Psychology G12

Teacher Consultant

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Sanford, FL Dr. Terry Davidson Dr. Daniel N. Mclntosh
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Dr. Michela Gallagher Cog n itive Psych o logy, I nte I I i g e n ce
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Exp e r i m e n ta l/Bi o I og i ca I a n d
Cognitive Psychology Biologicol Psychology

Dr. Calvin P. Garbin Dr. Kevin Williams
University of Nebraska State University of New Yor(
Quantitative and Research Methods
Albany
Behaviorol Psychology

tIt

How to Use Your Textbook .xx
fime Line of Psychology xxii
Skills Handbook
Why Psychology Matters s1

s22

lntroduction to

Psychology

What ls Psychology? 4
6
Case Studyr A Social Science vs. 0 False Science 8

ISE(T101{ Why Study Psy<hology? 9

Quick Lab: Con You ChangeYour Behavior? '15
Current Research in Psychologyt Neuroimaging and Cognitive Research
l6
SECTION 2 What Psychologists Do
22
Psychology in Today's World: lnside the Criminal Mind 27

SE(IlOl{ 3 A History of Psychology 28
30
SECIl0l{ 4 Contemporary Perspectives

Cultural Diversity and Psychologyt Bringing Diversity into Psychology

Labt Public Perceptions of Psychology
Chapter Review

Psychological Methods 32

Case Study: Learning from a Flawed Experiment 34
38
SECTl0t{ 1 Conducting Research 40
Stfil0t{ 2 Surveys, Samples, and Populations 43
44
Quick Lab: The Survey Method 50
Cultural Diversityr and Psychology: Diversity in Research 5I
58
SE$l0t{ 3 Using Observation for Research 60

Current Research in Psychologyt Environmental Psychology 62

sE(Tl0il4 Experimental and Ethlcal lssues

Experiment The Hypothetical Snack Bar
Chapter Review

Experi m enta I Psych ol og ist

lv

m Body and Mind 63

Biology and Behavior 64

Case Study: The Brain of Phineas Gage 66
70
SECTlOil 1 The ltlervous 9ystem. 72
Quick [ab: Reaction Time . 80
84
SECTl0il2 The Brain: Our €ontrol (enter 89
90
SECTI0H3 TheEndocrineSystem 92

SECTl0il4 Heredity: Our Genetic Background . . .

Current Research in Psychology= The Aenographic Proiect

La}t Building the Human Brain ,

Chapter Review

Sensation and Perception 94

Case Study: Out of Darkness and Silence 96
98
SECII0II 1 Understanding Sensation and Perception r00

Quick Lab: Light-Dark Adaptation '101
Psychology in Today's World: Animal Senses
5E(TI01,|2 Vision 104
Quick [ab: Afterimages r06
SECIl0il3 Hearing
Current Research in Psychology; The Bionic Ear . 110
SECII0II4 Other Senses
tlI
SECII0N 5 Perception
Labt SensoryThresholds and Perceptional 0rganization . .. 'll5

Chapter Review 122
124
,i*?l o)t I

fF.\ 1" Consciousness 126
'fr.,,..{,.,ln},tffi
Case Study: Biofeedbock and Consciousness I28
rh =# "Wflr i: .:
SECIl0ll 1 The Study of (onsciousness 132
'i Stfil0N 2 Sleep and Dreams
I35
.g.:jillirr +: Quick Lab: Do You Remember Your Dreams?.
Current Research in Psychologyz Sleep Deprivation in Teens . 138
-,
Stffl0il3 Altered States of Consciousness r39
143
Cultural Diversity and Psycholo gy; M u lti cu ltu ra I Perspectives 144

on Consciousness 150
r52
SECMll 4 Drugs and Consciousness 154

Experiment Student Achievement ond Sleep Deprivation I55
Chapter Review

ffi Rehabititation Counselor.

fffi Learning and
Cognition

Learning 156

Case Studyr The Little Albert Experiment ls8

lSE(Tl0il Classical Conditioning 163

Current Research in Psychologyt Leorning from a Virtual Rot 164
.172
SECT!0N 2 Operant Conditioning 175
177
SECTl0ll3 Cognitive Factors in [earning .178
Quick Lab: Learning to Donce I82
Psychology in Today's World: Pathwoys to Rewards . . . r84

St(T101'14 The PQ4R Method: Learning to Learn

Experiment Reinforcement and Discou ragement,
Chapter Review

vl

Memory r85

Case Study H.M. and His Missing Memories 188

S[CT|0N 1 Memory Classifications and Processes . , , I95
I96
Current Research in Psychologyt lJnreliable Memories, . 199
.201
Unreliable Witnesses 208

S[fi10]'12 Three Stages of MemorY 210
Quick Lab: What Can You Remember? .
212
SECTI0N 3 Forgetting and Memory lmprovement .
.214
Experiment Effective Memory I mprovement. .219
Chapter Review 220
229
ffi 234
236
Thinking and Language 241
242
Case Study: Can Animqls Talk to Us? 244

SEfil0il I Understanding Thinking

Current Research in Psychology: Auto m ati c Th oug ht Processes

SECTI0l,l2 Problem Solving

StfflON 3 Reasoning and Decision Making

SECII0N4 language

Quick Lab: Dynamic Semantics. ,
Cultural Diversity and Psychologyt Disappearing Longuages..

Labt Children, Thinking, and Language
Chapter Review

lntelligence 246

Case Studyl What Makes a Creative Cenius? 248
252
SE(II0N 1 What Is Intelligence?.. . 257
SE(Tl0l,l 2 Measurement of Intelligence 261
SECIl0il3 Differencesin Intelligence 263

.SECTI0N 4 What Influences lntelligence? . 265
266
Quick [ab: Boosting BrainPower 268

Current Research in Psychology: Emotional lntelligence 270

lnfluences Success .

Lab: Profile of a Genius
Chapter Review,

Ed ucati ona I Psycho I og ist

vil

mm Development 271

: lnfancy and Childhood 272

, Case Study: Bullying: A Schoolyard Epidemic 274
t SEffl0tl1 DevelopmentalPsychology 278
I StCTl0N 2 Physical Development 283
284
I Psychology in Today's World: Raising a Better Child 289
293
' sfctlolt 3 Social Development 294
300
', Qri"klab: tdentifying Parenting Styles 302

Current Research in Psychology: lnside the Autistic Mind 304

:, SE(TlOl,l4 CognitiveDevelopment 306
310
Labt Prenatal and Postnatal Development .
Chapter Review 3ll

ffi 313
315
Adolescence 319

Case Study: Teenage Employees Around the World 320
326
lSEfflOil Phyrical Development 328

Current Research in Psychologyt The Adolescent Brqin

st(IlON 2 Social Development

Quick Lab: Adolescents on Television

SE(IlOil 3 ldentity Formation

Cultural Diversity and Psychology- Rites of Passage

SE(TI0H 4 Challenges of Adolescence

Simulationr Peer Pressure
Chapter Review

vilt

ffi 330

Adulthood 332
338
Case Study: The Sandwich Generation 343
347
StCIl0t{ 1 Young Adulthood 3s0
Stfil0t'l2 MiddleAdulthood .35r

!glfil0l,l Late Adulthood 35s
3s6
Quick Lab: How Do You View the Elderly? 358
Current Research in Psychology= Living in the Moment .

S[Cil0t{ 4 Drath and Dylng

Cultural Diversity and Psychologyt Culturol Perspectives on Grief
qnd Death

Simulationr Experiencing the Stages of Adulthood .
Chapter Review

Devel o p menta I Psych o I og ist

fffiffi Personality 36r

Motivation and Emotion 362

Case Study: The Happiness of Nations 364
368
StfilOil 1 Thc Psychology of Motlvatlon 373
375
S[ffl0ill Blologlcal Nerdsr Fotur on Hunger 379
385
Stffl0t{ 3 Pryrhologlcal l{ccds . 386
388
Quick Lab: Are You Driven to Succeed? . .

St(Il0ll4 Emotions

Current Research in Psychologyt Evolutionary Psychology

Simulation: ldentifoing Motivations and Emotions .
Chapter Review

tx

Theories of Personality 390

Case Study: You Are What Makes You Laugh 392
396
Stfil0ll 1 The Trait Approach 404
40s
SECTlOil2 ThePsychoanalyticApproath.. . 406
409
Psychology in lodayrs World: Password to Personality . . . 415

5tfi10il 3 The Learning Approach. 416
414
Quick Lab: Hove External Forces lnfluenced Your Personality? . .

SECII0!|4 The Humanistic and Sociocultura! Approaches
Current Research in Psychologyz The Science of WelLBeing .

Lab: Your Self: Applying Theories of Personolity.
Chapter Review

Psychological Tests 420

Case Study: Testing Your Work Personality Type 422
426
SECTI0],| 1 Psychology and Testing 428
430
Stfil0l{ 2 Measuring Achievement, Abilities, and lnterests
431
Quick Lab: Choosing a Career
Current Research in Psychology= lmplicit Attitude Tests . 436
440
SECTlOil 3 Personality Tests 442

.SECTl0il4 Taking Tests. . .

La}t Writing a Personality Quiz

Chapter Review

x

I :l it

*,-

\\

Gender Roles 446
452
Case Study: Women in Combot 453
455
SEfil0l{ 1 Gender Roles and Differences 459
463
Current Research in Psychology: The Emotional Development of Boys
SE(IlOil2 GenderTyping 464
466
Quick Lab: Gender Division in the Home .
468
SECII0N 3 Variations in Gender Roles.

Cuftural Diversity and Psychologyt Cender Roles Around the World .

Simulation: ldentifyi ng Gender Stereotypes
Chapter Review

organizational psychotogist

ffi Health and 469
Adjustment

Stress and Health 470

Case Study: The Slow-Food, Low-Stress Diet 472
477
SECTI0N 1 Understanding Stress . 482
487
SECIl0l,l2 Stress: Responses and Effects 489
49r
St(Il0N 3 Psychological Factors and Health 492
494
St(T|0il 4 Ways of Coping with Stress

Quick Lab: Calming Stressful Thoughts
Current Research in Psychologyt Coping with Catostrophe

Simulation: Stress qnd Active Coping Methods
Chapter Review

xl

Psycholog ica I Disorders 496

Case Study: Not Guilty by Reason of lnsanity 498
503
St(IlOll t Understanding Psychological Disorders. 504
505
Cultu ral Diversity a nd Psycholo gyt C u lt u re- B o u n d Sy n d ro m es
514
sIffl0l'l 2 Anxietyand Mood Disorders
Quick [ab: Does Public Speaking Make You Nervous? sl5

Current Research in Psychologyt Post-Traumotic Stress Disorder 519
and lraq War Veterons , 524
528
SEfil0l{ 3 Dissociative and Somatoform Disorders s30

Stfil0il 4 Schizophrenia

stff l0ll 5 Personality Disorders

Lab: D i a g n osi nq Psych o I og i ca I D iso rd ers
Chapter Review

Methods of Therapy 532

Case Study: Virtual Therapy s34
s39
SECIlOll 1 What Therapy ls and Does 541
Stfil0l{ 2 The Psychoanalytic and Humanistic Approaches 543
544
Quick Lab: Free Association . s49
Psychology in Today's World: Public Therapy 553
SEfil0il 3 Cognitive Therapy and Behavior Therapy 554
Stffl0l'l 4 Biologica! Therapy s56

