Chemistry

Raymond E. Davis
Regina Frey
Mickey Sarquis
Jerry L. Sarquis

Authors MICKEY SARQUIS
Professor and Director,
RAYMOND E. DAVIS, PH.D. Center for Chemistry
Professor Emeritus Education
Department of Chemistry and
Biochemistry Department of Chemistry and
The University of Texas at Austin Biochemistry
Austin, TX Miami University
Middletown, OH

REGINA FREY, PH.D. JERRY L. SARQUIS, PH.D.
Senior Lecturer and Director of Professor
the Teaching Center
Department of Chemistry and
Department of Chemistry Biochemistry
Washington University in St. Louis Miami University
St. Louis, MO Oxford, OH

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ISBN-13: 978-0-03-036786-1
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1 2 3 4 5 6 7 048 11 10 09 08 07

ii

Acknowledgments

Contributing Writers George F. Atkinson, Ph.D. Gary E. Mueller, Ph.D.
Professor of Chemistry Associate Professor
Lisa Saunders Baugh, Ph.D. Department of Chemistry Department of Nuclear Engineering
Senior Chemist University of Waterloo University of Missouri—Rolla
Chemical Sciences Laboratory Waterloo, Ontario, Canada Rolla, Missouri
ExxonMobil Research & Engineering
Sonal S.D. Blumenthal, Ph.D. Daniel B. Murphy, Ph.D.
Company Life Science Consultant Professor Emeritus of Chemistry
Corporate Strategic Research Austin, Texas Department of Chemistry
Annandale, New Jersey Herbert H. Lehman College
G. Lynn Carlson, Ph.D. City University of New York
Robert Davisson Senior Lecturer Emeritus Bronx, New York
Science Writer Department of Chemistry
Albuquerque, New Mexico University of Wisconsin—Parkside R. Thomas Myers, Ph.D.
Kenosha, Wisconsin Professor Emeritus of Chemistry
Seth Madej Kent State University
Writer/Producer Scott A. Darveau, Ph.D. Kent, Ohio
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania Associate Professor
Department of Chemistry Keith B. Oldham, Ph.D.
Jim Metzner University of Nebraska at Kearney Professor of Chemistry
Executive Producer Kearney, Nebraska Trent University
Pulse of the Planet Radio Series Peterborough, Ontario, Canada
Jim Metzner Productions, Inc. Cassandra T. Eagle, Ph.D.
Accord, New York Professor of Chemistry Brian L. Pagenkopf, Ph.D.
Department of Chemistry Assistant Professor
Jay A. Young, Ph.D. Appalachian State University Department of Chemistry and
Chemical Safety Consultant Boone, North Carolina
Silver Spring, Maryland Biochemistry
Linda Gaul, Ph.D., M.P.H. University of Texas at Austin
Inclusion Specialists Epidemiologist Austin, Texas
Infectious Disease Epidemiology and
Joan Altobelli Stanford Peppenhorst, Ed.D.
Special Education Director Surveillance Chemistry Teacher
Austin Independent School District Department of State Health Services Germantown High School
Austin, Texas Austin, Texas Germantown, Tennessee

John A. Solorio Pamela Gollhofer Charles Scaife, Ph.D.
Multiple Technologies Lab Facilitator Science Teacher Professor of Chemistry, Emeritus
Austin Independent School District Princeton High School Union College
Austin, Texas Cincinnati, Ohio Schenectady, New York

Reviewers Hima Joshi, Ph.D. Peter Sheridan, Ph.D.
Department of Chemistry Professor
Eric V. Anslyn, Ph.D. University of San Diego Department of Chemistry and
Professor San Diego, California
Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry
Doris Ingram Lewis, Ph.D. Colgate University
Biochemistry Professor of Chemistry Hamilton, New York
University of Texas at Austin Suffolk University
Austin, Texas Boston, Massachusetts Larry Stookey, P.E.
Physics and Chemistry Teacher
Antigo High School
Antigo, Wisconsin

A C K N O W L E D G M E N T S iii

Acknowledgments, continued

David C. Taylor, Ph.D. Joseph E. Vitt, Ph.D. David Wilson, Ph.D.
Professor of Chemistry Associate Professor Professor Emeritus
Department of Chemistry Chemistry Department Chemistry Department
Slippery Rock University University of South Dakota Vanderbilt University
Slippery Rock, Pennsylvania Vermillion, South Dakota Nashville, Tennessee

Richard S. Treptow, Ph.D. Verne Weidler, Ph.D. Candace Woodside
Professor of Chemistry Professor of Chemistry, Retired Science Teacher
Department of Chemistry and Physics Science and Engineering Winton Woods High School
Chicago State University Black Hawk College Forest Park, Ohio
Chicago, Illinois Kewanee, Illinois
Charles M. Wynn, Sr., Ph.D.
Barry Tucker Dale Wheeler, Ph.D. Professor of Chemistry
Chemistry Teacher Associate Professor of Chemistry Department of Physical Sciences
Colerain High School A. R. Smith Department of Chemistry Eastern Connecticut State University
Cincinnati, Ohio Appalachian State University Willimantic, Connecticut
Boone, North Carolina
Martin Van Dyke, Ph.D. continued on page 948
Chemistry Professor, Emeritus
Front Range Community College
Westminster, Colorado

iv A C K N O W L E D G M E N T S

Contents in Brief

CHAPTER
1 Matter and Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2 Measurements and Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3 Atoms: The Building Blocks of Matter . . . . . . . . . . . 66
4 Arrangement of Electrons in Atoms . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
5 The Periodic Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
6 Chemical Bonding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
7 Chemical Formulas and
Chemical Compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
8 Chemical Equations and Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
9 Stoichiometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298

