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Published by Elkhan Julian, 2016-09-12 07:02:46

How It Works Book Of Incredible History

How It Works Book Of Incredible History

Keywords: how it works,history

Joseph Hooker Richard Dawkins

Sir JosephDalton Hooker was one of Darwin's closest Bfitish e\/Oiutionary biologist Richard Dawkins holds Charles
friendsand classified the plants hecollected in the
Galapagos Islands. Hookeralso played a key role In the Darwinasone of his majot influences. Sincereading
Darwin's work at unlve!'Sity, Dawkins has fOfged a careerin
formulation ofDarwin'stheory of natural selection,offering
biology that has seen him ptjlllsh nurne..oos acclaimed titles
critical feedback dt>'lng the dmftlng prooess.and was the Including The Gmatest ShowOn Eafth, which claims to lay
first recognised man of science to support his radical Ideas. down concreteevidence for evolution.

l•ll•m!I!Jl&l•Wl? From o young age Darwin collected and performed experiments on stones and beetles with his brother

moment for Darwin - and forscience as a whole. evolutionary theory specifically to human's
To a degree it was a bringing together ofvarious evolution from apes. This book was incredibly
ideas that had already been mooted by other popular from the word go, with a reprint
biologists but unproved. While Darwin did not ordered withinjust three weeks of publication.
supply concrete evidence for evolution, the
work's lucidity and logic meant that, towards Three months after its release, 4,500 copies had
the end of the t87os, the scientific community, been sold- a testament to his rising fame.
and sodetyas a whole, had accepted his views.
Darwin died on 19 Aprilt882 from heart
Darwin followed up this groundbreakingtitle disease and, after a request by his colleagues,
in1871with The Descent OfMan, AndSelection was granted a s tate funeral at Westminster
In Relation To Sex, where he applied his own Abbey, buried alongside other famous scientis ts

John Herschel and Isaac Newton. 0

"The publication of On The Origin Of
Species was a landmark moment for
Darwin - and for science"

1836 1839 I 1859 1864 1882

lands back in Marries Emma 1858 Publishes On The Receives t he Darwin dies, aged 73, and
En gla n d o n 2 Wedgwood and Origin OfSpecies By Copley Medal,
has his first of Receives a letter from Means OfNatural the highest is buried at Westminster.
October and ten children. AIfred Russel Wallace Selection, Or The accolade
returns home to who shares many of his Preservation Of from Britain's
Shrewsbury. ideas about the theory Favoured Races In Royal Society.
of natural selection. The Struggle For Life.

151

154 Age ofthe dinosaurs

Get to know these prehistoric

beasts w ith this A- Z guide

162 Prehistoric predators Prehistoric
predators
Take a closer look at some of
the largest carnivores the world 162

has ever seen

166 Biggest ever land
mammal

Find out about the

prehistoric mega-mammal,
Paraceratherium

168 Velociraptors

Despite its small size, this
scavenger was one of the most

deadly dinosaurs

170 ~eetthereal

Brontosaurus

Discover one of the largest
animals to ever grace the Earth

172 Ankylosaurus

Learn all about the club-

wielding giant

174 Sabre-toothed cats

Learn how the biggest of the
big cats lived and died on the

American plains

166

Biggest

~and

mammal

153

Age of the dinosaurs

-... ,__.- ....

.-



Dinosaurs have longsparkedour
imagination. f'rom the Ancient
Greeks' perception oftheir remains as
evidence ofa time when giants ruled Earth,
right through to modern man's pursuit of their

resurrection- be that in films likejurassic Park

or in laboratories via advanced DNA cloning
techniques- dinosaurs remain a tantalisingly
alien part ofourworld's history.

They may no longer roam the land like they
did millions of years ago, but thanks to their
genetic legacy and preserved remains they still
rema in a very rea Ipresence today.

from the fossils lying trapped in the ground
through to the descendants Oying above our
heads, dinosaurs have unique tales to tell.

In this special History feature we take a
closer lookat this ancient world through an A-Z
encyclopedia ofall things dinosaur. You'll learn
notjust about the creatures themselves but the
tools and techniques used tostudy them, and
what Earth was like during their reign. This
guide truly has .it all, so strap yourself in and
prepare for one wild, prehistoric ride...

Benton on a fossil dig near
Albuquerque, New Mexico

ProfessorMike Benton,
palaeontologist
Mike Benton is the
Professor ofVertebrate
Palaeontologyat the
University of Bristol, UK,
and isa world-renowned
dinosaur spedalist. His
_ areasofexpertise include
the diversification of life through time, the
origin of dinosaurs and the end-Permian
mass-extinction event. He canoften be found
working on digs in Russia and China. He offers
some words of wisdom throughout our dino
guide, but for a more in-depth interview, head
to www.howitworksdaily.com.

155

Age of the dinosaurs

&dinoDNA

Amber is within the amberand have been
perfectly presenlll!d. While one or
fossilised tree two studies in the Nineties claimed
resin that. due to extract DNAfrom these organic
to a chemical inclusions (as portrayed in Jurassic
change after Parle), more recent research suggests
this isn't possible. Scientists at the
burial in the University of Manchester using
advanced DNA sequencing in 2013
ground, tu'l1S were not even able to find traces of

into a solid. Despite its stable state DNA in copal (a precursor to amber)
today, when the majority of the only 10,000 years old, so they're very

Earth's amber formed, It was far doubtful that dino DNA could have
more fluid, which means many little
survived from milions of years ago.
organisms unwittingly became stuck

within it - including plant matter and

insects. Today these appear frozen

Communication in focus

Dinosaurs, much like the interesting examples comes in the form
many species of animal of the hadrosaurid (above), a duck·billed
alive today, communicated dinosaur family sporting a distinctive

in very different ways. bone crest on their heads. These crests

From complex dance·like movements were used as a resonating chamber for
to more obvious calls and scent
markings, each dino marked their projecting their calls. Considering the
territory, warned of potential predators
and relayed information regarding food hadrosaur's modest size and its wide
range of predators, the ability to
in its own unique way. One of the most
ampfify its calls was no doubt a

valuable defensive mechanism.

"Certain Discovery Shooting in situ Clearance

kinds of Most fossils are Photography plays a crucial Once the fossilised bone
discovered at first part of any excavation. The has been photographed, the
excavation only in part, with specimen Is continuously rock around it is carefully
and study just a small snapped from its discovery
fragment visible right through to removal. cleared to allow better
out in above the surface. access to the fossils.
the field can be for
Cleaning
palaeoecology, trying
When the fossil is freed
to reconstruct food from the rock, a painstaking
-bs and modes process of cleaning follows.
of locomotion, or
they canbe about

looking at patterns

over time, going up

metre by metre in
rock formations and
analysing fossil groups

to see how they change"

Bone Tools Extraction Packed up -

Dinosaur bones are one of a Clearance is achieved The fossil is cut from The fragile specimens Analysis
palaeontoiogist's greatest sources of with chisels, hammers the surrounding rock need to be transported
information, supplying data about and spades. The closer and removed piece by with great care, with At the research
to the fossil the more piece, with each one fossils placed in
their age, anatomy, distribution and derocate the tools. meticulously labelled. padded containers. lab, the foss~ can
much more. The bones of dinosaurs
Boundary be studied in
can only be found if they went depth, with laser
through the process of fossilisation, As soon as the fossil has scanning revealing
where the ti.ssue of the creature been confirmed, a in-depth detail
boundary is staked, about the dinosaur.
dissolves and gets replaced with
protecting the area so
minerals under pressure beneath the
palaeontologists can
ground. Finding and extracting these work unhindered.

fossilised bones is a major challenge
for palaeontologists, with a carefully
planned out dig site essential.