Current Research in Psychologyt The )ver-Prescription of Drugs 558

Simulation: ldentifying the Methods of Therapy
Chapter Review

Clinical Psychologist

xll

mm social s59
Psychology
550
Social Cognition
562
Case Study: Shaping the Black Experience 566
567
SECTI0t{ 1 Attitudes 571
575
Current Research in Psychologyz Attitudes and Achievement 576
SE(TIOil2 Persuasion 578
580
SEfil0il3 Prejudice 584
586
Psychology in Today's Wortd: Seeds of Peace
588
StCIl0il 4 Socia! Perception
s90
Quick Labr Nonverbal Communication . . . 594
596
SECTl0l{ 5 lnterpersonal Attraction 600

Experiment Types of Persuasion 601
Chapter Review
607
Social lnteraction 608

Case Study: Acts of Altruism 6r0

SE(IION 1 Group Behavior 612
St(Tl0N 2 Conformity and Obedience
R2
Quick Lab: Conformity
Current Research in Psychologyt Cults and Conformity R22
R34
SECIION 3 Aggression and Altruism R64
R92
Cultural Diversity and Psychologyt The lndividual R108
and the Croup

Experimentr Revisiting Milgram
Chapter Review

Social Psychologist

Reference Section

Landmark Studies in Psychology
Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code ofConduct
The Psychologist's Bookshelf
English and Spanish Glossary
lndex
Credits and Acknowledgments

xlI

Apply your knowledgewith a range Explore topics in psychology in depth with
of quick indoss adivities, labs, experiments, and simulations,

.Can You Change Your Behavior? . . 6 Itabs

The Survey Method .40 Public Perceptions of Psychology 28
Reaction Time Building the Human Brain 90
Light-Dark Adaptation 70 Sensory Th resholds a nd Perceptua I Organ ization 122
Afterimages 98 Children, Thinking, and Language 242
Do You Remember Your Dreams? 104 Profile of a Cenius 266
Learning to Dance 135 Prenatal and Postnatal Development . 300
What Can You Remember? , 175 Your Self: Applying Theories of Personality 416
Dynamic Semantics I99 Writing a Personality Quiz 440
Boosting Brainpower 236 Diagnosing Psychological Disorders . s28
ldentifiTi ng Pa renti ng Styles 263
Adolescents on Television 289 ExPeriments 58
How Do You View the Elderly? 313 150
Are You Driven to Succeed?. 347 The Hypothetical Snack Bar 182
Have External Forces lnfluenced Your Personality? 37s Student Achievement and Sleep Deprivation 208
Choosing a Career 406 584
Cender Division in the Home 428 ..Reinforcementand Discouragement . . 608
Calmi ng Stressful Thoughts 455
Does Public Speaking Make You Nervous? 489 Effective Memory I mprovement
Free fusociation 505 Types of Persuasion
541 Revisitinq Milgram
.Nonverbal Communication . 578
596
Conformity

Simulations 326
3s6
Peer Pressu re 386
Experiencing the Stages of Adulthood 464
492
ldentiffing Motivations and Emotions 554
ldentifyi n g Cender Stereotypes
Stress and Active Coping Methods
ldentif,Ting the Methods of Therapy

xtv

o

THINK
central

Explote a whole new world of online leorning, Af thinkcentral.com you will
find all the components and rcsources for this book, along with odditional
content including intemctive feotures, Webquests, videos, ond more,

Go online to extend your learning with intemctive Go online to explore Webquests and
features that focus on key topics in psychology. extend your knowledge of psychology.

Craduate Programs in Psychology 10 Sigmund Freud and Psychoanalysis
The Steps of Scientific Research
Parts of the Human Brain .36 Phantom Limb Pain.... ll3
Sensory and Motor Areas of the Brain .74
The Human Ear .. 74 SleepProblems .... .. 136
Major Drug Types and Their Effects . 108
Video Came Violence and Children ,..SystematicDesensitization.. . , .....162
The Speed of Forgetting . .147
Stages of Language Development . ConstructingaMemoryPalace .. .... .207
Stanford-Bi net l ntell igence Sca le 174
Motor Development in lnfancy How Grammar Differs Among Various Languages 238
ldentity Status Categories . 203
Marriage Practices Over Time Mental Retardation . 258
A Crowing Problem 238
Jung's Four Main Archetypes Child Abuse and Neglect 289
Thematic Apperception Test 253
Women's Roles Over Time SubstanceAbuse, .......322
Social Readjustment Rating Scale 280
Psychological Disorders in the United States The Controversy over Euthanasia . 353
Methods of Psychothera py . 317
Opinions on lmmigration . . 334 Using Emotion to Sell Products . .380
TV Viewing and Violence
370 Personality . .393

. 400 ..Rorschach lnkblotTests . .. . 433

.435 CirlsStereotypes of Boys and . 447

.. 460 SystemHow to Strengthen the lmmune " .481

474 PhobicDisorders ......505

499 Lobotomies. . .. ,.552

535 Sales Resistance ,,, . 570

.572 .Asch's Studies of Conformity 595

603

Explore the world ofpsychology. Watch chapter-based videos to see reol-world
exomples ond applicotions of psychology content,

xv

b<amine major topics in psychology btplore recent experimen$ and studies .8
through Case Studies, by p ro m inent psycho I og ists,
50
A Social Science vs. a False Science .2 Neuroimaging and Cognitive Research 89
Learning from a Flawed Experiment
The Brain of Phineas Cage 32 Envi ron menta I Psychology il0
Out of Darkness and Silence 64 The Cenograph ic Project
Biofeedback and Consciousness . 94 The Bionic Ear 138
The Little Albert Experiment 126 Sleep Deprivation in Teens '163
H.M, and His Missing Memories 156 Learning from a Virtual Rat
Can Animals Talk to Us? r86 Unreliable Memories, Unreliable Witnesses 195
What Makes a Creative Genius? 212 Automatic Thought Processes
Bullying: A Schoolyard Epidemic 246 Emotional I ntell igence I nfluences Success 2'.19
Teenage Employees Around the World 272 lnside the Autistic Mind
The Sa ndwich Ceneration 304 The Adolescent Brain 265
The Happiness of Nations 330 Living in the Moment 293
You Are What Makes You Laugh 362 Evolutionary Psychology 310
Testing Your Work Personality Type 390 The Science of Well-Being 3s0
Women in Combat 420 I mplicit Attitude Tests 385
The Slow-Food, Low-Stress Diet 444 The Emotional Development of Boys 415
470 Copi ng with Catastrophe 430
Not Guilty by Reason of lnsanity . . 496 Post-Trau matic Stress Disorder 452
532 and lraq WarVeterans 491
VrrtualTherapy s60 The Over-Prescription of Drugs
Shaping the Black Experience 588 Attitudes and Achievement 514
Acts of Altruism 5s3
Cults and Conformity 566
600

Learn about diversity and culture in psychology.

Bringing Diversity into Psychology 27
Diversity in Research 43
Multicultural Perspectives on Consciousness 143
Disappearing Languages 241
Rites of Passage 319
Cultural Perspectives on Crief and Death 355
Gender Roles Around the World. 463
Cu ltu re-Bou nd Syndromes 503
The lndividual and the Croup 607

xvt

Apply psychological concepts to anderstand l5 Explore career possibilities in different 62
important issues in the world today, r00 fields of psychology. 154
270
lnside the Criminal Mind 177 Experi menta I Psycholog ist 360
Animal Senses 283 Rehabilitation Counselor 468
Pathways to Rewards 404 Educational Psychologist 5s8
Raising a Better Child 543 Developmenta I Psychologist 612
Password to Personality 575 O r ganizational Psycho log i st
Public Therapy Clinical Psychologist
Seeds of Peace Social Psychologist

St at i st ical 1y Analyze the data that supports
psychol ogi ca I concepts,
SpeakiDg...
10 12-14 hours
Craduate Programs in Psychology
Ethnic Diversity in the United States 41 I1-'l3 hours
Pain Distribution
Sleep Problems . I13 lo-1r hours ffi
Video Came Violence and Children
The Speed of Forgettrng 'r36 9-1 0 hours
A MultilingualCountry
IQ Scores 174 z-ehours ffi
Autism 203
Daycare 239 5 7 9 1r
Physical Crowth in Adolescents
The Financial lmpact of Divorce 2s8 Hours of sleep
A Crowing Problem 287
CulturalViews on Body lmage 290 +f"7 Percentage of Americans who do not get
Taki ng Mu lti ple-Choice Tests
SAT Scores and College Craduation 307 enough sleep
Stress and Other Pressures. . 336
Psychological Disorders in the United States 370 LO-50/, Percentage of children who have
The Homeless and Therapy 413
Opinions on lmmigratron 438 nightmares
TV Viewing and Violence 448
473 LO'JOf, Percentage of children who have
499
551 sleepwalking episodes
572
603 Sources: National Sleep Foundation; Diagnostic and Statistical Manual ofMental
Disorders

xvii

Analyze information prcsented visually to learn more about prychology,

Charts .25 Aversive vs. Operant Conditioning 547
Elements of Persuasion 568
Contem pora ry Psycholog ica l Perspectives 55 Reasons People Obey 598
Resolving Ethical lssues 68
Divisions of the Nervous System . .77 Graphs t0
Studying the Human Brain .
Teens and Anabolic Steroid Use . . .83 Doctorates in Fields of Psychology:2003-2004 3t
Absolute Thresholds for Sensory Perception
Decibel Ratings for Some Familiar Sounds. ..97 Employment in Psychology in the United States 41
Myths and Facts About Hypnosis 107
Major Drug Types and Their Effects U.S. Population by Race/Ethnicity,2}}7 . . . ..54
Key Concepts of Classical Conditioning. 141
Key Concepts of Operant Conditioning . . 147 Standard Deviation Bell Curve Craph . .93
When Punishment ls a Problem
Partia I Rei nforcement Sched u les r60 Emotional Responses of Twins Raised Apar'i .. 113
The PQ4R Method 166 133
Three Basic Processes of Memory. Sensitivity to Pain
Types of Forgetting 167 r36
Stern berg's Tria rch ic Model 169 The Sleep Cycle
179 153
Stanford-Binet lntelligence Scale. . Amount of Sleep Needed 203
Typical Subtests from the Wechsler Scales. 193 211
Styles of Parenting Time Spent Sleeping
Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development 206 238
Examples of Preoperational Thinking 250 Ebbinghaus's Curve of Forgetting 258
Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development, 253 269
25s LifeThe Memory of Events from a Person's . 28r
Sexual Changes 288
29s Stages of Language Development 287
ldentity Status Categories . . . 296 290
298 Distribution of IQ Scores 303
Factors Contributing to Teenage Pregnancy 308
Similarity of lQ Scores Among Relatives 307
Developmental Tasks ofYoung Adulthood... . . .317
Developmental Tasks of Middle Adulthood. . . I nfant Visual Preferences 329
324 370
Myths and Realities About Menopause, , , 333 Children with a Diagnosis of Autism Enrolled .4.l3
Myths About Alzhei mer's 339 424
Developmental Tasks of Late Adulthood 342 in U.5. Schools
Theories of Motivation 34s 448
Theories of Emotion 348 Weekly Nonparental Child Care Arrangements. 467
The Five-Factor Model 377 473
More Defense Mechanisms. 383 Child Maltreatment Rates by Age Croup . . . . . 53r
Erik Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development 394 572
Clinical Scales of the Revised MMPI-2 399 Average Growth Rates for Boys and Cirls 592
Theories for Explaining Gender Typing 402
Social Readjustment Rating Scale 433 .from Childhood through Adolescence , 611
The Four Types of Conflict
Defense Mechanisms 457 Percent of Adolescents Who Have 20
474 36
Major Categories of Psychological Disorders . . . . . 475 Smoked Cigarettes 53
488
Types of Anxiety Disorders 50r Overweight in the United States .67
Personality Disorders and Their Characteristics . . . s08
52s Girls' Self-Esteem by Race and Ethnicity 69
Methods of Psychotherapy 536
Types of Professional Therapists 537 Establishing Norms .74

Average SAT Scores of College-Bound Seniors, .74

by Cender

Cender of Children's Playmates.