10 States of Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
11 Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
12 Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
13 Ions in Aqueous Solutions and

Colligative Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434
14 Acids and Bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466
15 Acid-Base Titration and pH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498
16 Reaction Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 530
17 Reaction Kinetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 560
18 Chemical Equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 588
19 Oxidation-Reduction Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 630
20 Electrochemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 654
21 Nuclear Chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 680
22 Organic Chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 710
23 Biological Chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 750

CONTENTS v

Contents

CHAPTER 1 Matter and Change 2

1 Chemistry Is a Physical Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2 Matter and Its Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3 Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

Cross-Disciplinary Connection Secrets of the Cremona Violins . . . . . . 15
Chemistry in Action Superconductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Math Tutor Significant Figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Standardized Test Prep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Chapter Lab Mixture Separation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

CHAPTER 2 Measurements and Calculations 28

1 Scientific Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2 Units of Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3 Using Scientific Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

Chemistry in Action Breaking Up Is Easy to Do . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Cross-Disciplinary Connection Some Handy Comparisons of Units . . . 35
Quick Lab Density of Pennies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Historical Chemistry Classical Ideas About Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Math Tutor Scientific Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Standardized Test Prep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Chapter Lab Percentage of Water in Popcorn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

CHAPTER 3 Atoms: The Building Blocks 66
of Matter

1 The Atom: From Philosophical Idea
to Scientific Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

2 The Structure of the Atom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
3 Counting Atoms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

Careers in Chemistry Physical Chemist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Quick Lab Constructing a Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Historical Chemistry Discovery of Element 43 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Math Tutor Conversion Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Standardized Test Prep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Chapter Lab Conservation of Mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94

vi C O N T E N T S

CHAPTER 4 Arrangement of Electrons in Atoms 96

1 The Development of a New Atomic Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
2 The Quantum Model of the Atom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
3 Electron Configurations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

Chemistry in Action Fireflies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Quick Lab The Wave Nature of Light: Interference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Historical Chemistry The Noble Decade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Math Tutor Weighted Averages and Atomic Mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
Standardized Test Prep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Chapter Lab Flame Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130

CHAPTER 5 The Periodic Law 132

1 History of the Periodic Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
2 Electron Configuration and the Periodic Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
3 Electron Configuration and Periodic Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150

Quick Lab Designing Your Own Periodic Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Careers in Chemistry Materials Scientist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Math Tutor Writing Electron Configurations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
Standardized Test Prep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Chapter Lab The Mendeleev Lab of 1869 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172

CHAPTER 6 Chemical Bonding 174

1 Introduction to Chemical Bonding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
2 Covalent Bonding and Molecular Compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
3 Ionic Bonding and Ionic Compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
4 Metallic Bonding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
5 Molecular Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197

Chemistry in Action Ultrasonic Toxic-Waste Destroyer . . . . . . . . . . . 180
Careers in Chemistry Computational Chemist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
Math Tutor Drawing Lewis Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
Standardized Test Prep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
Chapter Lab Types of Bonding in Solids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216

C O N T E N T S vii

CHAPTER 7 Chemical Formulas
and Chemical Compounds
218

1 Chemical Names and Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
2 Oxidation Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
3 Using Chemical Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
4 Determining Chemical Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245

Careers in Chemistry Pharmacist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222

Chemistry in Action
Mass Spectrometry: Identifying Molecules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236

Math Tutor Calculating Percentage Composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
Standardized Test Prep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257

Chapter Lab Determining the Empirical Formula
of Magnesium Oxide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258

CHAPTER 8 Chemical Equations and Reactions 260

1 Describing Chemical Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
2 Types of Chemical Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
3 Activity Series of the Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285

Chemistry in Action Carbon Monoxide Catalyst . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
Chemistry in Action Fluoridation and Tooth Decay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
Quick Lab Balancing Equations Using Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
Chemistry in Action Combustion Synthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
Math Tutor Balancing Chemical Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
Standardized Test Prep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
Chapter Lab Blueprint Paper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296

CHAPTER 9 Stoichiometry 298

1 Introduction to Stoichiometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
2 Ideal Stoichiometric Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
3 Limiting Reactants and Percentage Yield . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312

Careers in Chemistry Chemical Technician . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
Historical Chemistry The Case of Combustion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
Quick Lab Limiting Reactants in a Recipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
Math Tutor Using Mole Ratios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
Standardized Test Prep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
Chapter Lab Stoichiometry and Gravimetric Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . 326

viii C O N T E N T S

CHAPTER 10 States of Matter 328

1 Kinetic Theory of Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
2 Liquids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
3 Solids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
4 Changes of State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
5 Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349

Chemistry in Action Surface Melting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
Math Tutor Calculating Using Enthalpies of Fusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
Standardized Test Prep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
Chapter Lab “Wet” Dry Ice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358

CHAPTER 11 Gases 360

1 Gas and Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
2 The Gas Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
3 Gas Volumes and the Ideal Gas Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
4 Diffusion and Effusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386

Chemistry in Action The Gas Laws and Scuba Diving . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
Historical Chemistry Chemistry’s First Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
Chemistry in Action Automobile Air Bags . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
Quick Lab Diffusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
Math Tutor Algebraic Rearrangements of Gas Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
Standardized Test Prep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
Chapter Lab Mass and Density of Air at Different Pressures . . . . . . . 398

CHAPTER 12 Solutions 400

1 Types of Mixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
2 The Solution Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
3 Concentration of Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418

Quick Lab Observing Solutions, Suspensions, and Colloids . . . . . . . . 405
Careers in Chemistry Environmental Chemist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
Cross-Disciplinary Connection Artificial Blood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
Math Tutor Calculating Solution Concentration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430
Standardized Test Prep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
Chapter Lab Separation of Pen Inks by Paper Chromatography . . . . . 432