156

252.2Ma 252.2Ma 250Ma 225Ma 216Ma 201.3Ma
l I
•l 1 1 l•
TheTr1ass1c period begins, Archosauriformes, a clade The theropod Coelophysls
The lnduan, the first stage An earlygliding reptile T h e Trlassic-Ju-asslc
marl<ing the beginningof of the Early Trlassic, is of diapsidreptiles,- floorisheson land. A
the Me5ozoic era.The first and tl!ke r:Nel' all caled Sharovipteryx slendett,o built cami\IOr'e extinction ewnt wipes
characterised by a hot and rnirabilis <'YOiws, - to fly that walkson two legs. out neal1y 30 percent
dinosaurs emerge. semi-aquaticerM'omlents.
largelydeserted world between tree habitats. ofmarine ife.

Diplodocus: a dino titan

Of all the dinosaurs that lived on Earth few incredibly long neck and counterweight

can truly lay claim to be a terrestrial giant taU, the former used to elevate its head

- but the Diplodocus can. Built like a intothe foliage of trees for food, while the
latter was its primary form of defence.
suspension bridge, the Diplodocus
With a typical Diplodocus estimated to
measured over 25 metres (82 feet) long
have lived between 50 and 80 years, it
- that's longer than five African elephants! also had one of the longest life spans of
It weighed over 12 tons, roughly 170times
more than the average human. It had an any dinosaur from the Jurassic period.

FFeathered "Colour in dinosaur feathers was Extinction
fiends a topic Ithink people thought
Dinosaurs perished some 65 million
Since palaeont ologists began that we would never know the years ago in what is known as the K-Pg
answers to. But we were able (formerly K-T) extinction event. This
uncovering dinosaur remains in the to rely on a fair number of fossil cat aclysmic event at the Cretaceous-
feathers that were exceptionally well Palaeogene boundary led to 75 per
19th century, our depictions of them preserved and deep within their internal cent of all species on Earth dying off. From the
in the flesh have been largely structure we could see colour-bearing smallest ocean plankton to the largest land
coloured by a few initial artist organelles. So by using some smart
impressions, with figures such as observations and techniques we have beast s, the K·Pg extinction event resulted in
Charles Knight often drawing species proved it to be possible" devastation at every level of the world's
in inaccurate postures and with ecosyst ems, with all non-avian dinosaurs
factually incorrect sizes, colours and eradicated. The current theory for the
catalyst ofthis global wipeout is an
features. Based on current evidence, asteroid impact in South America, but
the lack of feathers on most species the real cause for such widespread
is one of the mostobvious flaws in carnage was not the impact it self
these early depictions, with half of all but its knock-on effects. These
non-av ian theropods now thought to include plant s not being able
have been partly feathered. The main to photosynthesise due to
cause f or these misassumptions has dust blocking out the
Sun plus a series of
been the lack of evidence, with epic tsunamis and
feathers and soft tissues rarely
preserved like fossilised bone. f ire storms.

Genetic legacy

Today the study of dinosaurs is entering an
exciting new age, where we can achieve an
unprecedent ed level of accuracy through
cutting-edge analysis. After a T-rex's soft
tissue was discovered within a bone
sample, we can now study things like proteins, blood
vessels and other micro-anatomy to help us
det ermine how individuals lived and
died, as well as how dinos evolved.

Hunting strategies

Whether dinos hunted and scavenged imprint ed in the public consciousness
alone like the T·rex or in large packs like as a highly int elligent, synchronised
the Deinonychus - the model for the t eam hunter. However, many modern
Velociraptor inJurassic Park - dino experts disagree with this
carnivorous dinosaurs were no doubt assumption, believing that while
Deinonychus did move and chase prey
the apex predators on Earth. However, in groups, they did so with little
debate rages as to how co-ordinat ed co-ordination, with each individual
simply acting out of self-interest rather
dinosaur pack hunters were. Since first than working t ogether like, say, lions.
described in 1969 by palaeontologist
John Ostrom, the Deinonychus has been

-

Age of the dinosaurs 0 Eyes Large eyes were protected by

Ichthyosaurus rings of bone to keep !hem intact at depths.

Although technically not a true t} Teeth The jaws were lined with rows
'dinosaur', Ichthyosaurus, or 'f ish
of sharp, conical teeth, primed for
lizard', filled the same niche in shredding soft prey such as squid.

Earth's oceans and was one of the 0 Fins Stunted limb·like fins were used
mostdominant marine species of
for stability and manoeuvring rather than
the Mesozoic era (252-65.5 Ma)
propulsion.
Resembling today's dolphins,
lchth)IOsaurus measured in at 0 Prey Fish, squid and marine reptiles

roughly two m etres (6.6 feet) in were the main food of choice, but the

length and was capable of sharp teeth could crush shellfish as well.
cruising through the w ater at
0 Body A streamlined body, with a
around 40 kilometres (25 miles)
curved spine and no neck. By undulating it
per hour, enabling it to catch f ish
and squid with ease. The fact that could alter its speed and direction.

Ichthyosaurus had a very large @ Tai1 1r had a top speed or 40km/h

pair of eyes protected by a pair of (25mph) came courtesy of the bilobed,
bony, structural-supporting rings shark'like tail.
has led some pal aeontologists to
befieve the species frequently
hun ted at great depths w here
pressure was very high.

King of the dinosaurs Skull

mr-aursWhile not the biggest or smartest, the Tyrannosaurusewr A heavy siUI was adapted to
rex was no doubt the closest t o a king the
withstand biting and shearing
had. A colossal bipedal carnivore, the T·rex measured in
forces, with partictAarty
at over four metres (13 feet) tal and over12 metres (39
strong nasal bones
feet) long, weighing over S4!\len tons. It was no slow·
Lungs
poke either, with computer models estimating that the
dino was capable of hitting a top speed of around 29 Evidence o f honeycomb
structures within its vertebrae
kilometres (18 miles) per hour chasing prey. When it suggest that T-rex breathed
througt, a complex system of
caught up itcould quiddy dispatch them with a single
pockets and air sacs.
bite that had a force of three tons - the equivalent

weight of a fully grown African elephant. Yikesl

L Lufeng: a fossil Forelimbs
treasure trove
The T·rex's front limbs were
One of the most prolific dinosaur
short and stocky, with each
hotspots in t he w orld is Lufeng in Yunnan
exhibiting a thick cortical
Province, China. Since 1938, 33 species,
bone. They were used to
each with its own complete f ossil, have
hold on to struggling prey.
been found there. Some of the finds have
Heart Stomach
been record-breaking, with many of the
With a body bigger than a bus, The T-rex had a hardY stomach
vertebrate fossils uncovered the oldest due to Its high-meat diet and the
the T·rex needed a huge pump to
on record - eg, the lufengosaurus fossil fact that it scavenged frequently
(pictured right) dates from 190 million transport blood at adequate from long-dead carcasses.

years ago. lufengosaurus was agenus of pressure. Current estimates Analysed T·rex dung has revealed
suggest its heart was over100 many fragments ofbone.
prosauropod that lived during the Early limes bigger than a human·s.
Jurassic period. Tourists can see many
excavated dinosaur finds at the nearby
lufeng Dinosaur M useum.