Students' Reasons for Seeking Counseling. ..

.Selected Risk Factors for Schizophrenia. .
.Americans'Views of lllegal lmmigrants .

Croup Polarization .

Cender and Aggression in Young Children

Diagrams

..Cestalt Drawings . . .

Single-BIind and Double-Blind Experiments
Anatomy of Two Neurons... ,.
The Central Nervous System
Parts of the Human Brain..
Sensory and Motor Areas of the Brain . . . . .

xvill

Cell body'

Myelin sheath

Dendrites

The Endocrine System 8l

Mapping Cenetic Disorders on Chromosomes 85

Parenti ng-Natu re or N u rture? 86

The Human Eye 102 Review key concepts with these summaries
103 of important facts,
The Color Wheel
r05
Test for Color Blindness r08 ContemporaryPsychologicalPerspectives .

The Human Ear il6 Divisions of the Nervous System .. . .25
ll6 Teens and Anabolic Steroid Use . 68
Closu re a2
117 Absolute Thresholds for Sensory Perception .
Figure-Crou nd Perception. . 97
ll9 Decibel Ratings for Some Familiar Sounds 107
Other Rules of Organization 160
120 Key Concepts of Classical Conditioning .
Monocular Cues for Depth 121 Key Concepts of Operant Conditioning . r66
r30 Pa rtial Rei nforcement Sched ules
Brightness Constancy 159 The PQ4R Method 169
190 Three Basic Processes of Memory 179
Visual lllusions 216 Types of Forgetting r93
222 Styles of Parenting
..Freud's Levels of Consciousness ... 231 Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development 206
256 Examples of Preoperational Th i n ki ng 288
Pavlov's Experiment . 280 Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development , 295
296
.Common Semantic Codes 367 Sexual Changes 298
369 ldentity Status Categories . 308
Three Kinds of Thinking 393 Developmental Tasks of Young Adulthood
407 Developmental Tasks of Middle Adulthood .317
Five Problems to Solve 435 Myths and Realities About Menopause
333
Using a Balance Sheet Myths About Alzhei mer's 339
342
Tests that Minimize Cultural Bias. Developmental Tasks of Late Adulthood 345
348
Motor Development in lnfancy Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs 367
317
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Theories of Motivation 383
Theories of Emotion , 394
H u nger-Biological Factors 457
Eysenck's Persona ltty Di mensions The Five-Factor Model 415
s08
Social Cognitive Model Theories for Explaining Cender Typing 525
537
Thematic Apperception Test The Four Types of Conflict s68
s98
Types of Anxiety Disorders
xlx
Pe rsona I ity D isorders a nd Thei r Cha racteristics

Types of Professional Therapists

Elements of Persuasion

Reasons People Obey

How tu U,se Your ?extbook

Holt McDougal Psychology: Principles in Proctice was created to make your
study of psychology an enjoyable, meaningful experience. Take a few minutes to
become familiar with the book's easy-to-use organization and special features.

Unit

lJnit Openerr list the chap-

ter titles within each unit to pre-
view the material you are about
to explore.

Careers in Fsychology

features appea( atthe end of
each unit. Each one profiles a
caree( arca wrthin psychology
and includes a short activity on
how to write using APA style
the way psychologists do.

Chapter

ehapter Openers include a Case Study

that deals with a real-world application or
example of chapter content. Chapter openers
also feature Chapter at a Clance, which sum-
marizes the key points from each section.

Chapter Reviews provide a full array of

assessments and direct you to online features.

XX HOW TO USE YOUR TENBOOK

Section

Each section begins with a Main ldea statement, Reading Focus questions, and
Vocabulary terms. ln addition, each section includes the following special features:

:::1"""::"'. : li ' '"- :":""". t Taking Hotes graphic organizers

""j',1":"":" help you record key ideas as you read.

E Psychology Close Up

A trootballsr'g Fl:ctlons features begin each section
with an engaging story,
HElxf::rl:r,*::"i:Ti example, or anecdote.

ffiffib.5e-G-i--,1**-di* Reading Check

It"?ffiwl questions throughout each
section provide frequent
opportunities to review and
assess your understanding of
what you read.

Section Assessments /'1"".^..ij4.',,Iffi_6r ErHiu[i]

help you demonstrate your
understanding of main ideas
and key content. There is also
assessment practice online.

iDlEoka€.YPouubtNlc Earpv.orkuirn?g ' Qcl'g^ trrb Hands-On Activities
.
Holt McDougal Psychology: Principles in Practice provides many
!ir, ! lnr*! y? rp4 ol Anrier f ! L qrd+n opporlunities for you to learn psychology content by complet-
ing individual and group activities.

Quick lahs in each chapter help you learn and apply chap-

ter content by completing a short activity.

Webquests point you to engaging online activities linked to

chapter content.

Applyimg What You'vs learnsd features at the end of

each chapter provrde opportunities to complete individual and
group labs, simulations, and experiments.

HOWTO USEYOURTEXIBOOK XXi

Time Li,ne of Psychalogr

A I89O William James I926 Jean Piaget

publishes Principles publishes his first studies
of Psychology. of child development,

I86lA Piene-Paul Broca r 878 t9OO Sigmund Freud publishes

pioneers the discovery of C. Stanley Hall The lnterpretation of Dreams.
specialized functions in earns the first
different paris of the brain. Ph.D. degree in 1913 Carl Jung forms
a psychological
field in the his school of analytical
United States. psychology.

V I905 Alfred Binet l92O iohn B. Watson and

and Theodore Simon Rosalie Rayner use classical
create the Binet- conditioning to teach Little
Simon scale. Albert to fear what he had
enjoyed before.

1870 ln Paris, neurologist I895 The first psychological

Jean-Martin Charcot begins clinic opens at the University
research into hysteria, now called of Pennsylvania.
conversion disorder, and hypnosis

xxil

r 963 V 1969 Harry Harlow publishes his

Stanley Milgram experiment on affection development
addresses obedience in monkeys.

to authority in the
Milgram experiment.

Ai t937 Anna Freud publishes The Ego 2OOO The
DSMIV-TRIM is
and the Mechanisms of Defense. published.

1943 Abraham Maslow

describes his hierarchy of needs.

l95I The Asch V 1982 Carol Cilligan publishes /n

experiments a D ifferent Vo i ce, bringing fem i n ist
demonstrate psychology to the atlention ofthe
the power of mental health profession.
conformity
in groups.

V 1938 B. F. Skinner publishes

The Behavior of )rganisms:
An Experi mental Analysis,
introducing behavior analysis.

l96l Albert Bandura

studies behavioral
patterns of aggression in
the Bobo doll experiment.

l97l The Stanford prison

experiment focuses on the
human response to captivity.

nllt



Idwrti:foimgMaim t

&rld m,etails

Define the Skill

The main idea is the central thought in a passage. It is a general statement that
conveys the key concept the author wants the reader to know, The main idea can
come at the beginning, middle, or end of a passage, although it is most often found
at the beginning. The main idea can be one or two sentences and can be implied or

directly stated.

Details are statements that support or explain the marn idea. Details are
specific and provide additional information to the reader, such as lhe who, what,
when, where, why, and how of the main idea. Details include statements, statistics,
examples, explanations, and descriptions.

learn the Skill

Read the passage below and note how the details support the main idea.

Many children walk in their sleep. Sleepwalkers may roam about almost
nightly during stages of deep sleep. They may respond to questions while
they are up and about, but when they wake up they typically do not remem-
ber what they did or said. Contrary to myth, there is no evidence that sleep-
walkers become violent or upset if they are awakened. However, because
sleepwalkers are not fully conscious and thus may be prone to accidentally
hurting themselves, they should be supervised if possible.

Sleepwalking may Sleepwalkers do not Sleepwalkers do not Sleepwalkers should
occur almost nightly. remember what hap- become violent or
pened while they were upset if awakened. be supervised if
up and about.
possrble,

Apply the Skill

Turn to Section 2 of the chapter titled "Consciousness" and locate the
"Narcolepsy" subhead. Use a graphic organizer like the one above to
identify the main idea and details of the passage"

1. ldentifuthe main idea in the passage. Restate it in yourown words.
2. What details support the main idea?
3. Explain how the details add to the main idea.

CRITICAL THINKINC SKI LLS

Identifylns Carrse
and Eflem

Define the Skill ll ldentifv the causes
I of
ldentifuing cause and effect can help you to become a critical thinker and to better Look for
understand what you read, A cause is something that brings about an action or reasons"tuh"ant ipr.rompted
condition. Often, a cause will be directly stated in the text, but sometimes it will be
implied, or stated indirectly. An effect is an event that happens as the result of a a given event to occur.
cause. A cause may have more than one effect. Similarly, an eflect may have several
causes. By identifuing causes and effects, you will be able to determine why certain Words such as since, cause,
events occurred, whether certain events are related, and what the relationship is
between events. because, so, therefore, and

Learn the Skill due to can signal a causal

Use the following strategies to identifu cause and effect. relationship among events.

Could tinkering with the body's endocrine system cause a violent Zlf olfdeenvteifnytsth. eLoeokffefocrts
rampaga? The memorial in this photo is for professional wrestler
Chris Benoit and his family, all of whom died in a double murder- phrases and clue words
suicide in 2007. Benoit had a prescription for anabolic steroids, syn- that indicate conseq uences,
thetic hormones that build muscle and strength. Police speculated such as thus, brought
that Benoit killed his family as a result of steroid abuse. Steroids obout, led to, consequently,
can have devastating side effects: irritability and uncontrolled anger, and result.
depression, and suicidal thoughts.
.l Connect causes and
Violence wasn't typical of Benoit's nature, so the wrestler's father I
5effects. Consroer :,
agreed to have his son's brain analyzed. The results showed that ledwhy certain causes
Benoit's brain was similar to that of an S5-year-old Alzheimer's theto an event and why I
patient. Although repeated concussions from his wrestling bouts did.event turned out as it f
probably caused the damage, the steroids could have contributed to eventRemember that an
an agitated mental state and horrible acts of violence. and ican be both a cause $

Apply the Skill {
L What was the cause of the events described in the passage?
an effect. ,f,
2. List the various effects described in the passage.
3. What is the ultimate outcome described in the passage? Why nxa*ur*uu,ldl

might that outcome have resulted from the cause you identified?