C O N T E N T S ix

CHAPTER 13 Ions in Aqueous Solutions and 434
CHAPTER 14 Colligative Properties
CHAPTER 15
CHAPTER 16 1 Compounds in Aqueous Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435
2 Colligative Properties of Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446

Historical Chemistry The Riddle of Electrolysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444
Chemistry in Action Water Purification by Reverse Osmosis . . . . . . . . 453
Math Tutor Boiling and Freezing Points of Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . 462
Standardized Test Prep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463
Chapter Lab Testing Water for Ions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464

Acids and Bases 466

1 Properties of Acids and Bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467
2 Acid-Base Theories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478
3 Acid-Base Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483

Quick Lab Household Acids and Bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472
Cross-Disciplinary Connection Acid Water—A Hidden Menace . . . . 477
Cross-Disciplinary Connection It’s a Bitter Pill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484
Math Tutor Writing Equations for Ionic Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494
Standardized Test Prep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495
Chapter Lab Is It an Acid or a Base? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 496

Acid-Base Titration and pH 498

1 Aqueous Solutions and the Concept of pH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499
2 Determining pH and Titrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511

Cross-Disciplinary Connection Liming Streams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510
Quick Lab Testing the pH of Rainwater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514
Careers in Chemistry Analytical Chemist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516
Math Tutor Using Logarithms and pH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 526
Standardized Test Prep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527
Chapter Lab How Much Calcium Carbonate Is in an Eggshell? . . . . 528

Reaction Energy 530

1 Thermochemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 531
2 Driving Force of Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546

Chemistry in Action Self-Heating Meals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545
Chemistry in Action Diamonds Are Forever? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549
Math Tutor Hess’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 556
Standardized Test Prep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 557
Chapter Lab Calorimetry and Hess’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 558

x CONTENTS

CHAPTER 17 Reaction Kinetics 560
CHAPTER 18
CHAPTER 19 1 The Reaction Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561
CHAPTER 20 2 Reaction Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 568

Chemistry in Action Explosives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 572
Quick Lab Factors Influencing Reaction Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 578
Chemistry in Action Catalytic Converters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579
Math Tutor Writing Rate Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 584
Standardized Test Prep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 585
Chapter Lab Rate of a Chemical Reaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 586

Chemical Equilibrium 588

1 The Nature of Chemical Equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 589
2 Shifting Equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 598
3 Equilibria of Acids, Bases, and Salts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 605
4 Solubility Equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 613

Historical Chemistry Fixing the Nitrogen Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 596
Cross-Disciplinary Connection Blood Buffers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 609
Math Tutor Determining Equilibrium Constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 626
Standardized Test Prep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 627
Chapter Lab Measuring Ka for Acetic Acid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 628

Oxidation-Reduction Reactions 630

1 Oxidation and Reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 631
2 Balancing Redox Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 637
3 Oxidizing and Reducing Agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 642

Chemistry in Action Photochromic Lenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 634
Chemistry in Action Skunk-Spray Remedy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 636
Quick Lab Redox Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 644
Math Tutor Balancing Redox Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 650
Standardized Test Prep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 651
Chapter Lab Reduction of Mn in MnO4– . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 652

Electrochemistry 654

1 Introduction to Electrochemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 655
2 Voltaic Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 658
3 Electrolytic Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 667

Chemistry in Action Fuel-Cell Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 666
Chemistry in Action Sodium Production by Electrolysis . . . . . . . . . . 671
Math Tutor Calculating Cell Potentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 676
Standardized Test Prep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 677
Chapter Lab Voltaic Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 678

C O N T E N T S xi

CHAPTER 21 Nuclear Chemistry 680

1 The Nucleus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 681
2 Radioactive Decay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 685
3 Nuclear Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 693
4 Nuclear Fission and Nuclear Fusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 697

Cross-Disciplinary Connection Quarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 682
Historical Chemistry An Unexpected Finding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 700
Math Tutor Calculating with Half-Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 706
Standardized Test Prep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 707
Chapter Lab

Simulation of Nuclear Decay Using Pennies and Paper . . . . . . . . . 708

CHAPTER 22 Organic Chemistry 710

1 Organic Compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 711
2 Hydrocarbons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 716
3 Functional Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 730
4 Organic Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 735

Historical Chemistry The Beginnings of Organic Chemistry . . . . . . . 715
Careers in Chemistry Petroleum Engineer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 720
Chemistry in Action Carbon Allotropes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 725
Math Tutor Calculating Empirical Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 746
Standardized Test Prep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 747
Chapter Lab Polymers and Toy Balls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 748

CHAPTER 23 Biological Chemistry 750

1 Carbohydrates and Lipids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 751
2 Amino Acids and Proteins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 756
3 Metabolism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 766
4 Nucleic Acids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 770

Historical Chemistry Charles Drew and Blood Transfusions . . . . . . . 762
Careers in Chemistry Forensic Chemist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 774
Math Tutor Interpretation of the Genetic Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 780
Standardized Test Prep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 781
Chapter Lab Casein Glue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 782

xii C O N T E N T S

Elements Handbook 784

GROUP 1 ALKALI METALS . . . . . . . . . . . 786 GROUP 14 CARBON FAMILY . . . . . . . . . . 812

APPLICATION Technology APPLICATION Chemical Industry
Sodium Vapor Lighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 788 Carbon and the Reduction of Iron Ore . . . . . . 814

APPLICATION Health Carbon Dioxide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 815
Electrolyte Balance in the Body . . . . . . . . . . . 789
Carbon Monoxide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 815