158

20L3Ma 199.6Ma 183Ma 175Ma 154Ma 145Ma
I I I I
•I I•
-middle period of the Th<>la<ge marine - Pliensbachian stage -first phaseol the TOO famous Diplodocus
Mesoroicera, with the sauropte<ygian roptile ....,hies ckJe to the TOO Tithonian epochof
ends withanoxic ocean ..._.oonment Pangaea's
Jtr.>SSic followWlg the Plesiosaurusevolves; an waters and wide-scale dominance ofsauropods the lateJurassicends,
Tliassic mass-extinction.. """'predato<of oceans. brealrup lnto several in the cino kingdom. with the Cretaceous
m a r i n e extinctions.. continents begins.
period following.

Mesozoic world 0 Oceans&
continents
Beginning 252.2 The Mesozoic was generally warm
w ith a signif icantly smaller 'I Triassic
million years ago temperature differential between t he
and coming to a .I.At the beginning of the
equat orial and polar regions - ideal Mesozoicera in the Early
close about 65 condit ions for the emergence and Triassic period, all the land
prolif erat ion of f lora and fauna. The on Earthwas joined together
million years ago, Mesozoic was also f amous for being into the supercontinentof
encompassing the Triassic, Jurassic the t ime period where the ancestors Pangaea, itself surrounded by
and Cretaceous periods, t he Mesozoic of today's major plant and animal the superocean Panthalassa.
era truly def ined the age of dinosaurs. groups emerged.
All t he famous species you can think 2 .1111rassic
of lived within it. As the Mesozoic progressed
and the Triassic made way for
NNesting& Outer shell thejurassicperiod, plate
dinosaur eggs tectonicssplitPangaea into
Dinosaur eggs were elongated and had two mega<ontinents:
Dinos organised their nests, laying their eggs hard, brittle shells. Some of the largest Gondwanaand Laurasia,
in patterns suggesting complex social found to date were 0.6m (2ft) long. separated by the TethysSea.
behaviours. Palaeontologists have identif ied
t wo main types of egg-laying strat egies - Amniotic membrane

clut ches and linear patterns - further divided Encompassing the dinosaur was a thin
by t he shape of the nest and distribution of membrane, helping keep the embryo
eggs. For example, the ornithopod Maiasaura hydrated during development.
nests generally consisted of bowl-shaped
Embryo
excavations roughly t wo metres (6.6 feet)
wide and 0.8 metres (2.6 f eet ) deep, the At the centre lay the dinosaur embryo
opening covered by loose vegetat ion. Each that, depending on the species, could
take weeks or months to hatch.
nest was spaced roughly seven metres (22
f eet) apart and was used by their offspring Yolk sac
until they were over a metre (3.3 feet) long.
This contained proteins and fat which
served as food for the baby dino.

Pelvis "Weighing something like five tons yet 3= iccametoa
walking bipedally makes the T·rex incredibly
The T-rex was a saurischian interesting, as it pushes the absolute limits close, Gondwana and Laurasia
dinosaur, meaning it had a lizard of what is possible. I mean, you look at an
hip arrangement. Its pubis bone had splitintomanyofthe
pointed forward and down elephant and think, 'Wow, that's amazing',
rather than backward and down however, an elephant has to walk on four legs and continents we know today,
like ornithischian species. weighs roughly the same amount, so understanding
including North and South
Body how T·rex functioned is a fascinating area of research"
America and Antarctica.
Unlike popular depictions,
it did not stand vertical
on its large hind legs but
leaned forward w ith its
body approximately
parallel to the ground.

Hind legs Tail If you were to visit Queensland's more 4 Palaeogene
remot e regions, you may very well f ind In the Palaeogene period
Powerful rear legs allowed A muscular tail helped yourself standing face to face wit h one
counterbalance the of many 100-million-year-old beasts. -the era immediately
it to hit around 29km/h following the K-Pg extinction
(18mph). It was probably T-rex's heavy skull and That 's because Queensland's out back event- those continents
poor at turning though. aided locomotion, was once part of t he Great Inland Sea, continued to move to their
Improving leg a huge swampy inland ocean t hat current positions.
retraction speeds. existed in the age of the dinosaurs. As
such, hundreds of fossils have been
excavated from t his region and there is
even an established 'Australian
Dinosaur Trail' that tourist s can follow.

159

Age of the dinosaurs

I- 1

Plates

Two rows of triangular back
plates are believed to have
acted as key components of
a thermoregulatory system,
serving as organic radiators.

The skull was relatively
small, slender and low
to the ground, helping
it graze on low-growing
vegetation.

SOne of the most recognisable ~=:;:-::::: Body Tail
dinosaurs ofall time, the ;.;:~1 The powerful tail was
Stegosaurus - despite its hetbivorous Due to Stegosaurus
nature - was a formidable being vegetarian, it • tipped with bone
opponent, with its large muscular spikes and could be
tail tipped with lethal bone spikes. had a large stomach swung at speed as a

With a length ofabout nine perfectly adapted to form of self-defence.
metres (30 feet) and a typical breaking down tough
plant matter.
weight oftwo to three tons, the
== Legs
Stegosaurus had a rounded body and
The front limbs were
heavy skull. Stegosaurus lived in the far shorter than the

Late Jurassic period around 150 Ma. hind limbs, granting

• Its characteristically

arched appearance.


.--.- .

T !~~.!it~ndadinosaur without a tail. Velociraptors debunked

This is because the majority of Unenlagia: Due to their got right - with it capable of hitting 39
dinosaurs used their tails for two appearance in the kilometres (24 miles) per hourattop
halfbiril
important roles: the first being Jurassic Pari< films, the speed and boasting amazing agility,
balance and the second being half '
Velociraptor is easily being able to change direction
self-defence. large One of the most telling finks between incredibly quickly. It used this speed to
one of the most chase down prey, which largely
animals like the T-rex dinosaurs and birds is the Unenlagia, a
recognisable of all species. Importantly consisted ofsmall to medium-sized
and Diplodoco'5, thar*s genusoftheropod dinosaur from the though, this image of the Velociraptor is
to their sinoils or nedcs, herbivores such as Protoceratops, and
late Cretaceous that in almost all way off the mark in terms of reality. then kill them with its nine-
- vwy top-h e•>'Y· aspects, aside from flight, resembles a
modem bird. Itwas discovered in 1997 In contrast to the movie monster, centimetre (3.5-inch) retractable
They needed long and
heavy tails to and to date two species have been research evidence suggests that the claws and sharp teeth.
coooterbalance this, especially when confirmed - U comahuensis and U
Velociraptor was actually a feathered As mentioned in 'Hunting
running. Othersmaler creatwes paynemili - both ofwhich share an
such as Ankylosawus (left) used its almost identical pelvic structure to the dinosaur under0.6 metres (two feet) in strategies' new research
tail when under attack, evolving a early bird species Archaeopteryx. suggeststhat, while
length, with colourful plumage used in
large bony cUJ at the end which mating rituals and visual displays. The sociable compared with
species also had hollow bones, much
could painfully bludgeon assailants. other camivorous species,
like birds, and built large nests to Velociraptors were not apex
protect their offspring. pack hunters, with co-operative
kills possible but infrequent
The Velociraptor did impress in
ground speed -one thing Jurassic Pari<