CRITICAL TH I N KING SKILts

ldemti$ping Frohlem$
ffird $olutf;.mns

Define the Skill Problem
People often have false
Mental health professionals writing about people's problems often structure their
writing by identifying a problem and then describing its actualor possible solutions. assumptions.
By identifying problems and solutions, you can better understand the chal-
lenges that people face and the means by which they resolve such difficulties. Solution I

Learn the Skill REBT therapists use
role'playing and model-
Look for problems lhatare identified in the reading and then determine what ing to address those
solutions may be appropriate. Some problems have more than one solution. assumptions.

People are o{ten unaware of their false assumptions, g-"-e.r} !-h.p.Ugh the Solution 2
lndividuals in REBT
"asSgmnlr.,o4q.llrfl" -cS thgi{ *Sligm Th" role of
therapy also receive
the therapist in REBT is first to identify and then to challenge the false homework assignments.

assumptions. To teach individuals to think more realistically, REBT CRITICAL THINKINC SKI LLS

therapists use techniques such as role-playing and modeling' Role-play-

ing helps individuals see how their assumptions affect their relation-

ships. . .

Individuals in rational-emotive behavior therapy may also

receive homework assignments. For example, they may be asked to

read relevant literature, Iisten to tapes ofpsychotherapy sessions,
or carry out experiments designed to test their assumptions. The
more faithfully patients complete their homework, the more likely

it is that their therapy will succeed.

Apply the Skill

Use a graphic organizer like the one above to identifuthe problems and solutions in
the following passage.

An approach-approach conflict is the least stressful type of con-
flict because the choices are positive. In this situation, each of the
goals is both desirable and within reach. For example, suppose you
were accepted by several colleges. You would then be faced with an
approach-approach conflict because you have to choose which col-
lege to attend. An approach-approach conflict is usually resolved by
making a decision. However, after the decision is made, the person
may still have persistent self-doubts about whether he or she has
made the right decision.

l. What is an approach-approach conflict? What example is given?

2. What is usually the solution for an approach-approach conflict?

Drauuing Conclusions

Define the Skill

Writing in the social sciences provides you with facts and information. But often you
have to determine the meaning of information on your own. You need to combine the
information with your prior knowledge to draw conclusions aboutthe reading. ln
drawing conclusions,you analyze the reading and form opinions about its meaning.

Learn the Skill

To draw conclusions, combine the information you find in the reading with whatyou
already know. Look for a common link or theme. Then put it all together.

In some studies, animals or people have been deprived only of REM (rapid-

eye-movement) sleep. People and animals deprived of REM sleep tend to show
what psychologists call REM-rebound. They catch up on their REM sleep by

having much more of it when they sleep later on. REM sleep seems to serve
particular psychological functions. Animals and people who are deprived of
REM sleep learn more slowly than usual. They also forget more rapidly what

they have learned. Other research frndings suggest that REM sleep may help
brain development in infants and "exercise" brain cells in adults.

lnformation gathered What you already know What all the information
adds up to-your
' from the passage you + about the topic conclusion

are reading You feel dull and Iistless if For good mental health, one
should get plenty of uninterrupted
REM sleep is essential for you don't get enough
REM sleep.
optimal performance for unintenupted sleep.

people and animals.

Apply the Skill

Read the following sentences. Think about what you know about peer pressure
today. Use the process above to draw conclusions about the passage.

Parents often worry that their adolescent children's needs for peer approval
will influence them to engage in risky or unacceptable behavior. However,
the assumption that parents and peers often pull an adolescent in different
directions does not seem to be borne out by reality.

In fact, parental and peer influences often coincide to some degree. For
example, research suggests that peers are more likely to urge adolescents to
work for good gpades and complete high school than they are to try to involve
them in drug abuse, sexual activity, or delinquency.

l. How do parents sometime misjudge adolescent peer influence?

2. What can you conclude about how adolescents evaluate the

influence of peers and parents?

CRITICAL THINKINC SKILLS

lffi,Eerpr€tlmg fi"fime amd ffiar ffiraph,$

Define the Skill

Craphs are diagrams that present statistical or numeric data. They can display
amounts, trends, ratios, or changes over time. A line graph is a visual representa-
tion of dalaorganized so thatyou can see a pattern of change overtime. ln most
cases, the verticalaxis of a line graph shows quantities while lhe horizontalaxis
shows time. A bar graph compares quantities. A single bar graph compares one set
of data, while a double bar graph compares two sets of data. Knowrng how to inter-
pret line graphs andbar graphs can help you recognize trends and patterns.

Learn the Skill Use the following strategies to interpret the bar graph.

Use the following strategies to interpret the line graph. I Read the title ofthe graph,
I Read the title and the legend to
I Read the title ofthe
I grapf. The title tells you the !:::,':::: :l: :'bj::I,:,1e,9,111h.,,,,,,,,j,
::!l::::lp::r:::l'T911!l,i

60

o 50

G
40

4o 30
o

20

c
oo 10

0

Sor ice: U.5. Department of Edur:tu$,
offi F ofSpecial EducationP"rdiams

t Read the horizontal rlAnalvze the informa- ! Read the horizontal
I anavertical axis labels. Zand vertical axis labels.
5tion ln the graph.
The labels explain what the The labels tell what the bar
graph measures and gives the Look at the slant of the graph measures and gives,the
units of measurement. units of measurement.
line. The closer the line is to
being parallel to the hori- r!JAtnioanlyzone the informa-
the graph,
zontal axis, the slower the
change. The closer the line Compare the amounts
is to being perpendicular
to the horizontal axis, the shown on the bar graph,
quicker the change.

Apply the Skill
l. What information does the line graph compare?

2. What information does the bar graph compare?
3. What conclusion can you draw from the data in the bar graph?

CRITICAL THI N KINC SKI LLS

lnterpreting Ple Graphs

Define the Skill

A pie graph is a circular chartlhal shows how individual parts relate to the whole.
The circle of the pie symbolizes the whole amount. The slices of the pie representthe
individual parts of the whole. Knowing how to interpret pie graphs will allow you to

better understand and evaluate data.

Learn the Skill

Use the following strategies to interpret the pie graph.

Clinical

I Counseling
I Other reseach subfields
N School/Educational

ffi other applied subfields

Developmental

Cognitive

G lndustrial/Organizational

I Social and Personality

lffi Clinical Neuropsychology

I Neuroscience/Physiological/

Biological

! Experimental
I Health

Read the percentages. Source:2005 craduate Study ln Psychology. Compiled by I Research Office.

Compare the sizes of each
piece within the graph.

rl Analvze the information
5o, n|'i.o-nwhat
thi graph. Derermrne l
the percentages tell about
i
tne s.uOiea of tle nie

.i

Apply the Skill

l. What information does the pie graph compare?

2. ln which field of psychology did the largest number of graduates

earn doctoral degrees?

3. Which three fields had about the same number of

doctoral graduates?

CRITICAL THINKINC SKILLS

ilrmterpretin$ ghaffix

Define the Skill

Charts are visual representations of information. Psychologists use charts to organize,
condense, simplify, and summarize information in a convenient format._Simple charts
combine or compare information. Tables classily information by groups. Numbers, per-
centages, dates, and other data can be classified in the columns and rows of a table for
reference and comparison. Diagrams illustrate the steps involved in a process so thatthe
rnformation is easier to understand. Knowing how to read and use charls allows you to
interpret, compare, analyze, and evaluate information.

Learn the Skill

Use the following strategies to interpret the chart.

Personality disorders are inflexible and lasting patterns of behavior that

hamper social functioning. Listed here from the DSM-|V-TR arethe 10

specific personality disorders and their main characteristics.
*".,'...'*".,..'"***-1

PDeirssoonrda-lei"tyr*Ii*lv*lainrC*h-a*r-a*c*te"ri,s-ti*cs-'.-***i.i
the,r Look at the way su'P':l.o-::T-::::9 g::3:l'b"-Yl 9-lfi'-"n.-"]ly9: i
'*,/1"-"la.ranoid ll

riCharts can be orsanized alphabet- ; schizotvpal ' ;"-:^;:;^:in;^clo-s:e":r^el;a;t;io-n-*sh*i*p-s";e*c*c*e*nt-r*ic*i--i]:

,icauy, chronorog[ruy, o'.iitopr.. ; ffl,1ffi:mfort

"lB:iio:-:r.d:!-e1r!li-n-e"

-"1'
I"?:::e.:l9gl!::1el:::i:l!"::".-" and self- i:

il lnstability in interpersonal relationships ]i

i image i

5d;ffi;"H;:'r-.' *.," Histrionic Excessive emotionality, need for attention

ipret, compare, and contrastthe ,fVarcissistic Grandiosity, needforadmiration,lackof empathy i

iconclusions and make inferences n oidant i Social inhibitions, feelings of inadequacy l
l
orpredictions-,l.;;;;;;;**i-;;;;issive,cl|n9ing

Obsessive- ii andObsession with orderliness, perfectionism, ll
Compulsive control
i

Apply the Skill
L How is the information in the charLorganized?

2. How does this chart help you remember the various personality disorders?

CRITICAL THI N KINC SKI LLS

lmterpreting Thematic fifiaps

Define the Skill

Thematic maps provide information in spatial terms. You can use thematic maps
to compare how various phenomena are reflected in different places. Thematic maps
can show information such as population density, economic activity, political and
military alliances, and other similar topics.

learn the Skill

Use the following strategies to interpret thematic maps.

I Read the title and legend. Tne rrrle
I will help you identifu the subject and the

purpose ofthe map. The legend explains the
the map
meanllq oi lne llors 1n ,,ji,,; ,,,,

FINLAND HAPPINESS SCALE
MostHappy W 8.0-10.0
NORWAY
6.0-7.9
ojwg,-d*&y ESTONIA 4.0-5.9
LITHUANIA 2.0-3.9

UNITED POLAND LeastHappy i-n 0-1.9
CZE(H REP
KINGDOM Data not available
NETHERLANDs
GEORGIA
BELGIUM GERMANY ARMENIA AZERSATJAN

-LUX'

4W HUNGARY MOLDOVA
ROMANIA
SLOVENIA

CROATIA

SERBIA

ITALY MONTENEGRO BULGARIA
MACEDONIA

GREECE

ldentify the differences Source: World Database of Happiness

3! amongthe countries. Note Analyze the information displayed.

the extremes as shown on the map r!f Compare and contrast the various coun-

tries and think about the reasons for the dif-
ferences among them.

Apply the Skill
t. What is the purpose of this thematic map?