GROUP 2 ALKALINE EARTH METALS . . 792 APPLICATION Biochemistry
Carbon Dioxide and Respiration . . . . . . . . . . . 816
APPLICATION Technology
Fireworks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 794 APPLICATION The Environment
Carbon Monoxide Poisoning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 818
APPLICATION Health
Calcium: An Essential Mineral in the Diet . . . 796 APPLICATION Biochemistry
Macromolecules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 819
Magnesium: An Essential Mineral in the Diet . . 796
APPLICATION Chemical Industry
GROUPS 3–12 TRANSITION METALS . . . . . . 798 Silicon and Silicates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 825

APPLICATION Geology Silicones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 825
Gemstones and Color . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 801
APPLICATION Technology
APPLICATION Technology Semiconductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 826
Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 802
GROUP 15 NITROGEN FAMILY . . . . . . . . 828
APPLICATION The Environment
Mercury Poisoning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 805 APPLICATION Biology
Plants and Nitrogen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 830
APPLICATION Health
Elements in the Body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 806 APPLICATION Chemical Industry
Fertilizers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 831
Role of Iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 807

BORON FAMILY . . . . . . . . . . . 808 GROUP 16 OXYGEN FAMILY . . . . . . . . . . 832

GROUP 13 APPLICATION Chemical Industry
Oxides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 834
APPLICATION Technology
Aluminum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 810 APPLICATION The Environment
Ozone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 836
Aluminum Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 811

APPLICATION Chemical Industry
Sulfuric Acid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 837

GROUP 17 HALOGEN FAMILY . . . . . . . . . 838

APPLICATION The Environment
Chlorine in Water Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . 840

Fluoride and Tooth Decay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 841

Reference Appendix D: Problem Bank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 881
Appendix E: Selected Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 916
Preparing for Chemistry Lab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 842 Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 924
Appendix A: Reference Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 854 Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 935
Appendix B: Study Skills for Chemistry . . . . . . . . 864
Appendix C: Graphing Calculator Technology . . . 879

C O N T E N T S xiii

Sample Problems and Math Tutors

Chapter 1 Matter and Change Chapter 7 Chemical Formulas
Math Tutor Significant Figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 and Chemical Compounds

Chapter 2 Measurements and Calculations Sample Problems
Sample Problems A Writing Formulas for Ionic Compounds . . . . . . 223
A Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 B Naming Ionic Compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
B Conversion Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 C Writing Formulas for Ionic Compounds . . . . . . 227
C Percentage Error . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 D Naming Binary Molecular Compounds . . . . . . . 229
D Significant Figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 E Oxidation Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
E Significant Figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 F Formula Mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
F Solving Problems Using the G Molar Mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
Four-Step Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 H Molar Mass as a Conversion Factor . . . . . . . . . 240
Math Tutor Scientific Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 I Molar Mass as a Conversion Factor . . . . . . . . . 241
J Percentage Composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Chapter 3 Atoms: The Building Blocks of Matter K Percentage Composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Sample Problems L Empirical Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
A Subatomic Particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 M Empirical Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
B Gram/Mole Conversions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 N Molecular Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
C Gram/Mole Conversions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
D Conversions with Avogadro’s Number . . . . . . . . 86 Math Tutor
E Conversions with Avogadro’s Number . . . . . . . . 86 Calculating Percentage Composition . . . . . . . . . . 256
Math Tutor Conversion Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Chapter 8 Chemical Equations and Reactions
Chapter 4 Arrangement of Electrons in Atoms Sample Problems
Sample Problems A Writing Word, Formula,
A Electron Configurations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 and Balanced Chemical Equations . . . . . . . . . . 267
B Electron Configurations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 B Writing Word, Formula,
C Electron Configurations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 and Balanced Chemical Equations . . . . . . . . . . 268
Math Tutor C Writing Word, Formula,
Weighted Averages and Atomic Mass . . . . . . . . . 128 and Balanced Chemical Equations . . . . . . . . . . 272
D Balancing Chemical Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
Chapter 5 The Periodic Law E Balancing Chemical Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
Sample Problems F Activity Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
A The Periodic Table and Electron Configurations . . 143 Math Tutor Balancing Chemical Equations . . . . . . 294
B The Periodic Table and Electron Configurations . . 146
C The Periodic Table and Electron Configurations . . 148 Chapter 9 Stoichiometry
D The Periodic Table and Electron Configurations . . 148 Sample Problems
E Atomic Radius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 A Stoichiometric Calculations Using Mole Ratios . . 305
F Periodic Trends in Ionization Energy . . . . . . . . 156 B Stoichiometric Calculations Using Mole Ratios . . 306
G Periodic Trends in Electronegativity . . . . . . . . . 162 C Stoichiometric Calculations Using Mole Ratios . . 307
Math Tutor Writing Electron Configurations . . . . . 170 D Stoichiometric Calculations Using Mole Ratios . . 309
E Stoichiometric Calculations Using Mole Ratios . . 310
Chapter 6 Chemical Bonding F Limiting Reactant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
Sample Problems G Limiting Reactant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
A Classifying Bonds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 H Percentage Yield . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
B Electron-Dot Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 Math Tutor Using Mole Ratios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
C Lewis Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
D Lewis Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188 Chapter 10 States of Matter
E VSEPR Theory and Molecular Geometry . . . . . 198 Sample Problems
F VSEPR Theory and Molecular Geometry . . . . . 201 A Using Molar Enthalpy of Vaporization . . . . . . . 352
Math Tutor Drawing Lewis Structures . . . . . . . . . . 214
Math Tutor
Calculating Using Enthalpies of Fusion . . . . . . . . 356