160

KEY 145Ma 125Ma 99.6Ma 68Ma 67Ma 65.5Ma
I I I I I•
DATES •I
TheCretaoeousperiod After IS millionyearsof The Albian age giveswart The giant herbivorous Tyrannosaurus rex takes Amassive space rock
CRETACEOUS
begins with all types of marine dominance, the to the Cenomanian, made Trioeratops becomesone of rNeras the apex te<restrial smashes Into Earth,
(•MA • MILUON YEARS AGO) plesiosaur Leptocleldus famous fO<its dramatic, resulting inthe K·Pg
dinosati'Sdominating ciesoutone<>and for all. thelast I'IOI't-aViandinosaur predatoron Earth Lntl all
anoxic end e v e n t genera to atJP('ar. extinctionevent.
on &and, sea and air. dinosaurs are wiped out.

Winged wonders "Microraptor was a small, four· O Beak
winged dinosaur... very close to
While not t echnically dinosaurs, the origin of birds. Its remains Up to 90 teeth in the long beak intermeshed when the
pterosaurs were very much the winged show it had wings on its anns jaw was closed, and were perfect for grabbing fast prey.
wonders of the dinosaur era. Flying reptiles that
evolved throughout the Late Triassic and dominat ed I and legs. It couldn't fly properly, @ W ings

the skies until the Late Cretaceous, pt erosaurs were but used its wings to glide. This shows the A wingspan of around 1m (3.3ft) was typical for
the earliest vertebrates currently known t o have origin of flight in birds and their ancestors Pterodactylus, with the wings structured in a way that
evolved powered f light. Pterosaurs are not related t o was much more complex than expected" indicates it would have flown like an albatross.
modem-day birds or bats, w ith the many species
evolving earlier and separately. €) Body

The genus Pterodact ylus was one of the most Not as large as depicted in fiction, Pterodactylus was
very lightly built w ith hollow bones and a long neck.
notable, with the species Pterodactylus antiquus
e Limbs
one of the most impressive, with a toothed beak,
large eyes and clawed wings. In t erms of wingspan Pterosaurs evolved a unique pteroid bone on the wrists of
P antiquus could extend its w ings up to a metre their forearms, used to support the forward wing
(3.3 feet) and had a long, narrow skull packed with membrane located between the wrist and shoulder.
dozens of sharp, pointed t eeth. It used these t o
snap up fish and smaller reptiles. 0 Tail

Unlike some other pterosaurs, Pterodactylus had a
relatively short, stubbY tail.

Yucatan impact

The colossal Chicxulub crater in the
Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico, since its
discovery in the Seventies, has hinted as
to how 75 per cent of all life on Earth was eradicated
around 65.5 million years ago. The c rater indicates

that a space rock • probably an asteroid • at least ten
kilometres (six miles) across impacted Earth. As a
result of the extensive damage caused by the collision
and consequently by t sunamis, dust st orrns and
volcanism, it caused a collapse in the world's

ecosystems, with all non·avian dinosaurs at the top of
the death list. The impact's link to the K·Pg mass
extinction has recently been reaffirmed w ith even

more detail, with researchers linking the two events in

t ime to within 11,000 years. That said, various
phenomena, such as dramatic climate swings, also
contribut ed to the end of the dinosaurs post·impact.

161

Carnivorous ki

Until they were wiped out 65 millionyears ago
dinosaurs ruled the Earth. Among them, ...___
monstrous beasts stamped their authority over
the menagerie, devouring all who stood in their
way. These were the dinosaur kings, the
largest carnivores the world has ever seen

Evolvingfrom archosaurs (large
llzards) In the latter partof the
middle Triassic period, dinosaurs
quicklygained a strongand prolific
foothold all over Pangaea, the
supercontinentwhich all ourcontinents were
once partof.lndeed, as the dominant terrestrial
vertebrates through thejurassicandCretaceous
periods, thousands ofspeciesofdinosaur have
been unearthed as fossils by palaeontologistsall
over the world, with new discoveries being
presented every year. Among them, huge

behemoths withskeletonsover16 metres long

and slx metres tall, withskulls the sizeof bath
tubs have surfaced and dellvered a scaryand
disturbinggllmpse into the creatures that once
prowled the counrrleswesllllllve in today.

Among thelargest of these giants, a group of
massive carnivorous theropods(bipedal
dinosaurs) emerged throughout thejurassicand
Cretaceous periods, castinga shadow over the
rest ofthe dinosaur population. The most famous
of these is the 'JYrannosaurus Rex, as made
popularbythe]uross/cParkfilms, however this
type of theropod was butone of a host ofkUie.rs
and, amazingly, notthe largesll Historically, of
course, the reign of these carnivorous kings was
cutshortInthe mass-extinction of the dinosaur
populationat the closeof the Cretaceous period.
when a no-mile radius asteroid croshed into the
YucatAn Penlnsula,setllngoffachaln-reaction
(tsunamls, dust clouds, temperoture variation,
food-chain collapse)ofevents that eventuallyled
to thelr extermination.

Here, though, we explore the giddy heights of
the pinnacleofdinosaur evolution, the time
when nothingltvlngon Earthcould match these
beastsforslzeandstrength. Betterrunfor cover
then, as things are about to get prehistoric...

162

•••••••••••••••••Long neck ••••••••••••••••• ••••••••••••••••• •••••••••••••••••

1 2 1n 3 4 5The tallestolall the
dinosaurswa& the giant
BrachlosaJrus, mainly thanks

to itsgiralfe.like neck, which
stood ata ratherirnp<essive

heigl"t ol 50 feet.
The shortest The fastest Feathered Velociraptor

00<1trast, oneofthe Two ol the quickest olal Contrary to theirportrayal In The Velodraptor, made
smalestdioosaurs to dinosaurs were the films, manydlnosatWSwere lamous by theJurassic
actually feathered likebirds, Pall< films, was notactually
roam the Earth was the Omithomirnus and with the Sinosauropteryx
Compsognathus, standing Gal imimus, which are being the first to be un-earthed as big as itwas portrayed,
ata measly15 feet tal by palaeontologists. standing at six lootlong
estlmated tohall<! beenable
and fourfeet long. to reach speeds of 70mph. andooly L9 feethigh.

Why the

long face?

Splnosaurus badone
ofthelongestskullsof

anycarnivore, some

1.7510l0ng

Snout and about

The long. crocodile-likesnout
suggests ItplungedItsjawInto

watertocatch fish

Sail of the century

Tbesail o!Splnosaurus
waslormedolverytall
neural spinesgrowingon the

backvertebrae

CARNIVORE I

Spi

Step aside T-Rex, this was the
ultimate theropod...