2. Which large country scores the lowest on the "happiness scale"?

CRITICAL THI NKING SKILLS

&na*WfmgPrfimery

fuurce$

Define the Skill

A primary source is a document or other artifact created by people who are present at
events either as witnesses or participants. Usually, you can identify a primary source by
reading for first-person clues, such as l, we, and our. Primary sources are valuable tools
because they give firsthand information about an event, situation, or time period.

learn the Skill |I ldentify the author or
creator of the primary
Use the following strategies to analyze primary sources.
source and when the source
In 1903 W.E.B. Du Bois published a classic work titled T}re
was created. The author and
Souls ofBlack FoIk. The book is partly autobiographical, and
in the following excerpt, Du Bois reueals how he felt when ithe date the primary source was
he first learned, as a schoolboy, that he was "different from
the others" and"shut out from their world." The incident may created give you a context in
seeru triuial, but it had q. profound effect on him. for the rest
of his life. **.3::1*:i::i:;-,j

66It i" in the early days of rollicking boyhood that the Compare details in the
revelation first bursts upon one, all in a day, as it were. I primary source to what

remember well when the shadow swept across me. I was a you know about the event,
little thing, away up in the hills of New England . . . In a
wee wooden schoolhouse, something put it into the boys' and situation, or time period.

girls'heads to buy gorgeous visiting-cards-ten cents a pack- The time frame of the primary

age-and exchange. The exchange was merry, till one girl, a source allows you to make con-
taII newcomer, refused my card . . . Then it dawned upon me
nections between your previous f
with a certain suddenness that I was different from the oth- knowledge and the information I

ers; or like, mayhap, in heart and life and longing, but shut the document provides. i

out from their world by a vast veil. I had thereafter no desire ! Determine why the

to tear down that veil, to creep through; I held all beyond it Jauthor created the
in common contempt, and lived above it in a region of blue
primary source. Each docu-
sky and great wandering shadows. That sky was bluest when ment has a particular purpose
and can be used by its author
I could beat my mates at examination-time, or beat them at to inform, persuade, direct, or

afoot-race ...r, influence the audience.

Apply the Skill
L Recall whatyou have learned rn other social studies classes. What era or

situation is Du Bois describing in this excerpt?

2. How does Du Bois's memoir affect your knowledge of that era or situation?

CRITICAL TH I N KING SKI LLS

&naffirgSffiemdaqg

$eurces

Define the Skill

A secondary soulce is an account created by someone who was not present at
the actual event about which he or she is writing. Or, the writer gathers data from
various sources to report on a situation. Writers of secondary sources rely on primary
sources in order to write their secondary source accounts. Secondary sources often
contain summaries and analyses of events. Your textbook, for example, can be con-
sidered a secondary source. Before determining whether a document is a primary or
secondary source, you must pay attention to how the document is presented.

Learn the Skill

Use the following strategies to analyze secondary sources.

ldentify the source. Examine any

II source information to learn the origins

ofthe document and its author.

Christopher Browning's book, Ordinary Men: Reserue Police r liAmnaarlyyzoef the sum-
Battalion 101 and the Final Solution iru Pola.rld describes the events historical
and motives that caused 500 middle-class, middle-aged German *
men to terrorize Jews in Poland in July of L942. It was easier for i events provided by the
most of these policemen to join in the killing than to break ranks and s
source. The author of a
refuse to participate. By November of 1943, these ordinary civilians $l
{. secondary source usually
had murdered at least 85,000 Jewish people.
Before the killing began the commanding officer, Major Trapp, li offers a summary of events

explicitly offered to excuse any man who did not want to participate F or of a time period.
in the impending mass murder. Trapp's offer thrust responsibility ia
onto each man individually. Still, between 80 to 90 percent of the
men participated in the killing, frnding it too difficult not to conform. a
Unlike soldiers, these policemen had the burden of choice. They
were not'Just following orders." Rather, the pressure to conform to ! Identify the aut'hor's
their peers' expectations was paramount.
rJpurpose. Look for
In his book, Browning notes that no member of Reserve Police
Battalion 101 who refused to participate was physically harmed or clues that indicate the
punished. Instead, outright refusal to participate brought more sub- intention of the author.
tle consequences, such as the threat ofisolation from the group.

Apply the Skill
I. How do you know that this passage is not a primary source?

2. Why might this passage actually be called a tertiary source?
3. What is this write/s point of view? What can you conclude is

Christopher Browning's point of view?

CRITICAL THINKING SKILls

t x*erpret$n,S &ruser*s

Define the Skill

Although most cartoons are just meant to be funny, many of them can also shed

light on social science concepts. Some cartoons, including political or editorial cartoons,
express specific points of view. Cartoons thatappear in popular magazines or newspa-
pers may also present a certain viewpoint. Caftoons of this type often poke fun atthe
foibles of modern life. Artists may use exaggeration, either in the text or the drawing, to
help make their point, Although some cartoons are not at all realistic, for the reader to
understand them and the humor there must be some elements in the cafoon to which

the reader can relate.

Learn the Skill ackground Knowledge Place the

Use the acronym BASIC to analyze cartoons. cartoon in its context. Use your prior knowl-
edge of what is being depicted to analyze the
!o cartoon's message about the pafticular issue,
o person, or event.
o
A rqument Determine what message the
d A in'* ls rryrng ro convey. Anatyzerne mes-

.sl sage that the artist is sending to the audience.

d Gymbolism Analyze any symbols in the

j ) cartoor. Symboli can be used to represent

3a@ large groups that cannot be depicted easily or
= to stand for a person or an event. Symbols can
!Go also be used to simplifu the caftoon or make its
message clearer to the audience.
!
66@ I rony Examine any irony that is present
ui
I in the cartoon. lrony is the use of words or
c.
o images to express something other than, and
o often the opposite of, their literal meaning.
Uo
o f aricature Caricature, or exaggeration, is
o
Uoften used in cartoons. Exaggerated facial
z3o
EFo features or figures are used to make a point.
o Analyze any caricature present in the cartoon
and considerwhatthe meaning ofsuch exag-
"Son, it\ im?zrtailt to remember that iti O.K. to be de?ressed." gerations might be.

Apply the Skill

t. On what issue is the artist commenting?

2. What elements are exaggerated in the caftoon?
3. Why can you still understand the caftoon, although elements

are exaggerated?

CRITICAL TH I N KINC SKI LLS

Determining Releuan(e

Define the Skill

When conducting research, you will likely be faced with a great variety of different
sources. ldentifuing which sources will help you is an important task. One step in
identifoing your sources is to determine their relevance. Determining relevance
means deciding if a piece of information is related to your topic. lt also involves
identifuing hor,v something is related to your topic.

Learn the Skill

Use the following strategies to determine the relevance of information.

! Locate a varieQl of sources. Use

Zseveral resources to track down sources.

Encyclopedias, periodicals, monographs, and

electronic databases are just a few types of
resources you can use.

rst!tr+#rF'.r IGEI[fttiErEGEllllI
tdmnes6l
fsEE,rc6-)

fsirre-CmnFase-l i Type of Source I Year Published

search iil Book i 2oo5
The Amnesios: A Clinicol Textbook of Memory Disorders, by
web site . 2005
C. Papanicolaou
Journal article
The Merck Manuals Online Medical Librory: Dissociotive Amnesio
Antholosv of short
"Patients with hippocampal amnesia cannot imagine new experiences," by
Hassabis, Kumaran, Vann, and Maguire stories Jnd urticles 2ooo
The Vintoge Book of Amnesio: An Anthology of Writing on the Subied of
llteyory Loss, b1.lo11tha1 tgtlrgm (rd!!o1) :

Unknown White Mole Documentaryfilm , 2oo5

I Exanine the sources carefully. : I isDetermine what information
5 tAentitr, the purpose ofthe sourcJ Il usefrrl for your topic. Dectoe rf the :
and the information it provides. j
youinformation in the sources can help :

:

.::::_:ji:li:l-"j:::T,:t3":I1'**i

Apply the Skill

l. List several resources you might use to find information on the

topic of amnesia.
2. How might you evaluate each of the sources listed above?
3. What sources from the Iist above would be relevant to your

research? Explain.

2St cRncALTHtNKING sKtls

ffimwsilmpt.ns efr:ffird
'ffmst$rng ffigypmfihsse$

Define the Skill

A hypothesis is a testable statement about the relationship between two or more
factors. Hypotheses are possible explanations based on facts. Because they can be

tested, hypotheses can be proved or disproved.

Learn the Skill

Use the following strategies to learn to develop and test hypotheses.

ldentify the question.

II Examine the issue at

hand to find the trend, rela-

tionship, or event that you iu FACTS:
want to explain.
. The soft drink machines were moved from the busiest hallway to an exterior patio.
.,,,'' . The Millborough Student Council sponsored a poster contest about the connection

factsExamine the facts. llil between sugar consumption and obesity.
ldentifu all the il . Three popular flavors were removed from the soft drink machines.
.The cost of soft drinks has risen, because of a rise in the price of sugar and other
surrounding the question.
agricultural products.
sev-The facts may suppoft . A local physician discussed soft drinks and early-onset diabetes at a parent-teacher
1l
association meeting.
eral different conclusions. ::: . The cheerleaders and varsity football team all pledged to switch from soft drinks to

.....-.'.,,...'.,.'."'......,.".,.,......,.'..,1i] unsweetened iced tea.

Consider what you *
already know about

the issue. Use your own

prior knowledge to help you i

':11!l::Lf::l::t:. .,i:

I Develop a hypoth- FACTS THAT SUPPORT HYPOTHESIS: FACTS THAT REFUTE HYPOTHESIS:
Il esis that addresses The student council publicized the connec- The soft drink machines were less conve-
niently Iocated.
the question. Analyze the tion between soft drinks and obesity. Three popular flavors were removed from
facts and your own knowl- Many students' parents were alerted to the the soft drink machines.
edge to form a conclusion, diabetes risk presented by soft drinks. The cost of soft drinks has risen.
Several prominent students switched from
:-pliTl:l ::ll:.*::: ....,
Isoft drinks to unsweetened iced tea.

Test your hypothesis. Conouct

rff research to test your hypothesis. lden

tifu facts that support or refute your con-
clusion. Depending on your findings, you

may need to modify your hypothesis.

Apply the Skill
l. Develop a list of facts and a hypothesis that might explain why

diagnoses of bipolar disorder have increased in recent years.

2. Use a graphic organizer like the one above to test your hypothesrs.

CRITICAL THINKINC SKILLS S

Eualuating Information
on the lnternet

Define the Skill

The lnternet is an international computer network that connects schools, busr

nesses, government agencies, and individuals. Every Web site on the lnternet has its
own address called a u RL. Each URL has a domain. The domain tells you the type of
Web site you are visiting. Common domains in the United States are .com, .net, .org,
.edu, and .gov, A Web site with the domain .edu means that it is sponsored by an
educational institution. A Web site with the domain .gov means that it is sponsored
by a government institution. The collection of Web sites throughout the world is
called the World Wide Web.

The lnternet can be a valuable research tool. Evaluating the content found on
the lnternet will help you determine its accuracy and reliability.

Learn the Skill

Use the following strategies to evaluate information on the lnternet.

r--* Ici iif& {-"r lnterestrng Careers in Psychology: Non-Academk Career options... { ldentifv the Web site's domain.
I o.t.,ri-n. who sponsors the Web site.
l + r ir inp rl**.upr..qlr.iemeinon*crJlrreerr,htm| :....--.-..---..j--...
Web sites sponsored by reputable organi-
: zations, educational institutions, and gov-
ernment agencies usually provide accurate
Coreers in Prychology tT and reliable information.