xiv C O N T E N T S

Chapter 11 Gases Chapter 16 Reaction Energy
Sample Problems Sample Problems
A Converting Between Units of Pressure . . . . . . . 365 A Specific Heat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533
B Calculating Partial Pressures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367 B Enthalpy of Reaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541
C Using Boyle’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370 C Enthalpy of Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543
D Using Charles’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372 D Calculating Free-Energy Change . . . . . . . . . . . 550
E Using Gay-Lussac’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373 Math Tutor Hess’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 556
F Using the Combined Gas Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
G Calculating with Avogadro’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . 381 Chapter 17 Reaction Kinetics
H Gas Stoichiometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382 Sample Problems
I The Ideal Gas Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385 A Energy Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 566
J Graham’s Law of Effusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385 B Determining Rate Law and Rate Constant . . . . 574
Math Tutor C Determining Rate Law and Rate Constant . . . . 575
Algebraic Rearrangements of Gas Laws . . . . . . . . 396 D Determining Rate-Determining
Step and Rate Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577
Chapter 12 Solutions E Determining Effects on Reaction Rate . . . . . . . 577
Sample Problems Math Tutor Writing Rate Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 584
A Calculating with Molarity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
B Calculating with Molarity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420 Chapter 18 Chemical Equilibrium
C Calculating with Molarity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421 Sample Problems
D Calculating with Molality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423 A Equilibrium Constant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 594
E Calculating with Molality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424 B Solubility Product Constant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 616
Math Tutor Calculating Solution Concentration . . . 430 C Calculating Solubility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 617
D Precipitation Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 619
Chapter 13 Ions in Aqueous Solutions and Math Tutor Determining Equilibrium Constants . . 626
Colligative Properties
Chapter 19 Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
Sample Problems Sample Problems
A Calculating Moles of Dissolved Ions . . . . . . . . . 436 A Balancing Equations for Redox Reactions . . . . 639
B Writing Net Ionic Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440 Math Tutor Balancing Redox Equations . . . . . . . . 650
C Calculating Freezing-Point Depression . . . . . . . 449
D Calculating Molal Concentration . . . . . . . . . . . 449 Chapter 20 Electrochemistry
E Calculating Boiling-Point Elevation . . . . . . . . . 451 Sample Problems
F Freezing-Point Depression of Electrolytes . . . . 454 A Calculating Cell Potentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 665
Math Tutor Calculating Cell Potentials . . . . . . . . . 676
Math Tutor
Boiling and Freezing Points of Solutions . . . . . . . . 462

Chapter 14 Acids and Bases Chapter 21 Nuclear Chemistry
Sample Problems
Math Tutor A Balancing Nuclear Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 686
Writing Equations for Ionic Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . 494 B Calculating with Half-Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 690
Math Tutor Calculating with Half-Life . . . . . . . . . 706
Chapter 15 Acid-Base Titration and pH
Sample Problems Chapter 22 Organic Chemistry
A Calculating Hydronium and Sample Problems
Hydroxide Concentrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502 A Naming Alkanes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 721
B Calculating pH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505 B Naming Alkenes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 726
C Calculating pH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 506 Math Tutor Calculating Empirical Formulas . . . . . 746
D Calculating Hydronium
Concentration Using pH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507 Chapter 23 Biological Chemistry
E Calculating Hydronium and Math Tutor Interpretation of the Genetic Code . . . 780
Hydroxide Concentrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508
F Calculating the Molarity of an Acid Solution . . 520
Math Tutor Using Logarithms and pH . . . . . . . . . . 526

C O N T E N T S xv

Labs

PRE-LABS Volumetric Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 850
Calorimetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 852
Extraction and Filtration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 844
Gravimetric Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 846
Paper Chromatography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 848

CHAPTER LABS Chapter

Chapter 12 Separation of Pen Inks by
1 Mixture Separation INQUIRY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 Paper Chromatography MICRO . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432
2 Percentage of Water
in Popcorn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 13 Testing Water for Ions MICRO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464
3 Conservation of Mass /MICRO INQUIRY . . . . . . . . 94
4 Flame Tests MICRO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 14 Is It an Acid or a Base? MICRO / INQUIRY . . . . . . . 496
5 The Mendeleev Lab of 1869 INQUIRY . . . . . . . . . 172
6 Types of Bonding in Solids INQUIRY . . . . . . . . . . 216 15 How Much Calcium Carbonate
7 Determining the Empirical Is in an Eggshell? MICRO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 528
Formula of Magnesium Oxide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
8 Blueprint Paper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296 16 Calorimetry and Hess’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 558
9 Stoichiometry and
Gravimetric Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326 17 Rate of a Chemical Reaction MICRO . . . . . . . . . 586

10 “Wet” Dry Ice MICRO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358 18 Measuring Ka for Acetic Acid MICRO . . . . . . . . . 628
11 Mass and Density of Air 19 Reduction of Mn in MnO4– MICRO . . . . . . . . . . . 652
20 Voltaic Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 678
at Different Pressures MICRO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
21 Simulation of Nuclear Decay
Using Pennies and Paper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 708

22 Polymers and Toy Balls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 748

23 Casein Glue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 782

QUICK LABS Chapter

Chapter 15 Testing the pH of Rainwater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514
17 Factors Influencing
2 Density of Pennies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3 Constructing a Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 Reaction Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 578
4 The Wave Nature of Light: 19 Redox Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 644

Interference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
5 Designing Your Own

Periodic Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
8 Balancing Equations

Using Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
9 Limiting Reactants in a Recipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
11 Diffusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
12 Observing Solutions,

