

Although you may have carefully prepared your visual aids in advance, it is also
important to use them effectively in your presentation. Here are some tips for using
visual aids:

✓ Be sure to practice with the visual aids.
✓ Be sure that you are speaking to the audience and maintaining eye contact

with them, not looking at the visual aids.

✓ Explain your visual aid to your audience. Do not simply show it to them and

assume that they will know what points you are trying to clarify with the visual
aid. Tell them what to focus on and what to notice.

vi. Physical – gestures and eye contact

Gesturing and movement are also a part of your delivery tactics. This is known as
kinesics. Kinesics refers to the nonverbal communication sent by the body, including
gestures, posture, movement, facial expressions, and eye behavior.

Eye contact is another important element of creating your persona. Making eye
contact is one of the most direct ways to show your engagement with your audience,
and it can lend credibility to your presentation as well.

vii. Vocal variety and language

25Tone (vocal) refers to the mood or feeling the speaker creates. Sometimes the tone
is set by the occasion. Your tone should be related to the topic of your speech. You
may end with a very uplifting tone that invites your audience to envision a future and
to help make that vision become a reality.

As a speaker, the language you use to give your speech will shape the style of your
speech. Style refers to the type of language and phrasing a speaker uses, and the
effect it creates.

The two main elements of style are clarity and appropriateness. Your speech style
has the element of clarity if listeners are able to grasp the message you intended to
communicate. Using precise language increases clarity.

In addition to focusing on the clarity of your language, you also need to consider its
appropriateness, which generally refers to how formal or informal it should be or how
well adapted the language is to the audience’s sensitivity and expectations.

25 https://catalogue.pearsoned.co.uk/assets/hip/gb/hip_gb_pearsonhighered/samplechapter/0205627870.pdf

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CHAPTER 7: VARIETIES OF PUBLIC SPEAKING
7.1 SPEAKING TO INFORM
Definition: Speaking to inform is used to deliver new information, ideas, concepts and
principles or process in order to enhance the understanding about something.
According to Beebe (2015), when you speak to inform you must bear in mind these three
goals:

i. To enhance understanding
ii. To maintain interest
iii. To be remembered

7.1.1 SPEECHES ABOUT OBJECTS
Definition: Speeches about objects refer to speaking about anything which are visible
and tangible (can be seen and touch).
Speaker usually aims at imparting knowledge about the object to the target audience. This
requires he speaker to have a comprehensive overview of the object in order to share the
knowledge with the audience.

For example: The Titanic Ship

7.1.2 SPEECHES ABOUT PROCESSES
Definition: Speech about processes refers to explaining about how certain things
work. In order words, speech about process targeting at describing the way certain
thing happens or works or what is the mechanism for certain things to be built or
made.
This type of informative speech helps the audience to understand the process and thus may
be able to use the information for their future reference.

For example: How to manage your time as a student.

7.1.3 SPEECHES ABOUT EVENTS
Definition: Speeches about events refer to reporting or describing about any
occurrence which are worth to be shared to the audience.
This kind of informative speech usually targets at delivering past information about historical
or any important event to the audience so that they will be able to learn or take advantage of
the information.

For example: The Japanese Occupation in Malaya

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7.1.4 SPEECHES ABOUT CONCEPTS

Definition: Speech about concepts refers to presenting any ideas, concepts, theories
or principles.

This type of informative speech requires the speaker to discuss about the subject matter
thoroughly by focusing on the interests of the audience.

For example: The Islamophobia

7.2 SPEAKING ON SPECIAL OCCASIONS

26Determining on special occasion speech topics is rather everyone faces at some point in
their lives. That being said, we're only called upon to make special occasion speeches from
time to time, so coming up with the perfect topics for these times can be a little difficult.

7.2.1. Ceremonial Speaking

Ceremonial speeches are speeches given during a ceremony or an event surrounded by
formality and etiquette. These ceremonies tend to be very special for people, so it shouldn’t

be surprising that they are opportunities for speech making.

There are nine types of ceremonial speaking:
• Introductions – a speech that provides information or give an introduction about
another speaker to the audience.
• Toasts – it is a brief salutation or tribute to another person.
• Award presentations – a speech to give recognition to the recipient on his or her
accomplishments pertaining to a specific award.
• Nominations – is a speech that officially nominated or names someone as a
candidate for a position.
• Acceptances – a speech given by recipient of award to give the recipient an
opportunity to show appreciation for the award.
• Key Note Address - a speech that represents the essential or common theme of a
convention, conference, or other large gathering.
• Commencement Addresses - is given to mark the occasion of a school’s
graduation ceremony during which diplomas are awarded to graduating students.
• Commemorative Addresses - Commemorative speeches and tributes are
speeches that pay special honors to an occasion, extraordinary person, event, idea,
or monument.
• Eulogies - A eulogy is a speech given in honor of someone who has died.