Hon-Acad6mi6 Cargere for Scientlfic Psychologists @lfuririiEi l'l
Tru d F.Ea, The onl, cj'per opDor lo, a r(,enul(.ll:-ka'nso ps?rho ooi!. , ' Si,$:sll!ry tf Understand the purpose of the

bruli..raSiuon ,n e co,leqe or Lo,ver$s !&7!as3iSnreiHi::issrlLa Zslte. Find out whether the purpose of

;ti:A.Lllriel the site is to inform, to persuade, or
to entertain.
I !rrugponsglori€(sncernso'msnypsrciolog, gr6duatd slld.nlaalout{E!.rN
' mt neton os {aeeB oulsid€ ol lE unrvaisiy se6nq, ?e began invidno scientlic fT"
p!1(h6lo!'sla siln radi[onai hrnn{ b Bn ss absul bri ro& o so66 tolatreiv 'l ldentifv the author and check for
Ii non.uadilofialplar€s. Ihe tfrs/os8i{cl€*rs in P$iridoof ssnes ita Glalf ly
5Ui"r. t',t-ot all sites provide you witn an
eqeil $nphnooler!,ninft nuf,bcr olnon.a(aoom( taree4 h.l e€ or
DDsSibl.-ho* {ho have 'bien a i,icr6nr pa['clab fr8il 044 eroeirence! author. lf the site does, try to determine
the autho/s credentials. lf the site does
hotrfie'{oil$*tsre hevaG n$+ and &e l8luabie leJsons heylermsd sl0n9 not, decide whether the Web site presents
h3 Say b €nlllorenltEyDnd n9 lab' balanced information or is overly biased
toward a cerlain point of view.
TietoliJeinqL8€si4qCrfte.sbPJrSsbglsilalesillustr Blhsvaious
Slfsls and eqi$Ee hit $Enttcrllt,tam€d pstaholc0isb lots6ss wh,ch ,te
I el$ niqh,? lalugd b?employersollsld€ olecadem6. lle non'hdiuonai car*er

i Ghs raproaeilad ryhlse Farsonal success slodos rlusraG he ditrettol arpes
rI olunique(onribuuonsnsd4bysarGnlifrapsy4hoi6llslslnoentdift.enl
smplotnanlreonos.

,I Ar qo6t ls h6t thrs sbnss c, slcc*sslvi and rs*arding (araes ouBr(a ol fre
er6denI srefii wiil en.ouraq€ orad!68 3lud6nts and nes PhDs lo ]i90rcusly

:xplor€ bs ilealb o,non.i(adefi( carEe' poss,bililr8c esD6(,a'iv rn oosruons or
aGnasrne! Fai ha..oe\er(ons,ovr30 bPb,0 Aneu r{e,esi;.qc8dp,i r(cr8
is pubtlshod in ah)osl eve., lssu€ o{ e{ag/@!1!qgC-4tc4t lSAl and
, v,lll br pr3bd h hrs sib lhodl aiet puhlcamr. so lookma* fris pag6 and sst

Caree.r lroft=d ilpl,nileticnily lly,lor"$iln'!,1ilt8*|

J!{tUl3tiitl Acquisirons Edilrr
3!hL[1,1i4:fil Resa6rch P6fioloqd h 6 lJsdrcal school
y4LE_il.L!-U Rsear.r 0kerloi (v a Ndn-Pro(l &:qanr:alioo

stmt,0,eiijl Ersarid€nlal PJy(holEfirtl in a Sehr$oral Scisn$

ResearcnFim

hit(lflt"guj ji$al [l$dicar Emr con$illBnl

Apply the Skill
l. What is the domain of the Web site? Do you think the information

on the Web site will be reliable? Why or why not?

2. What is the purpose of this Web site?
3. Do you thinkthis Web site presents a balanced point of view or a

biased point of view? Explain your response.

st4 CRITICAL TH IN KINC SKI LLS

ryffie$lxim& tnfsrmeti$n
from ffiurltilple Sour(&$

Define the Skill

An important critical thinking skill is synthesizing information. Synthesizing information

means combining information from differentsources. Each sourceyou use might provide dif-
ferent information on aparticular topicor issue. Synthesizing the information from allof your
sources will help you to produce a new idea, point of view, or interpretation.

Learn the Skill

Use the following strategies to practice synthesizing information from multiple sources.

Place/Time { Evaluate each source.
of Birth I nnaiyr. each source to derer-

mine if the source is valid and
reliable. Determine if the various

sources are comparable.

lllness lnfluenza t Examine the information
of Mother Rubella
Z tro.each source. ldentiry
Poliovirus
the key facts presented in each

5soUuUrIcLee SseepaclrladtLeulyly.. MlVlaclkKeE da lli>sLt oufl ii

Famine provides.the information that each source t,

Conditions Bereavement* I
.6i
for Mother
atTime of Flood t Comoare the information
5 frotnyorr various sources.
Birth Depression
ldentifir similarities and differences
Family I
History between the sources and analyze
relationships between the sources.
* Grief caused by death of spouse 2345678 l:ll
or close family member
Relative lncrease in Risk

Source: adapted from Public Library ofScience,2005 I Svnthesize the informa-

from Chapter 18, Section 4 I tio"from the sources.

Explaining $ehixoplrrenla . . . Problems in the central nervous Draw conclusions based on the
system may involve neurotransmitters as well as brain struc-
tures, and research has focused on one particular neurotrans- information from each of your
mitter: dopamine. According to the dopamine theory of schizo-
phrenia, people with schizophrenia use more dopamine than sources. Use your conclusions to
other people do, although they may not produce more of it. Why?
They may have more dopamine receptors in the brain than other create your own interpretation,

people, or their dopamine receptors may be hyperactive. point of view, or idea on the topic. lli
]wi.i{,*:glfi.r

Apply the Skill
l. Are the sources above valid and reliable? How can you tell?

2. What similarities and differences exist between the two sources?
3. Whatconclusions can you draw based on the information in these two sources?

CRITICAL TH I N KI NC SKI LLS

Building Your Uocahulary

Holt McDougal Psychology: Principles in Practice helps you build
your vocabulary by focusing on two types of vocabulary words.
Terms that are essential to your mastery of the course content are
Iisted at the beginning of every section and are highlighted in yel-
low. You will find the definitions of these words as you read the sec-
tion. The definitions are also in the Glossary. Academic Vocabulary
words are words you need to know for other classes, too. They are
underlined in the text and defined in the margins. Below is a list of
these Academic Vocabulary words, along with their definitions.

abstract not part of concrete existence; theoretical cyclical recurring or moving in cycles

acquisition attainment or achievement debilitating weakening, making life much more

alienation isolation, estrangement, dissociation difficult

anabolic a phase of metabolism in which substances deliberation discussion of reasons in order to reach a

are synthesized into living tissue decision

aptitude an inherent ability; a talent dilemna situation requiring a choice between options

assess to judge or determine that are equally undesirable

auditory related to hearing dimensions the range over which or the degree to
bias a personal and sometimes unreasoned judgment
which something extends; scope
brittle having little elasticity; easily damaged or
dinrinished reduced orweakened
cracked
displace move from an original or natural place
chemotherapy treatment of disease using chemicals
drive powerful needs or instincts related to self-
to kill cells
preservation that motivate behavior
circunstances situations orconditions
dissonance lack of agreement or consistence; conflict
colleagues co-workers orassociates
eclectic selecting elements from a variety of sources,
compliance acting in accord with a wish, request, or
systems, or styles
demand
enrpathy sympathy; understanding of others' feelings
concur to be of the same opinion; agree ethnic group a group of people who share a common

consistent in agreement with, compatible culture, race, or national origin

coping skills skills to contend with difficulties eulogy a speech praising a person who has just died

successfu I ly euphoria a feeling of great happiness or well-being

criteria the standards on which a judgment or decision exemplify to show or illustrate by example

may be based facility ability or aptitude

5 cRncALTHrNKrNc sKtLs

foreboding sense of impending evil or misfortune relaxation technique any method or activity that

fugue disturbed state of consciousness in which helps a person to relax

someone performs acts in full awareness but later cannot repressed excluded from the conscious mind
remember
resilient marked by the ability to recover quickly
geriatrics the branch of medicine that focuses on the
respiratory system the system of organs and
diseases and problems of the elderly
passages involved in the intake and exchange of oxygen
interpersonal relating to the interactions between and carbon dioxide between a living organism and its
environment
individuals
reticular resembling a net in appearance or form
interracial involving or composed of different races
scales standards of measurement or judgment; criteria
involuntary acling or done without or against one's
secrete to release a liquid substance
will
socioeconomic involving both social and economic
isolation being alone or away from others
factors
membrane a thin layer of tissue that covers or lines an
standardized designed to be given under specified,
organ
standard conditions
morality the concept of right or good conduct
static having no motion
mortality inevitable death stimuli outside facts that directly influence a person

mutation a sudden and random change in the genetlc stimulus something that causes a response

material of a cell stream of consciousness thought regarded as a
flowing series of images and ideas running through the
neutral not aligned with any position
mind
ostracize to reject or exclude
subjective notobjective, personal
peers people who have equal standing with one
sustain to keep alive or to supply with nourishment
another in rank, class, or age
theorist one who speculates, or formulates a theory
percentile one of a set of points on a scale arrived at
theorize propose a theory about; speculate about
by dividing a group into parts in order of magnitude
toxin a poison produced by certain animals, plants,
peripheral relating to the outer edge of the body
and bacteria
phenomenon an observable event or occurrence
utopian ideal
preconceptions opinions formed in advance of
validation the act of establishing the soundness of an
adequate knowledge or experience
idea or theory; corroboration
propitious favorable, advantageous
variable subject to change
questionnaire a form containing a set of questions
vicarious experienced indirectly through the
addressed to a statistically significant number of subjects
experience of another
ratio the relationship in quantity, amount, or size

between two or more things

CRITICAL TH I N KI NG SKI LLS

Using Sta.ttstics

Analyzing Obseruations Understanding Bell Curues

Conducting a research study is actually only A useful statistical concept for psychologists
a small part of the research process. Imagine is the bell curve, or normal cunre. The bell
that you decide to conduct a survey about the curve is an ideal, a hypothetical standard
amount of television teenagers watch daily. against which actual categories ofpeople or
After you have conducted interviews and things (such as scores) can be measured and
received dozens of completed questionnaires compared. Usually, bell curves are used to
you would probably feel overwhelmed by the categorize characteristics ofpeople in large
amount of data you had collected. What is the groups. The closer the group comes to the
next step? center of the curve, where the most "normal"
traits congregate, the more validity the study
When faced with this situation, psycholo- appears to have.
gists use mathematical procedures, involving
statistics to organize, analyze, and interpret For example, the bell curye, "Distribution
the data. Psychologists then use the statisti- of IQ Scores," shown on the following page,
cal analyses to construct charts and graphs. illustrates a hypothetical standard against
In short, statistics help psychologists make which actual IQ scores can be compared. This
sense oftheir research findings. bell curve is a model of an ideal. It shows what
would happen if the largest number of scores
Understanding Frequency fell exactly in the middle of a range of scores.

One of the most common forms of statistical A comparison of the actual scores against this
analysis researchers use to organize their data bell curve tells a researcher how representa-
is the frequency distribution. A frequency dis- tive the IQ test really is.
tribution is a way of arranging data to deter-
mine how often a certain piece of data-such Correlations represent the relationship
as a score, salary, or age-occurs. In setting between two variables. When two variables
show a positive correlation, one rises as the
up a frequency distribution, researchers other rises. If the two variables are negatively
correlated, one of the variables rises as the
arrange the data from highest to lowest, and other falls. A bell curve is a normal frequency
enter a mark when a piece of data occurs. The distribution. This means that after counting
sum of each group's marks determines the
frequency. the frequency ofspecific data, researchers can

If there are too many different pieces of create an arrangement, or distribution, that
is concentrated on or near the curve's cen-
data to list individually, as is sometimes true ter, which represents the norm. The fewest
for class scores, a researcher may substitute entries ofdata should appear at the far ends
specific numerical spans, called class inter- of the distribution-away from the highly
vals, for individual scores. Again, the data are
arranged from highest to lowest. A frequency concentrated norm.
distribution would allow a teacher to see at a
glance how well a group of students did on a It follows then that when the graphed

test, for instance, but it does not provide any results of an experiment come close to match-
ing a bell curve, the results are assumed to
information about individual performance.
be highly representative of that experiment.