Suspensions, and Colloids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
14 Household Acids and Bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472

xvi C O N T E N T S

Feature Articles

Chapter Chapter
2 Classical Ideas About Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 3 Physical Chemist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
3 Discovery of Element 43 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 5 Materials Scientist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
4 The Noble Decade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 6 Computational Chemist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
9 The Case of Combustion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302 7 Pharmacist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
11 Chemistry’s First Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376 9 Chemical Technician . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
13 The Riddle of Electrolysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444 12 Environmental Chemist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
18 Fixing the Nitrogen Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 596 15 Analytical Chemist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516
21 An Unexpected Finding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 700 22 Petroleum Engineer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 720
22 The Beginnings of Organic Chemistry . . . . . . . . . 715 23 Forensic Chemist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 774
23 Charles Drew and Blood Transfusions . . . . . . . . . 762
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7 Mass Spectrometry: Identifying Molecules . . . . . 236
CROSS-DISCIPLINARY 8 Carbon Monoxide Catalyst . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
CONNECTION
Fluoridation and Tooth Decay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
Chapter Combustion Synthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
1 Secrets of the Cremona Violins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 10 Surface Melting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
2 Some Handy Comparisons of Units . . . . . . . . . . . 35 11 The Gas Laws and Scuba Diving . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
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14 Acid Water—A Hidden Menace . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477 13 Water Purification by Reverse Osmosis . . . . . . . . 453
16 Self-Heating Meals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545
It’s a Bitter Pill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484 Diamonds Are Forever? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549
15 Liming Streams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510 17 Explosives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 572
18 Blood Buffers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 609 Catalytic Converters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579
21 Quarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 682 19 Photochromic Lenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 634
Skunk-Spray Remedy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 636
4 Spintronics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . HC6ARRX 20 Fuel-Cell Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 666
5 Essential Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . HC6PERX Sodium Production by Electrolysis . . . . . . . . . . . 671
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10 Cloud Seeding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . HC6STMX
13 Minerals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . HC6IONX 2 Roadside Pollution Detector . . . . . . . . . . HC6MEAX
16 Free Energy and the Body . . . . . . . . . . . . HC6NRGX 6 Nanoscale Computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . HC6BNDX
15 Buffers in the Blood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . HC6ABTX 8 How Is Our Public Water Treated? . . . . . . HC6RXNX
18 Limestone Caves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . HC6EQUX 9 Air Bags and Stoichiometry . . . . . . . . . . . HC6STCX
19 Oxidation-Reduction 10 Phase-Change Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . HC6STMX
12 Surfactants: Molecules with Two Faces . . . HC6SLNX
and Photosynthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . HC6OXRX 14 Unclog That Drain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . HC6ACDX
17 Monitoring Reaction Kinetics
extension
with Ultraviolet-Visible Spectroscopy . . . . HC6RXKX
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F E A T U R E A R T I C L E S xvii

Safety in the Chemistry Laboratory

Any chemical can be dangerous if it is misused. Always follow the instructions for
the experiment. Pay close attention to the safety notes. Do not do anything differ-
ently unless told to do so by your teacher.

Chemicals, even water, can cause harm. The challenge is to know how to use
chemicals correctly. To make sure you are using chemicals correctly, follow the
rules stated below, pay attention to your teacher’s directions, and follow cautions
on chemical labels and in the experiments.

Specific experiments will use a system of Safety Symbols to highlight specific types
of precautions. No matter what Safety Symbols an experiment may contain, the
following safety rules apply any time you are in the lab.

Before You Begin underwater swimming—in the lab. Ask your
doctor or your teacher how to use eye-cup safety
1. Read the entire activity before entering the goggles to protect your eyes.
lab. Be familiar with the instructions before
beginning an activity. Do not start an activity 5. Know the location of all safety and emergency
until you have asked your teacher to explain any equipment used in the lab. Know proper
parts of the activity that you do not understand. fire-drill procedures and the location of all fire
exits. Ask your teacher where the nearest eyewash
2. Student-designed procedures or inquiry activi- stations, safety blankets, safety shower, fire extin-
ties must be approved by your teacher before guisher, first-aid kit, and chemical spill kit are
you attempt the procedures or activities. located. Be sure that you know how to operate
the equipment safely.
3. Wear the right clothing for lab work. Before
beginning work, tie back long hair, roll up loose While You Are Working
sleeves, and put on any required personal protec-
tive equipment as directed by your teacher. 6. Always wear a lab apron and safety goggles.
Remove your wristwatch and any necklaces or Wear these items even if you are not working on
jewelry that could get caught in moving parts. an activity. Labs contain chemicals that can damage
Avoid or confine loose clothing that could knock your clothing, skin, and eyes. Keep the strings
things over, catch on fire, get caught in moving of your lab apron tied.
parts, contact electrical connections, or absorb If your safety goggles
chemical solutions. Wear pants rather than shorts cloud up or are
or skirts. Nylon and polyester fabrics burn and uncomfortable, ask
melt more readily than cotton does. Protect your your teacher for
feet from chemical spills and falling objects. Do help. Lengthening
not wear open-toed shoes, sandals, or canvas shoes the strap slight-
in the lab. In addition, chemical fumes may react ly, washing the
with and ruin some jewelry, such as pearl jewelry. goggles with
Do not apply cosmetics in the lab. Some hair care soap and
products and nail polish are highly flammable. warm water,
or using an anti-fog
4. Do not wear contact lenses in the lab. Even spray may help the
though you will be wearing safety goggles, chemi- problem.
cals could get between contact lenses and your
eyes and could cause irreparable eye damage. If
your doctor requires that you wear contact lenses
instead of glasses, then you should wear eye-cup
safety goggles—similar to goggles worn for