Biggerand arguably meaner than the 'JYrannosaurus Rex, the

Spinosaurus is thought to be the largest theropod dinosaur

to everroam the planet Oven6 metres long, six metres

high and weighing a monumental12 tons, the

Spinosauruswas a relatively commonanimal in the

lateCretaceous period. Palaeontologistshave found

fossilised remains oftheSpinosaurusin Morocco,

Libya and Egypt, includinga well preserved but now

destroyed (blown-up in a WorldWar ll bombing run)

specimen that included the lowerjawand vertebrae

with completespines. Spinosauruswas

typical for a large theropod butdiffered in

itsskuU and vertebrae

construction. The snout ofthe

1.75-metreskull was long likea

crocodile, with the nostril

openings placed well backfrom

the tip.lts teeth were also conical,

rounded in a crosssectionand did not

containany serrations- these

features suggest that the

Spinosaurus plungeditsjaw

into water in order to catch

fish. However, consideringits

size, jawstrengthand number

of teeth, itequally had no Not a dinosaur
trouble in hunting small, you'd wantto meet

medium and otherlarge down a darkalley...

dinosaurs onland.

163

Carnivorous kings

The dinosaur with a big name to live up Ridge too far
to, but was it as colossal as it sounds? Glganotosaurus had bony

Meaning'giantsouthern lizard', the Glganotosaurus was roughly the rtdgesabolletheeyesockets
samesizeas the largest'TYrannosaurus Rexs. measuring overumetres
long, five metres tall and weighing overeight tons.Theskullof the T-Rex
Giganotosaurus was adorned with shelf-like bony ridges, notably above
the eyesocketsand had low horn-like projections, while the neckwas Maybenot the biggest. but
considerablythicker than that of theSplnosaurus,with a stoutand thatdldn'tstopUbeing the
powerful head supported by lt. Gtganotosaurus remains have beenfound ultimate bunter
in Argentina and it has been postulated by palaeontologlsts that it dined Height:""
mainlyon medium-sized dinosaurssuchas Andesaurus.
Length: t}Dl
Size comparison Who was the real king of the dinosaurs...
I
Giganotosaurus
1m
.-+---.... ItmaysoundblgbutGJganotosaurus

wasn'tatthe topolthepile..•

Heigh~: 4-51" IAnvth: urn

Spinosaurus

Longerand beavler
than itsclosest
competitors

Helght: 6m
1Anvth:t6m

I

164

The biggest bite

The strength ofthe l}rrannosaurus's bite is estimated
by palaeontologists to be greater than that of any other
animal ever to live on Earth.

nu Rex

The most famous dinosaur of them all A nk:e bil ofcolour... in
and the ultimate predator caseyou didn't spot11
runninga! you!
The T-Rex was one orthe largest terrestrtaI
carnivores in theworld, with the estimated Good eyes
strengthofits bitegreater than that ofany
otheranimal that has ever existed on Earth. TheT-Rex bad
Standingat a height offive metres, measuring binocular.
over13metres in length and weighing over colourvision
nine tons, the T-Rex Is considered to beoneof
the most fearsome hu nte.rs ever.

The bodyorthe T-Rex was perfectly
balanced, with a horizontal bac.kbone
positioned above the hips giving
completelyequal weight distribution.The
head wasalso colossal.. measuring1.6
metres long and far builder than any other
theropod, containing58serrated teeth and
large forward-facing eyesocketsgiving It
acute binocularvlslon. F'rom fossilised
remains ofTyrannosaurus faeces,
palaeontologistshave discovered that the
T-Rex crushed bonesof the prey It consumed.
The T-Rex was prolificover the entire western
North America.

Matter of Quite a bite

balance TbeT-Rex bad58serrated.

Tbe massiveskull ol banana-sbapedleelh
lbeT-Rexwas

balanced bya lblck.
heavytaU

Biggest ever land momma/

Find out how this prehistoric mega- The first Paraceratherium fos91 bones were
mammal- eight times the size ofa found in 19U by the palaeontologist Clive Forster
modern-day rhinoceros -used to live
Cooper. Two years later, he found more bones he
Imagine a beast taller than a gLraffe mountains. As the climate changed, the dense took to be from a related genus and named the
and heavier than two elephants. tropical forests were replaced with more open animal Baluchitherium because the fos91s were
Paraceratherlum was the dinosaurof landscapes containing a mixture of trees and found in Baluchistan, in what is now Pakistan. In
its day. It filled the same ecological niche as the grass. These made it harder for medium-sized
huge sauropod dinosaurs, like Diplodocus, that animals to hide from predators, so natural 1915, Aleksei Borissiak found a third set of bones
lived 120 million years earlier, roaming through selection favoured ever-larger indjvidualsable and named the animallndricotherium,after the
lightly forested plainsand eating the leavesof to fend offattacks. Along with competition lndrlk, a monster from Russian foklore.
trees, which it stripped off the branches with its between males for breeding rights, this drove
front teeth. Unlike the dinosaurs, the evolution of heavier grazinganima Is. The None of these fossil finds were anything like a
Paraceratherium didn't have a long tail to culmination ofthis was the Paraceratherium,
counterbalance theweight of its neck and bead. which weighed a whoppingzo tons. full skeleton, and it can be very hard to decide
Instead, it had much more powerful neck whether you have found a completely new
muscles, anchored to tall extensions at the top The largest predatorsat the time werea kind
of its spine. Tbjs brought Its centre of gravity ofmarsupial hyena, no more than two metres animal or just a larger example of an existing
much farther forward, onto the front legs, (6.6 feet) long. An adult Paraceratberium was far one based on a single neck vertebra. The
resulting in a much stockiershapeoverall. too large to be troubled by these animals. scientific consensus is now that an three sets of
Paraceratherium lived during the Oligocene Instead, they may have been eventually driven fossils belong to the same genus, which is called
epoch, around 30 million years ago. The climate extinctbythe rise ofearly elephant species.
cooled suddenlyduring thisperiod; Antarctica Thesewould have knocked down the trees Paraceratherium, because this was the first one
developed its ice cap for the first time and the
Alps began to push upwards to form Paraceratherium relied on for food. As the to be described scientifically. To date, five
grasslands expanded, Paraceratherium was
replaced bysmaller grazing rna mmals. species of Paraceratherium have been identified.

Size matters

How would the Paraceratherium have
measu red up against a person?

l9m
S.Sm

1!

Hom

All modem rhinos have horns for

defence, but Paraceratherium

was too big to need one.

In a galaxy far,
far away...

When Phil Tippett was
designing the special effect s for
Star Wars Episode V: The Empire
Strikes Back, he needed a
reference model for the giant
mechanical AT-AT w alkers that

assault the rebel base on Hoth.

Initially, his team studied
elephants to animate the leg
movements, but the final design
is much taller and more
menacing. That's because they
are based on the
Paraceratherium. The AT-ATs
portrayed in the film are three
times as tall as the prehistOO"k:
mammal, but the lumbering
gait and joint articulation is
probably very close to the way
the real Paraceratherium would
have moved around.