If most scores or data cluster towards the

ends of the curve, however, the experiment or
test is assumed to be unrepresentative of the
group.

CRITICAL THINKINC SKILLs

This bell curve is a modelof
I an ideal. lt shows what would

happen if the largest number of
scores fell exactly in the middle of a
range of scores. A comparison of the
actual scores against this bell curve
tells a researcher how representative
tLhr rer rlQv tLegs)Lt rtEeoa[lyly tis).

95o/o

99o/o

Bell curves and frequency distributions A significant disadvantage of using the
mean is that any extreme score, whether
seem very complicated. However, they are sim- high or low, distorts a researcher's results.
For instance, iffive waiters earn $300, $350,
ply ways to condense information and put it in
a visual form. Within moments of glancing at $325, $390, and $600 per week respectively,
a real plotted curve and the bell curve beside
it, researchers can judge approximately how the mean-or average-weekly salary for
far from the norm their experimental group
was, and how closely their results conform to this group would be $ggS. Yet four of the frve
what is "perfectly" normal. waiters earn less than the average amount. In
this circumstance, using the mean would not
lUlode, Mean, and Median: necessarily be representative ofthe waiters'
Measures of Central Tendency
wages.
Three other measures are used to compare
data that fall within the central points of a Median The median is the score or piece of
distribution: the mode, the mean, and the
median. data that falls precisely in the middle of all the
scores when they are arranged in descending
Mode Simply, the mode is the piece of data order. Exactly halfofthe students score above
that occurs most ofben in a given set of num- the median, and exactly half score below it. In
the previous example of waiters'salaries, the
bers. To find the mode, examine any frequency median would be $350, because two waiters
earned more and two earned less.
distribution and choose the number that
The median, unlike the mean, is usually
appears most often. The mode is of limited use an actual number or score. To find the median
to researchers because "occurring most often" of an even number of scores, you would find
in a distribution may mean, for example, that the median of the two numbers that fall in the
middle, and then take the mean of those two
this number occurred only twice among fifty central numbers in the distribution.

different test scores. One major advantage of the median is that
extreme scores, high or low, will not affect
Mean The mean is an average. The mean is it. For example, examine the following two
distributions:
found by adding all the scores or data together
and then dividing that sum by the number of GroupX:4, 10, 16,18,22
scores. The formula for finding the mean is:
Group Y: 4, 10, 16, 18, 97
rrrE6r=- sum ofthe scores

numDer or scores

CRITICALTHINKINC SKILLS SI9

The median for each group is 16, because of a frequency distribution into account. The
that number falls precisely in the middle of middle numbers may be substantially differ-
all the scores. However, the mean for Group ent in two gtoups that have the same range.
For example, here are two distributions:
Xis 14 (4 + 10 + 16 + L8 + 22 = 70:.70 + 5 =
Group A: 5, 8, 72,14, tb
14), while the mean for Group Y is 29 (4 + 10 Group B:5,6, 7,8,L5
+ 16 + 18 + 97 = 145; t45 + 5 = 29). The mean
changes dramatically simply by introducing Each group has the same range of 10. But
one extreme score. The median, however, the scores in Group A differ greatly from the
remains the same. scores in Group B. For this reason, psycholo-
gists often use the standard deviation.
The kind of central point that researchers
choose to use in any given situation depends Standard Deyiation Psychologists some-
on what they are tryrng to learn. The median
is not the best choice in all instances. In a beII times want to know how much any particular
score is likely to vary from the mean, or how
curve-the idealized norm-the mode, the spread out the scores are around the mean. To
derive these measures, researchers calculate
mean, and the median are identical. the standard deviation. The closer the stan-
dard deviation is to zero, the more reliable
Uariability that data tends to be.

Knowing what the mode, the mean, and the Let's say that the standard deviation of
median are tells a researcher a great deal but Team A's batting average is about 44.2, and
not everything about the data. Researchers the standard deviation of Team B's batting
also need to know how much variability there average is 6.8. From this information we
is among the scores in a group of numbers. know that the typical score of Team A will fall
That is, researchers must discover how far within 44.2 points of the mean, and the typi-
apart the numbers or scores are in relation to cal score of Team B will be within 6.8 points
the mean. For this purpose, psychologists use of the mean. This tells us that the quality of
two measures: the range and the standard
deviation. batting is more consistent on Team B than on
Team A.
Range The range is the mathematical differ-
ence between the highest and lowest scores T\vo bell curves can have the same mode,

in a frequency distribution. If the highest mean, and median, but different standard
deviations. Ifyouwere plottingtwo bell curves
grade in a class is 100 and the lowest is 60, on a line graph, and one curve had a much
larger standard deviation than the other,
the range is 40 (100 - 60 = 40). TWo groups of the curve with the larger standard deviation

numbers may have the same mean but differ- would show a more pronounced bell shape on
ent ranges. For example, consider the batting the graph.
averages of two baseball teams:
Correlation Correlation is a measure of
TeamA:210 250 285 300 340
TeamB:270 270 275 285 285 the relationship between two variables. A
variable is any behavior or condition that
The mean for each team is 277. However, can change in quantity or quality. Examples
the range for Team A is 130 points, whereas of variables that people frequently encoun-
the range for Team B is 15 points. This would ter are age, hair color, weight, and height.
tell a researcher that Team B is more alike in Correlation and causation are two types of
its batting abilities than is Team A. relationships between variables that have

The range tells psychologists how similar great importance for psychologists.
the subjects in each group are to one another When two variables are related, they are

in terms of what is being measured. This said to have a correlation. Changes in vari-
ables often occur together. Sometimes, an
information could not be obtained from the increase or decrease in one is accompanied by
mode, mean, or median alone, since each is a corresponding increase or decrease in the
just one number and not a comparison.

The disadvantage ofthe range, though, is
that it takes only the lowest and highest scores

CRITICAL TH IN KINC SKI LLS

other. For example, a decrease in someone's IfGroup A is exposed to a virus and gets
caloric intake is accompanied by a decrease in sick, and Group B is exposed to the same virus
that person's weight. Such variables are said but has been vaccinated and does not become
ill, there appears to be a causal relationship
to be positively correlated. Sometimes, when
one variable increases, the other decreases, at work. It seems that the vaccine protected
or vice-versa. These variables are said to be
Group B from the virus, and therefore from
negatively correlated. illness. But researchers probably would want
to examine how the vaccine actually worked-
Correlation (oefficient The correlation coef-
ficient describes the degree of relationship if it did. It may have been coincidental that

between variables. The concept ofcorrelation Group B remained weII.
a1lows researchers to predict the value of one
Positive Correlation
variable if they know the value of the other
Generally speaking, people who have a higher
and the way that the variables are correlated. need for achievement achieve higher salaries.
A perfect positive correlation would have a
coeffrcient of +1.00; a perfect negative corre- Negative Correlation
Iation has a coefficient of -1.00. A correlation Generally speaking, the immune systems of
coefficient of zero indicates that there is no
people who are under high amounts of stress
correlation between two variables. tend to function more poorly than the immune
Perfect positive correlations (+1.00 coeffi-
systems of people who are under less stress.
cient), when graphed, form a straight line that
Ieans to the right; a perfect negative correla- o
tion (-1.00 coefficient), shown on a line graph, gUI
would form a straight line that leans to the
left. In reality, few correlations are perfect. !E
While one variable may increase or decrease
in relation to the other, both variables prob- o
ably will not change to the same degree. :E

Here is an example of a strong negative .ct

correlation with predictive potential: the more to
hours a person spends commuting to work, the
less he or she enjoys driving. We can predict =
Go
that if the person shortens the commute, his E

or her enjoyment of driving wiII increase. o

Gusation Although correlation is an impor- 6
tant concept in statistics, it does not explain
'l""',twmqww@ High
everl'bhing about relationships between vari-
lmmune system functioning
ables. For one thing, correlation does not

speak to the concept of causation. No correla-
tion, of any degree, in itself proves that one

variable causes another.

It is sometimes difficult to determine

whether one variable actually causes another.
Researchers determine causal relationships
scientifrcally rather than relying on the intui-
tive sense of causality that may be implied in
a correlation. They compare the differences

between an experimental group-the group
that displays the condition that is being stud-
ied-and a control grouP, in which this condi-

tion is not present. The independent variable
is the variable being manipulated.

CRITICAL TH IN KINC SKILLS

whv

Matters

Have you ever wondered - . -
why people dream?
how stress could affect your health?
why some memories are more vivid than others?
how a baby perceives the world?

Psychology and Your World

When you think of psychology, what comes to mind? Perhaps
you picture a person on a couch talking to a therapist. Maybe
you picture a scientist in a laboratory carrying out experi-
ments with rats. These things are important, but psychology

includes much more. Psycholory involves asking questions
about people and trying to solve their problems.

Psychologists study every aspect ofhow people perceive
the world. You may take a brilliant sunset for granted, but
psychologists do not. They study the entire experience, from
how colors stimulate cells in the eyes to the emotions that a
beautiful sunset evokes.

Psychology and People

Psychologists study people-how we think, how we see
ourselves, and why we behave the way we do. For example,
every day at school you learn new things. Psychologists want
to know how people learn and remember information. How
much do you think your brain can remember? Believe it or
not, psychologists report that there is no known limit to how
much you can learn.

Psychologists are also interested in why things go wrong
with people's minds. Why do some people become anxious or
depressed? Why do some lose touch with reality completely?
Professional psychologists try to develop ways to relieve
problems like these.

Psychology and You

Over the years, you have grown and become more able and
self-reliant. This process is ofgreat interest to psychologists
who study how life differs at various stages, such as adoles-
cence. For example, psychologists examine why teenagers
strive for independence, why they often have an intense
need for privacy, and why so many teenagers take risks they
would not take as children or as adults.

You are about to begin the study of behavior and mental
processes-the study of psychology. And by understanding
psychology, you will gain a deeper understanding of yourself
and others.

s22

qL *.-

bl

c\

dl \\
1\

!,: -ii
hL,'.!,'",.ir":l1:r:;'.-. -.
ii What ls Psychology?
:l
(}IAPTER U
I
Psychological
Methods

i: irril i:,i:tittir

AS0CIAISCIENCE vs

ffiffimmSflENCH

This chapter explores the scientific demands. You also haue a strong potential
approaches and methods of psychologists.
Psychologists are critical thinkers, which for improuement.
means that they are skeptical. They insist This horoscope would actually apply to

on seeing the evidence before they will many different kinds of people. The ten-
dency to believe such a general personality
accept people's claims and arguments about report is called the Barnum effect, after cir-
cus promoter P. T. Barnum, who once said
what is truth and what is fiction. As scien- that a good circus had to "have something
tists, psychologists know that beliefs about for everyone." General personality reports
"have something for everyone," which
the behavior of cosmic rays, chemical com- allows palm readers and fortune-tellers to
pounds, cells, or people must be supported
by evidence. Persuasive arguments and ref- sound as ifthey are right on target.
erence to authority figures do not constitute Supporters of astrology might offer the
scientific evidence.
following arguments:
False sciences, on the other hand, do not
rely on verifiable evidence. Even so, false Astrology has been practiced for many
science is widespread. Think of the claims centuries and is part of many cultures.
made by tabloid newspapers-each week,
they publish doomsday reports that foretell Astrology seems to provide a path to
the end of the world and describe ten new meaning in life and, for a fortunate few,
encounters with extraterrestrials. a road to riches.