xviii S A F E T Y I N T H E C H E M I S T R Y L A B O R A T O R Y

7. NEVER work alone in the lab. Work in the lab matches. Make sure that all heating devices and
only when supervised by your teacher. Do not leave gas valves are turned off before you leave the lab.
equipment unattended while it is in operation. Never leave a heating device unattended when it
is in use. Metal, ceramic, and glass items do not
8. Perform only activities specifically assigned necessarily look hot when they are hot. Allow all
by your teacher. Do not attempt any procedure items to cool before storing them.
without your teacher’s direction. Use only materials
and equipment listed in the activity or authorized 14. Remember how easily glass can break and
by your teacher. Steps in a procedure should be cause a serious cut. Check the condition of any
performed only as described in the activity or as glassware before and after using it. Inform your
approved by your teacher. teacher of any broken, chipped, or cracked glass-
ware, because it should not be used. Never force
9. Keep your work area neat and uncluttered. glass tubing into rubber tubing, stoppers or wooden
Have only books and other materials that are corks. To protect your hands, wear heavy cloth
needed to conduct the activity in the lab. Keep gloves or wrap toweling around the glass and the
backpacks, purses, and other items in your desk, tubing, stopper, or cork, and gently push in the
locker, or other designated storage areas. glass. Do not pick up broken glass with your bare
hands. Dispose of broken glass in a specially
10. Always heed safety symbols and cautions list- designated disposal container.
ed in activities, listed on handouts, posted in
the room, provided on chemical labels, and 15. Exercise caution when working with electrical
given verbally by your teacher. Be aware of the equipment. Do not use electrical equipment with
potential hazards of the required materials and frayed or twisted wires. Be sure that your hands
procedures, and follow all precautions indicated. are dry before using electrical equipment. Do not
let electrical cords dangle from work stations.
11. Be alert, and walk with care in the lab. Be Dangling cords can cause you to trip and can
aware of others near you and your equipment. cause an electrical shock. The area under and
around electrical equipment should be dry; cords
12. Do not take food, drinks, chewing gum, or should not lie in puddles of spilled liquid.
tobacco products into the lab. Do not store
or eat food in the lab. 16. Do not fool around in the lab. Take your lab
work seriously, and behave appropriately in the lab.
13. Use extreme caution when working with hot Lab equipment and apparatus are not toys; never
plates and other heating devices. Keep your use lab time or equipment for anything other than
head, hands, hair, and clothing away from the flame the intended purpose. Be aware of the safety of
or heating area. Remember that metal surfaces your classmates as well as your safety at all times.
connected to the heated area will become hot by
conduction. Use tongs when heating containers Working With Chemicals
and never hold or touch them. Gas burners
should be lit only with a spark lighter, not with 17. NEVER taste chemicals or allow them to contact
your skin. Keep your hands away from your face
and mouth, even if you are wearing gloves.

18. Do not inhale fumes directly. When instructed
to smell a substance, use your hand to wave the
fumes toward your nose, and inhale gently.

19. Read chemical labels. Follow the instructions
and safety precautions stated on the labels.

20. If you are working with flammable liquids,
use only small amounts. Be sure no one else
is using a lit Bunsen burner or is planning to
use one when you are working with flammable
liquids, because the fumes can ignite.

S A F E T Y I N T H E C H E M I S T R Y L A B O R A T O R Y xix

21. For all chemicals, take only what you need. 26. If you spill a chemical on your skin, wash the
However, if you do happen to take too much and chemical off in the sink and call your teacher.
have some left over, DO NOT put it back in the If you spill a solid chemical onto your clothing,
bottle. If somebody accidentally puts a chemical brush it off carefully without scattering it onto
into the wrong bottle, the next person to use it somebody else and call your teacher. If you get
will have a contaminated sample. Ask your liquid on your clothing, wash it off right away by
teacher what to do with any leftover chemicals. using the faucet at the sink and call your teacher.
If the spill is on your pants or something else that
22. NEVER take any chemicals out of the lab. will not fit under the sink faucet, use the safety
(This is another one that you should already shower. Remove the pants or other affected
know. You probably know the remaining rules clothing while you are under the shower, and call
also, but read them anyway.) your teacher. (It may be temporarily embarrassing
to remove pants or other clothing in front of your
Emergency Procedures classmates, but failure to flush the chemical off
your skin could cause permanent damage.)
23. Follow standard fire-safety procedures. If
your clothing catches on fire, do not run; WALK 27. If you get a chemical in your eyes, walk
to the safety shower, stand under it, and turn it immediately to the eyewash station, turn it
on. While doing so, call to your teacher. In case on, and lower your head so your eyes are in
of fire, alert your teacher and leave the lab. the running water. Hold your eyelids open with
your thumbs and fingers, and roll your eyeballs
24. Report any accident, incident, or hazard— around. You have to flush your eyes continuously
no matter how trivial—to your teacher for at least 15 minutes. Call your teacher while
immediately. Any incident involving bleeding, you are doing this.
burns, fainting, nausea, dizziness, chemical expo-
sure, or ingestion should also be reported imme- When You Are Finished
diately to the school nurse or to a physician. If
you have a close call, tell your teacher so that you 28. Clean your work area at the conclusion of
and your teacher can find a way to prevent it each lab period as directed by your teacher.
from happening again. Broken glass, chemicals, and other waste products
should be disposed of in separate, special containers.
25. Report all spills to your teacher immediately. Dispose of waste materials as directed by your
Call your teacher rather than trying to clean a teacher. Put away all material and equipment
spill yourself. Your teacher will tell you whether it according to your teacher’s instructions. Report
is safe for you to clean up the spill; if it is not safe, any damaged or missing equipment or materials
your teacher will know how to clean up the spill. to your teacher.

29. Wash your hands with soap and hot water
after each lab period. To avoid contamination,
wash your hands at the conclusion of each lab
period, and before you leave the lab.

A Final Reminder

30. Whether or not the lab instructions remind
you, all of these rules apply all of the time.

xx S A F E T Y I N T H E C H E M I S T R Y L A B O R A T O R Y

Safety Symbols

To highlight specific types of precautions, the following symbols are used through-
out the lab program. Remember that no matter what safety symbols you see in the
textbook, all 30 of the lab safety rules previously described should be followed at
all times.