166

STOP 1Toxodon 2•••••••••••••••••Dipeotodon 3 othetium•••••• Meg 4•••••••••••••••••Deinotherium •••
This L S.tonhootedanimal
FACTS lool<ed like a hornless The 'hlppop<llamos""'"'bar Although they aren'tclosely manm10th• Woolly
rhinoceros, but had much related, Delnotherium lool<ed 5••• At 3.4m(ll2ft)tal and
MEGAFAUNA larger front legsthan hind legs. was the largest m31'St4lial ••••••••••• This ground sloth weighed likean """'lJ''own elephant, •••••••••• weighing six tons, tiles<>
ever.3m (9.8ft) klng and about four tons. Itooly went butwith larger frontlegsand iceage relativesofthe
Herds ofthem roamed South oxtinct 10,000 years ago tusks pointingdown. Itlived elephant had tusks up to
America 20,000 yearsago. weigl1ing 2.8 tons, Its fossils and, at thetime, oolythe about 7 m il ion years ago
4.2m (13.8t0 long that could
mayhave inspO'ed Aboriginal Coll.mbian andwooly
legendsofthe 'btlnylp'. mammoths wer'e larger. weighaver 90kg (2001b).

I •H•T\1!1!113~1•1~!&> Porocerotherium wos bigger thon Diplodocus; although the dina wos longer, Porocerotherium wos bulkier

Anatomy of a mega-mammal Mystery ears

Paraceratherium may be related to t he mod em rhino, but there are Soft ears don't fossilise, but it's possible
some sizable differences, as we highlight here.•.
that Paraceratherium had large flapping
l ong neck
ears to keep cool like toclay's elephants.
A 3m (9.9ft)-long neck
brought even the topmost
branches within reach.

Shoulder hump

Extra tall vertebrae provided
attachment points for the huge
muscles supporting the neck.

Stumpy tail

Unlike the long-necked
dinosaurs, Paraceratherium
didn't have a long tail to
counterbalance its heavy
head and neck.

Teeth

Paraceratherium had huge
incisors to strip leaves
from trees. Modern rhinos
don't have front teeth

because they only eat

grass and plants.

Prehensile upper lip

Unlike the elephant's trunk,
this could only be used for
eating, not sucking up water.

Pillar legs Odd toes

Most animals keep their Paraceratherium had
legs slightly bent, but three toes on each foot,
Paraceratherium had like a rhino. Elephants
straight legs to support have five toes.
its massive weight.
The statistics.•.

Lived: -30 milfion years ago

lifespa"' 80 years
Height at shoulder: S.Sm (18ft)
Could reach up to: 8m (26ft)
length: 9m (30ft)
Weight 20 tons

167

Ve/ociroptors debunked

Velociraptors have been Ingrained In (notably Mongolia}, where they built large, ground- 'kUling claw'). These traits were partnered with a
public consciousnesssl nee the1993 based nests to protect their young. tendency to ambush prey, rather than tackle their
moviejurassic Parkshowcased them as victims face on or from long range (see the 'Slash or
the most fearsome of apex predators. Velociraptors, though often living in close subdue?' boxout for more).
Smart, lethal and bloodthirsty, the veloclraptors of proximity to one another, were largely solitaryand,
the film arguablystole the show. However, the movie while certainfindssuggest theycould have teamed Interestingly, however, while there's no doubt that
was famed for its indulgence ofartistic licence, with up while chasingtheir quarry, theywere not pack veloclraptors hunted live prey, unearthed fossilised
palaeontolagists bemoaning the lack of historical hunters, with evidenceshowing they would fight evidencesuggests theywerealso incredibly active
accuracy throughout the movie. amongthemselves for feeding rights. tn addition, scavengers, with the species frequently feedingon
So what were these dinosaurs really like? their staple diet consisted ofanimals ofequalsize carrion(pterosaurbones have been found in
Veloclraptor, of which there are twoverlfledspecles and weight to themselves or those smaller than veloclraptor guts, for Instance)and carcasses left over
them, withverylittle evidencesuggesting they byother predators.
- v mongollensis and Vosmolskae, was a genus of would attempt to bring down larger dinosaurs, such
Veloclraptorsdled out alongwith the remalning
dromaeosaurid rrunnlng lizard') theropod dinosaur as the1Yrannosaurusrexa IajurassicPark. speclesofdromaeosauridaeln therunupto,andasa
that lived in the Late Cretaceous period, about 75-71 result of, the Cretaceous-Tertiary mass-extinction
million years ago. They were two metres (6.6 feet) Velociraptor hunting technlques revolved largely event that occurred approximately65.5 millionyears
long,justunder a metre (three feet) high, feathered a round theirspeed and agility. They could accelerate ago. Despite this, elements oftheiranatomy and
and bipedal, runningon two of their three toes per appearance can still beseen today - albeit in heavily
foot They were native to modem-day central Asia up to 64 kilometres (40 miles) perhourand pounce evolved forms -In many species of bird. 0

long distances, aswell asgrip prey firmlywith their
unique, sickle-shapedclaws (notably thelrenlarged

168

STOP 1Featl,..."ed f"lend 2 matters•••••••••••••••••Size 3 tunters .! 4••••••••••••••••• •••••• American citizens 5•••••••••••••••••~
Contrary to popliardepictlons Pack
FACTS of wlocitaptors infilms such Another falsehoodperpetuated ••••••• Another myth perpetuated by Unlike dlo> super-Intelligent
as.ltr.Jssic Park.theywould by Hollywood ,.,.,ies is dlo> si2e Velociraptors didn't tend tohont theJurassic Park franchise is
VELOCIRAPTOR of veiodraptors. Far from being thatvelocitaptors lived in what velociraptors depicted In
MYTHS ha\.oe In fact beenCO\Iel'ed in in packs. Evidence suggests
feathers, a Ita~ that's been aver three metres(9.9 feeO is now dlo> Americas. in fact, JurassicPari< - egopening
various individuals cid chase remains have only ev«been doseddoorswith theirclaws-
passed down to today's birds. long, they were much closerto discovered in cenlralAsia.
two metres(6.6 feeO. P"'Y at dlo>...,., time. but they were likelyonlyassmart
as a prirritive opossum.
y,o()tjd dlo>n squallllle among

each-for 'frstdibs'.

1•){11'\1!1!1/tW•lW Modern-day hawks ond eagles attock theirprey in o simi/or woy to velociroptors

Group: Theropod Slash or subdue?
Family: Oromaeosauridae
Didvelociraptors use theirsiclde-
l ength: 2m (6.6f0 shaped clawsto disembowel
Height O.Sm (2.5ft) preyorforsomeother purpose?

Weight: U3kg (200tb) The majorl!y ofnon-avian theropod dinosaurs are
characterised by razor-sharp serrated teethand talon-like
l ocation: Asia, eg Mongolia recurved claws, the veloclraptor being no exception.
Period: late Cretaceous Armed with a bounry ofclaws on both Its bands and feet,

the veloclraptorat first glance seems to be the perfect
kllllng machine, capable ofrapidly chasingdown prey

before shredding their Oesh with oneof their knile-llke
tools. Well, thatwas at least the commonly accepted

theory among palaeontologlsts untU late In 2.011, beforea

newstudy by a team of International dinosaur experts
suggested an entirelydifferent use lor them.

The studysuggested that far from their claws-
specifically theveloclraptor's much-touted 'killing claws'
- beingused to shred andslice prey In order to kill them
prior to consumption, theywere Iarmore likely to be used

In a similarway to the talons ofmodem-day hawksand
eagles. This entails the birds using their talons as a
gripping tool, snaringprey ofa lesser bodysize, pinning

them down with their own body weight and then often
consuming them live with their beaks.