26 https://www.best-speech-topics.com/special-occasion-speech-topics.html

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EXERCISES

1. What is Public Speaking?
2. ________ refers to the response given by the receiver to the sender during

communication process.
3. Demographic Audience Analysis refers to ____________________.
4. What is stereotyping?
5. Define Public Speaking Anxiety?
6. What is manuscript speaking?
7. The following is the types of informative speech except:
8. ____________ is a type of speech which allows the speaker to properly plan the

presentation and rehearse the speech.
9. Vocal delivery refers to all the followings except:
10. What are the purposes of audio visual in presentations?
11. How is public speaking different from everyday conversation?
12. How do you control your nervousness during your speech?
13. ____________ refers to the message listeners send back to a speaker while he/she

is speaking.
14. List down the types of informative speech.
15. What type of speech that is prepared and practiced in advance?
16. What are the purposes of public speaking?
17. List down the methods of delivery.
18. Give examples of stage fright.
19. Give examples of NO TECH PRESENTATION AIDS, LOW TECH PRESENTATION

AIDS and HIGH TECH PRESENTATION AIDS
20. List down and briefly all types of ceremonial speaking.

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Complete the Diagram.

1. ________ Message 2. ________ Listener

4.___________________
_

3. ________

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TASKS:
SPEECH OF INTRODUCTION
INSTRUCTIONS
• You are required to present an introduction of yourself or the person that you admire to

the class.
• Your presentation should comprise the following information:
• Introduction, body and conclusion
• You may use some of the following points:

Background of yourself / the person you admire
Academic background
Achievement
Inspiration
Motivational quotes/ life motto

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SPEECH REVIEW
INSTRUCTIONS
• You are required to provide a review of a famous speaker of your choice.
• You may select any videos from Youtube (www.youtube.com) or TED

(www.ted.com).
• You need to present your discussions of the speech in the class.
• Please consult the topic and the draft of your content with your lecturer before you

present.

EXAMPLE OF SPEECH REVIEW

27ELIE WIESEL BUCHENWALD'S SPEECH AT AMERICAN RHETORIC

In the year 2009, at the Buchenwald concentration camp in Germany, former prisoner Elie
Wiesel delivered a passionate speech reminding the world of a horrific incident in history. His
purpose was to commemorate the lives lost at the Buchenwald camp during the torture and
extermination of its prisoners over half a century ago. My analysis will focus on how Wiesel
used the strategies of storytelling, intonation, articulation, pause, quotation, and redundancy
to engage and maintain his audience’s interest, as well as evoke their sympathy. Utilizing the
three major divisions of a speech, his introduction captured the audience’s attention; the
body presented his position; and his conclusion summarized the theme he wanted to portray
(Beebe 13).

Wiesel opened his speech in a most humble and clear tone, loud enough to be audibly
heard, yet soft enough to portray the deep pain he still felt as he told the story of how his
father called his name just before dying in the bunk bed above him. He explained that he
was too afraid to go to his father’s deathbed for fear the German guards would see him. His
opening story of his father’s death was a powerful attention grabber (Beebe 189, 14). He
also paused to add effect and used short, simple sentences in his introduction and
throughout the speech to allow his audience to visualize his experience without an
abstraction (Beebe 134,137). Without overloading the audience with long descriptive details
of his horrific experience, he enabled them to feel his pain and perceive his honesty. He
does not shy away from remorseful words of recollection, either (Beebe 19, 79). Using these
tactics combined with direct eye contact, Wiesel stood erect before the audience with his
hands held loosely together in a humble display of character and integrity (Beebe 142-143).

27 https://owlcation.com/social-sciences/excellent-free-speech-analysis

31

To achieve a warm reception, Wiesel assessed his audience and appropriately referenced
the current German Chancellor’s civic contribution and President Obama’s earlier speech on
humanity (Beebe 43). He challenged the world’s claim of having learned from the historical
atrocities of the past by referencing victims in Rwanda, Darfur, and Bosnia, selecting the
examples that best suited his theme (Beebe 97, 118). Wiesel spoke with the right intonation
of measurable staccato, in addition to pausing to emphasize his dissatisfaction with what
people have purportedly learned. In perfect pitch, he asked the crowd, “Will the world ever
learn?” (Beebe 190).
As the speech moved from the introduction, through the body, and onto the conclusion with
carefully crafted verbal transitions, the speaker used an appropriate quotation to drive the
seriousness of his feelings home (Beebe 111, 121). He closed his speech with a quote from
the philosopher Albert Camus, author of The Plague.
Elie Wiesel’s speech captures me and everyone else exposed to it from the beginning.
Whether it be the heart-wrenching story of how he and others suffered at the hands of
sadistic national socialists, or his repetitive claim and proof that the world hasn’t learned from
their mistakes (Beebe 190), the speech is sure to affect a listener emotionally. Although he
paced his speech so that every word could be heard and understood, at times, I found the
pace to be a little too slow for my taste. However, I understand that the subject matter is very
grave, and he didn't want to risk underemphasizing his misery and disappointment with the
atrocities of the past.

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MOCK SEMINAR
INSTRUCTIONS
• You are required to choose any topic of your interest and perform an informative speech

presentation in the class.
• Important element should be apply in your presentation: Introduction, Body and

Conclusion
• You can incorporate any suitable visual aids to support your presentation.
• You may use one of the following themes below:

➢ Sports : Example –Sports Psychology
➢ Motivation : Example – How to motivate yourself to study
➢ Arts : Example – Make Your Own Art Website
➢ Entertainment - Example: Interactive Digital television
➢ Education – Example : Developing Smart Study Skills
➢ Others

33