By examining one false science-that of People in high positions have followed
astrology-we can learn why false science the advice of astrologers.
is unreliable. Astrology is based on the idea
that the positions of the stars, moon, and If one heavenly body, the moon, is pow-
planets can affect human personality and erful enough to sway the tides of the
destiny. One can also supposedly foretell
the future by studying the positions of these seas, why should the pulls of the stars
bodies. Astrologers prepare forecasts called and planets not affect people's destinies?
horoscopes, which are based on peopleb
birth dates and indicate what is safe for Astrology is a special art and not a sci-
them to do. Read the following description ence. Therefore, we should not subject
of personality. Would it be on target if you astrology to scientific testing.
read it in your horoscope?

You haue the inner potential for change.
You haue unused potential that you haue
ruot yet turned to your aduantage. There are
parts ofyour personality hnown to you alone.
You haue the ability to handle conflicting

2 ctrRptrn r

Watrh the Video w*GffiFX$

':j Explore the world of psychology. p$trcffs&wtr#

Think critically about the claims of StCTI0l{ 1: Why Study Psychology?
astrologers. For example, does the sole fact
that astrology has a lengthy tradition mean r Psychology is the scientific study of human behavior and mental
that it is true? Are the tides similar to
human personality and destiny? pr0cesseS.

Astrological predictions routinely fail. r Psychologists seekto observe, describe, explain, predict, and
But does it matter? WilI believers in astrol-
ogy be persuaded by facts? Probably not. modiflr behavior and mental processes.
Even in our age of scientific enlightenment,
millions of people will continue to consult r Psychologists rely on research to learn whether certain methods
their horoscopes.
will work before they use them to help people.
Psvchology, on the other hand, is
SECTI0N 2: What Psychologists Do
grounded in facts. It is a true science.
Psychological findings are ofvalue because r Major fields in psychology include clinical, developmental, and
they are routinely subjected to careful scru-
experimental psychology.
tiny. Theories are tested according to the
r Psychologists also work in applied, or specialized fields, such as
scientific method. If the evidence does not
support a theory, it is discarded, and psy- community, forensic, and health psychology.
chologists search for new answers. In this
chapter and throughout this book, you will 5E$l0N 3: A History of PsychologY
learn about the rigorous application ofthe
science ofpsychology to questions that have r Psychology is as old as human history, with its roots going back
concerned humankind for centuries.
to ancient Egypt and Greece.
l. What is the basic way in which psychology differs from
r The scientific approach, which began in the 1500s, led tothe
false sciences?
birth of modern psychology in the 1 800s.
2. Why do you think false sciences are so widespread?
r Modern psychologists continually propose new theories focused

on behavioral and cognitive research.

SECT|ON 4: Contemporary Perspectives

r Some contemporary psychologists focus on the role of biology

or the role ofthe mind in seeking to understand behavior and
mental processes.

r Other psychologists study how our personal experience affects

how we perceive the world.

r Still other psychologists take a more holistic approach and study

the interaction ofbiology, psychology, and social factors and
their combined impact on people.

WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY? 3

Whv Studv

Psyeholoby?

Before You Read Use a graphic
organizer like
Main ldea Reading tocus Uocabulary this one to take notes on
1. How are behavior and mental psychology the goals of psychology.
Psychology is a science.
Like other scientists, psy- processes different? behavior
chologists seek to explain cognitive activities
and control behavior and 2. What are some basic goals of psychological constructs
mental processes and test psychology? theory
their ideas through research principle
methods. 3. How is psychology a science?

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Are self-help books psychologically Of course, some self-help books actually do get it
sound? You've seen them in book- right. They stress the importance of family, friends, and
stores-entire aisles filled with books healthy relationships. But they also provide something
promising to make us thin, rich, and happy. Yet psycholo- that may be more important than advice: they give their
gists say that some of these self-help books give bad readers hope. Still, hope alone cannot effect change.
advice, such as encouraging their readers to vent their Only those books that do not offer simplistic solutions
anger. ln fact, most psychologists maintain that venting and instead provide a sound scientific basis for their
anger just helps keep it alive. Some even claim that self- advice are most valuable. ln other words, people should
help books can distract and harm their readers.Those seek support from a source that is well researched, well
with severe depression, for instance, are unlikely to find documented, and proven to be effective-support that is
answers to their very real problems in a book. Unchecked, rooted in the science of psychology. H
the disease may spiral out of control.

4 cHnptrR r

Behavior and Mental Processes Explaining Behavior An example ofhow psy-

Psychology is the scientific study of human chologists apply the goals of psycholog"y can
behavior and mental processes. Behavior is be seen in the case of Alex Rodriguez, third
any action that people can observe or measure. baseman for the New York Yankees. In 2000,
Behavior includes activities such as walking Rodriguez became the highest-paid athlete in
and talking, pressing a switch, turning left or sports history. He won many awards for his
right, sleeping, eating, and drinking. Behavior
also includes automatic body functions such hitting and fielding, including Player of the
as heart rate, blood pressure, digestion, and Year in 2000 and 2002. He even earned the
brain activity. Behavior can be measured by distinction of becoming the youngest player
simple observation or by laboratory instru- in baseball to hit 500 home runs. However,
ments. For example, brain activity can be
measured by scientific instruments such as in time Rodriguez gained notoriety for
the electroencephalograph (EEG).
another kind of behavior: an inability to pro-
Cognitive activities are mental processes. duce hits in the postseason. Most famously,
These activities include dreams, percep- he was criticized for his performance in the
tions, thoughts, and memories. Brain waves
that indicate dreaming can be measured, but 2004 American League Championship Series
dreaming itself is a mental process-dreams against the Boston Red Sox. In game six of the
are known only to the dreamer. In addition,
activity of the cells in a person's eyes can be series, Rodriguez hit a ground ball to the Red
measured as they respond to color, but only
you can see your own mental image of the Sox pitcher for an easy out. He compounded
world. Memories, too, are private mental pro-
cesses that cannot be measured. his weak performance by swatting the baII
out of the pitcher's glove just before he was
Psychologists are also interested in study-
ing people's emotions, or feelings. Emotions tagged out-in clear violation of the rules. The
can affect both behavior and mental processes.
For example, you might experience anxiety umpires called Rodriguez out, and he left the
when you think about presenting a report in
front of your class. Your heart might even race field to the boos of the New York fans.
a bit at the thought. Your heart activity is an Losing one's "cool" and failing to perform
example of behavior, but your thoughts about
presenting the report are private mental pro- effectively in a crucial situation-such as
cesses. We would be unable to observe or mea-
sure your thoughts directly. In this situation, during an important game or while taking
researchers might use psychological constructs a major test-can be very hard on a person.
to learn more about human behavior. These This type of failure can hurt an individual's
constructs are used to talk about something
we cannot see, touch, or measure directly. self-esteem and self-confi dence.

ffi Summarize What do psycholo- Sports psychologists can help athletes
such as Alex Rodriguez handle performance
gists study?
problems by applying the goals of psychologSr.
The 6oals of Psychology
First, they observe and describe the behav-
Scientists seek to observe, describe, explain, ior. By measuring athletes'heart rates and
predict, and control the events they study. other body processes, psychologists know that
Similarly, psychologists observe and describe problems may occur when athletes are highly
excited. Interviews with athletes reveal that
behavior and mental processes to better they often feel anxious during big games.
They may become distracted by the cheers or
understand them. This process enables psy- jeers ofthe crowd and lose their concentra-
chologists to explain, predict, and help clients tion. They cannot focus on the jobs they are
control their behavior.
supposed to be doing.

Psychologists then explain the behavior
in terms of the feelings of anxiety and the
distractions that hinder the athletes' perfor-
mance. The relationship between anxiety and

performance is somewhat complex. A little
anxiety is often a good thing. It motivates us
to practice for a game or to study for a test. It

makes us alert and ready. On the other hand,

too much anxiety is harmful. It may make us

shaky and distract us from the task at hand.

WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY? 5

can you change your Behavior? 'aFi",g.I fsb.

One reason to study psychology is to better understand why you act as

it you do. As a result, you might be able to figure out how to change the

'l aspects of your behavior with which you are unhappy.

r {i

I ANALYSIS

1.1 PROCEDURE

@ ldentify an activity that you enjoy doing. You might name a 1. Get together with a partner and share your notes.
2. Take turns explaining the behavior that you would like to
school activity, a hobby, or a sport you play.
change.
O On a piece of notebook paper, write two reasons explaining
3. Take turns describing how you feel when the behavior occurs.
why you enjoy the activity. 4. List the suggestions that you and your partner come up with

a. to change or control your behavior.
a.
b.
b.
O Write two aspects of your performance that you would like

to change.

a.

b.

CONNECTION Predicting and Controlling Psychologists Psycholegy as a Scienre
predict that athletes will do best when anxiety
A Social Science Although psychology is a social science, it has
Psychology is a social is moderate. Consequently, they help athletes foundations in the natural sciences. The social
science, but it is rooted change and control their behavior and mental sciences, which also include history, anthropol-
in the natural sciences. processes by teaching them ways ofkeeping ory, economics, political science, and sociology,
deal with the structure of human society and
their anxiety at a tolerable level. Psychologists the nature and interactions of the individuals
also teach athletes how to filter out distract- who make up society. These individuals and
ing noises and focus on the game. their behavior and mental processes are the
focus ofpsychology.
One method that sports psychologists rec-
ommend to help athletes perform more effec- The natural sciences, which include biol-
tively under pressure is called positive visu- ogy, chemistry, and physics, are concerned
alization. In this method, athletes imagine with the nature of the physical world. Some
themselves in a critical game situation. For areas that psychologists study, such as the
example, a basketball player might imagine functioning of the brain, are closely related
taking a free throw during a close game. She to the natural sciences, particularly biology.
sees herself raising the ball with one hand Like natural scientists, psychologists seek
and guiding it with the other. She then imag- to answer questions by following the steps
involved in scientific research. These steps
ines releasing the ball and watching it glide include conducting surveys and experiments,
collecting and analyzing data, and drawing
through the net.
The goal of "controlling" behavior and logical conclusions.

mental processes is often misunderstood. Psychological Research As a science, psy-
chology tests ideas through various research
Some people mistakenly think that psycholo- methods. Ttvo widely used methods are surveys
gists seek ways to make people behave as the and experimentation. A survey is a method
psychologists want them to. This is not so. of collecting data that usually involves ask-
Psychologists know that people should be free ing questions ofpeople in a particular group.
to make their own decisions. Psychologists Experimentation usually involves either
know much about the factors that influence human participants or animals.
human behavior, and they use this knowledge
to help people accomplish their own goals.

EBEIMB Find the Main ldea How do psy-

chologists help change behavior?

5 cHnprrR r