This theory Is seemingly backed up by the veloclraptor's
feet showing morphology consistentwith a grasping
function, supportinga prey lmmoblllsatlon model rather

thanthe originallyassumed combative one.

..· ~-

169

Brontosaurus Torso Ribs

Head A colossal torso that weighed many Apatosaurus possessed
incredibly long, robust ribs
Apatosaurus had a deep, tons was standard containing similarly
slender skull filled with huge organs, including a SOO·Iitre, compared to most other
long peg-like teeth. These
broad, rounded teeth were four-chambered heart and two diplodocids, granting it an
excellent at stripping off unusually deep chest cavity.
leaves from branches. 900-litre capacity lungs.

Neck

As with other sauropods,
the Apatosaurus's neck
vertebrae were deeply
bifurcated, carrying paired
spines. The neck was also
filled with many weight·

saving air sacs.

eett erea

urus

One ofthe largest animals to ever exist on Earth, the
Apatosaurus towered metres overits Jurassic rivals

Around four times heavier than an colossal bull<. However, recent evidence has Apatosaurus vs human
African elephant, five times longer demonstrated that through a combination of
than your car and a lmost six times the massive limb bones and a series of weight- How would this enormous dinosaur have
he.ight ofa full-grown human, Apatosaurus was reducing internal airsacs located throughout sized up to a person?
one of the largest dinosaurs of the jurassic era the neckand spine, Apatosaurus's home was,
and one of most gigantic to ever walk the Earth. in fact, entirely land-based, onlys:pe.ndi +----- 23m -----+
As is typical with large dinosaurs of this
period, Apatosaurus (once mistakenly known time at water sources to drink
as Brontosaurus) was a herbivore, consuming Speaking ofdrinking, the Apatosaurus
vast quantities of foliage and grasses over the
lands that now form modern-day North required gallons of water per day to remain
America. Interestingly, despite its size, its name healthy, while italso needed to process vast
is derived from the Greek 'apate' and 'saurus', amounts offood, spendinga large proportion of
which translate as 'deception lizard'- a name each day grazing. It did this with few predators,
bestowed by its original discoverer, American as only the largest carnivorous dinosaurs had
palaeontologist Othniel Charles Marsh. any chanceofbringing down an Apatosaurus,
Prior to the1970s, Apatosaurus, along with largely thanks to itssize.ltaJso had a deadly
many othersauropods, were considered largely weapon in its tail, which was capable of being
aquatic creatures that relied on being partially swungat great velocity at any foes.
submerged inswampsand lakes to remain
stable - a view seemingly confirmed by their Despite its defensive prowess, however, the
Apatosaurus could not battleoff extinction,
with it falling to a medium-sized extinction
eventaround 150 million years ago.

170

THE 9mHEIGHT WEIGHT 30,000kg TIMEFRAME 154-lSOMYA
STATS

UP tO lOOyrS 187723mAPATOSAURUS LENGTH
k~~ECTANCY DISCOVERED

I•H•l\1•1!nr1U•l!lU Apatosaurus skeleton fmgments hove been found in Wyoming, Colorado. Dk/ohomo ond Utah

Spine

The spine of Apatosaurus was interesting in its

difference to other sauropods, possessing incredibly

tall spines that made up half its total height.

Ta il

Apatosaurus had a long and
slender tail that resembled a
whip. Scientists have
postulated that a whip of its tail
would produce a crack noise in
excess of 200 decibels.

Legs It is~~

The limb bones of Apatosaurus were Apatosaurus ewM!8 Its
incredibly stiM'dy and strong, capable of long tail to counterbalance
supporting its huge mass. It had a single claw its equally long neck
on each forelimb and three on each hindlimb.

The bo11e wars A photograph of Othaiel Stamp scandal
Marsh taken between
During the begiming of the golden age 1865 and 1880 In 1989, the US Post Office decided to release a
of modem palaeontology, two
prominent American palaeontoklglsts, special edition set of four stamps depicting
famous dinosaurs. These included a
Edward Cope and Otlvllel Marsh, had a Tyrannosaurus, Stegosaurus, Pteranodon and,
faling out over excavated dinosaur interestingly, a Brontosaurus.

remains, with the men then proceeding The latter was included despite the fact that, as
to attempt to beat each other to noted in 'The bone wars' boxout, the name
'Brontosaurus' had been made officially
unearth and describe new species of redundant in the early-20th century.

dinosaur. In this rush to become the The fallout from this was massive, with many
foremost palaeontogist of the age, palaeontologists and dinosaur enthusiasts
Marsh described first In 1877 and then accusing the US Post Of fice of promoting
later in 1879 two supposedly separate 'scientific illiteracy' and re-opened a bone
species of dinosaur. He named the first war-style feud between others. Indeed, even the
one Apatosaurus and called the second celebrated palaeontologist Stephen Jay Gould got
one Brontosaurus. involved, writing a famous defence of the
Brontosaurus name in his Natural History
Following this, the name of magazine piece ' Bully for Brontosaurus'.

Brontosaurus became workl famous, 171
with a complete skeleton mounted and

displayed in the Peabody Museum,
Yale, under the Marsh title in 1905.

However, Marsh in his haste had made
a terrible mistake. The Brontosaurus

was actualy just a fully-grown

Apatosaurus and, since the
Apatosaurus had been described first
in 1877, its name took precedent, with
'Brontosaurus' made officialy
redundant in the early-20th century.

Interestingly, however, as the
Brontosaurus name had become firmly

fixed in the public consciousness, it
remained far more popular and is stil in
use to this day to the chagrin of many

dinosaur experts.

Ankylosourus

Aclub-wielding brute ofa creature, this Club members only
tough dina had the power to break bones
The well·known tail dub of the Ankylosaurus
Ankylosaurus was one orthe largest devouring vegetation wholewith little
ankylosaurs, a genus ofarmoured shreddingorchewing. Indeed, studies have was one of the most lethal weapons sported by
dinosaurs that lived throughout North indicated that the skull and jaw ofthe any dinosaur. The club was made from several
America between 75 and 65.5 mil lion years ago. Ankylosaurus were structurally tougher than
Famous for both its brutal tail-mounted club manysimilar, contemporary dinosaurs. large bone plates called osteodenns that were
and its immense bone plate armour, the fused into the last few vertebrae of the animal's
Ankylosaurus was a defensive titan, capable of In fact, evidence suggests thatAnkylosaurus
fending off rivals rna ny times its size. - and ankylosaurs in general- wereadept tail. Behind these vertebrae several others lined
Ankylosaurus's focus on defence was born survivors. But despite their impressive armour, with thick, partially ossified tendons completed
out of its herbivorous nature, with its entire weaponryand sustainable diet, they could not the club's handle, resulting in a structure that,
bodygeared towards the consumption of cope with the Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction when swung, was capable of dealing out a lot of
foliage. From its low-slung body, rows of event that wiped outall terrestrial dinosaurs damage. Indeed, a study in 2009 suggested t hat
leaf-shaped cropping teeth, short front legs, approximately 65.5 million years ago. Onlya the tail clubs of fully grown ankylosaurs could
wide feet and cavernous stomach, the few fossils or this prehistoric herbivore have easily crush and break bone with a force capab le
Ankylosaurus was the consummate browser, been excavated to date - most coming from the of caving in an assailant 's skull. Whether or not
Hell Creek Formation in Montana, USA. the animal purposely aimed the club to cause
damage remains unclear at this point.

As well as a weapon.,
the tail m ight also

have played a role in
sexual selection

Ankylosaurus anatomy Osteoderm

Get to know the key biology of thi s tank-like dino Covering much of the body

Ankylosaurus sported a series of

bony plates called osteodemls
embedded in the skin.

Head Neck

The Ankylosaurus's head The dinosaur's head sat at
was square, flat and the end of a very short and
broader than it was long. stocky neck. This helped
The jaws featured curved support its bulky head and
rows of irregularly edged, also act ed as a bracing
leaf·shaped teeth for mechanism when charging.
tearing vegetation.

Front leg Stomach Body

Powerful but short leg.s The only part of the dinosaur The bulk of the near·six ton
supported the front half of the that was unarmoured, the beast was contained
animal. The wide foot area of underbelly hung low to the within itslow-stung body.
these forelegs granted good ground. Predators would try This was covered with
traction and stability. to tip ankylosaurs over to armoured bone plating
access this weak point. and topped with spines.
172

THE 2.5mHEIGHT 10mLENGTH LIVED 75-65.5 MYA
l.SmSTATS
WEIGHT 4,000-7,000kg ~~a~JOSSIL 1906
ANKYLOSAURUS wiDTH

Thou shall Ankylosaurus was tough enough to

not pass! go up against the most fearsome

The impressive, almost dinosaurs and come out on top
bulletproofarmourof the
Ankylosaurus was not magic but
rather a series of interlocking
bone plates called osteoderms.
These bone plates, which were
locked into the skin, were bone
overlaid with a tough layer of
keratin. The plates were located
over most of the body, but were
not uniform in shape nor size, with
some resembling flat diamonds -
as seen on crocodiles and

armadillos today - and others

appearing like circular nodules.
The addition of these plates on
top of the Ankylosaurus's head,
along with a set of pyramidal
horns to its rear and a row of
triangular spikes mounted to each
side of the tail club meant that
attacking this creature - even if
you were an apex predator like the
T·rex - was not a good idea.

Spine Club

At key areas Ankylosaurus The characteristic tail club
of Ankylosaurus was made
also sported bony spines for from numerous osteoderms,
each fused to the last few
extra protection or - in the vert ebrae of the tail.
case of those mounted to the
side of the tail club- greater
offensive capabilities.

Tail Ankylosaurus vs human

A medium-sized tail - also How w ou ld t h is dino have sized up to a person?
armoured with bone
plates - helped balance 10m
the weighty Ankylosaurus
and pi'OIIided the power to 2.Sm
cause maximum damage

with its club.

Rear leg

Equally powerful - If not
more so - but longer than
the Ankylosaurus's forelegs,
the rear legs reached up to
about 1.7m (5.611) at the hip.

173

Sabre-toothed cots

I

It'sa common misnomer, but the out around 50o,ooo BCE having been usurped us (or perhaps for Smilodon populator), this
sabre-toothed tigerneverexisted. by its descendant, the significantly larger sabre-toothed cat was around long enough to
What most people think ofwhen Smilodon fatalis, an animal weighing in at see Homo sapiens appear on the scene.
someone mentionsa sabre-tooth is Smilodon, a
very successful cat of which there were three to t6o-z8o kilograms (350-620 pounds) - about the Smilodon populatorwas a similarlysocial
five different species. Although believed to same as today's Siberian tiger. But its dose carnivore to African lionsand bunted insmall
have originated in Africa and Eurasia, these relativeSmilodon populator is the biggest big groups, but its muscularbuild and limb length
felines lasted the longest In the Americas, right caton record, a whopping 220-36o kilograms, meant that it ambushed prey rather than
up to the end of the last Ice age to,ooo years ago. 1.4 metres (4-6 feet) at tbe shoulderand up to 2.6 chasing it down.lt preferred the large
SmiJodon gracilis was a relatively small feline metres (8.5 feet) long, with its characteristic mammals of the time that were common to the
weighing about the same as a human. It died upper canines reaching an eye-watering 30 Americas: juvenile rna mmoths and mastodons,
centimetres (12 inches) IAnd unfortunately for American camels, ground sloths and

174

KDAEYTES 35 32 17 25

BIG CAT DIARY Nimravus wasan ambushcat A rela~ toNimraws, Ther~wete two speciesof Homotherium, aka the tt seemsflttlng that the
D!nktis (right) wasan Prosansanosmilus, which scimitarcat (left), was
that weighedaround 30kg arboreal feline that looked lound all overEurope, biggest sabre·tooth, Smilodon
prowleda warmer Etrepe poptAator, was the: laston the
(6611>). tt hada similar evolution similarto a leopard fOI" abouta millionyears. Asia and the Americas.
but wasn't a true sabr'e-tooth. seen<>and the last to die out.

I•Jl•l\1!1!1/tW•lW The nome Smi/odon is derived from the Greek for chisel- or knife-tooth

Sabre-tooth skeleton Broad shoulders Bob tail

Explore one of these ancient feline Smiloclon populator had Sabre-tooths had a tail,
predators from the inside out especially powerful but it was stubby and

Thick neck forelimbs, built more like more like a bobcat's
today's hyena, perfect for than a modern lion's.
The powerful neck was wrestling with large prey.
used to help sink its teeth

deep into its victims.

Fragile fangs Small rear limbs

The length of Smilodon's Smilodon's relatively
fangs meant they were smaller and weaker limbs
prone to breaking. made them less capable of
Fortunately, they had two
and even if an individual hunting agile prey. It's
broke both, they would still partly why they died out
be useful in a pack hunt soon after the slower giant
herbivores went extinct
Weak jaws
Why did cats
Smilodon had weaker jaws
than today's big cats, but evolve sabre teeth?
they could open twice as
wide to accommodate Sabre teeth are a great example ofconvergent
evolution: many species evolved this same trait
• l• independently around this time. So what was
the benefit of these dead lyweapons? The apex
macrauchenia (extinct llama-like mammal). predators ofthis erawere equipped with
SeveralSmilodon would use their combined disproportionately huge fangs because, as
body weight to drag preydown and subdue simple as itsounds, theanimals they hunted
them, before using their sharp teeth like were much bigger. Modern big cats like the
daggers to inflict mortal wounds to the neck. African lion throttle their prey by crushing the
windpipe - a fine tactic to finish a dainty
It's likely that Smilodon populator preyed on gazelle, but ifyou're attacking beasts
early humans on occasion, but it's justas likely significantly beyond your weight category- like
that the success of Homo sapiens, and our the woolly mammoth- hanging onto their
competition for the megafauna they hunted, throat until theysuffocated wasn'tan option.
ultimatelysounded the major death knell for Smilodon used their dagger-like canines like an
this legendary feline species. 0 assassin, surprising its intended meal by
stabbingat the throat or ripping its soft belly,
then retreating and allowing the victim to
weaken before moving in for the kill.

175

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