EYE PROTECTION CHEMICAL SAFETY

• Wear safety goggles in the lab at all times. • Never return unused chemicals to the origi-
• Know how to use the eyewash station. If nal container. Take only what you need.

chemicals get into your eyes, flush your • Label the beakers and test tubes you use
eyes (including under the eyelids) with run- with the chemicals they contain.
ning water at the eyewash station for at
least 15 minutes. Use your thumb and fin- • Never transfer substances by sucking on a
gers to hold your eyelids open and roll your pipet or straw; use a suction bulb.
eyeball around. While doing so, ask another
student to notify your teacher. • Do not mix any chemicals unless specifical-
ly instructed to do so by your teacher.
CLOTHING PROTECTION
• If a chemical spills on the floor or lab bench,
• Wear an apron or lab coat at all times in tell your teacher, and wait for instructions
the lab. before cleaning it up yourself.

• Tie back long hair, secure loose clothing, CAUSTIC SUBSTANCE SAFETY
and remove loose jewelry so that they do
not knock over equipment or come into • Do not pour water into a strong acid or
contact with hazardous materials. base. The mixture can produce heat and can
splatter.
HAND SAFETY
HEATING SAFETY
• Wear protective gloves when working with
chemicals. • Avoid using open flames. If possible, work
only with hot plates having an on/off switch
• Use a hot mitt or tongs to handle equip- and an indicator light.
ment that may be hot.
• When heating a chemical in a test tube,
GLASSWARE SAFETY point the open end of the test tube away
from yourself and others.
• Inspect glassware before use; do not
use chipped or cracked glassware. HYGIENE CARE

• Never place glassware, containers of chemi- • Keep your hands away from your face and
cals, or anything else near the edges of a lab mouth while you work in the lab.
bench or table.
• Do not eat or drink any food from labora-
tory containers.

• Wash your hands thoroughly before you
leave the lab.

WASTE DISPOSAL

• Help protect our environment by following
the instructions for proper disposal.

S A F E T Y S Y M B O L S xxi

How to Use Your Textbook

Your Roadmap for Success with Modern Chemistry

Get Organized Organic Compounds SECTION 1

Keep a science notebook so that you are ready to A ll organic compounds contain carbon atoms. However, not all OBJECTIVES
take notes when your teacher reviews material in
class. Keep your assignments in this notebook so carbon-containing compounds are classified as organic. There are a few Explain how the structure and
that you can review them when studying for the exceptions, such as Na2CO3, CO, and CO2, that are considered inor- bonding of carbon lead to the
chapter test. ganic. Organic compounds, then, can be defined as covalently bonded diversity and number of
compounds containing carbon, excluding carbonates and oxides. organic compounds.
STUDY TIP Appendix B, located in the back of Figure 1 shows a few familiar items that contain organic compounds.
the book, describes a number of Study Skills that Compare the use of molecular
can help you succeed in chemistry, including Carbon Bonding and the Diversity and structural formulas to
several approaches to note taking. of Organic Compounds represent organic compounds.

Read for Meaning The diversity of organic compounds results from the uniqueness of car- Compare structural and geo-
bon’s structure and bonding. Carbon’s electronic structure allows it to metric isomers of organic
Read the Objectives at the beginning of each bind to itself to form chains and rings, to bind covalently to other ele- compounds.
section because they will tell you what you’ll ments, and to bind to itself and other elements in different arrangements.
need to learn. Key Terms are boldfaced in each
chapter. Use the glossary to locate definitions FIGURE 1 Aspirin, polyethylene
quickly. After reading each chapter, turn to the in plastic bags, citric acid in fruit, and
Chapter Highlights page. Then, review the list amino acids in animals are all exam-
of key terms and read the brief summaries of ples of organic compounds.
the chapter’s main ideas. You may want to do
this even before you read the chapter. O R G A N I C C H E M I S T R Y 711

STUDY TIP If you don’t understand a definition,
reread the page on which the term is introduced.
The surrounding text should help make the
definition easier to understand.

Be Resourceful, Use the Web

SciLinks boxes in your Visit go.hrw.com

textbook take you to Find resources and
resources that you can use reference materials
for science projects, reports, that go with your textbook. Visit
and research papers. Go to www.scilinks.org, go.hrw.com, and type in the
and type in the SciLinks code to get information keywords found in your textbook to
on a topic. access the available resources.

xxii H O W T O U S E Y O U R T E X T B O O K

SAMPLE PROBLEM B

Oxygen gas from the decomposition of potassium chlorate, KClO3, was collected by water
displacement. The barometric pressure and the temperature during the experiment were
731.0 torr and 20.0°C, respectively. What was the partial pressure of the oxygen collected?

SOLUTION

1 ANALYZE Given: PT = Patm = 731.0 torr
PH2O = 17.5 torr (vapor pressure of water at 20.0°C, from Table A-8)
Patm = PO2 + PH2O

Unknown: PO2 in torr

2 PLAN The partial pressure of the collected oxygen is found by subtracting the partial pressure of Work the Problems
water vapor from the atmospheric pressure, according to Dalton’s law of partial pressures.
Sample Problems, Math Tutors, and Practice
3 COMPUTE PO2 = Patm − PH2O Problems build your reasoning and problem-
4 EVALUATE solving skills by guiding you through example
Substituting values for Patm and PH2O gives PO2. problems.

PO2 = 731.0 torr − 17.5 torr = 713.5 torr Prepare for Tests

As expected, the oxygen partial pressure is less than atmospheric pressure. It is reasonably Section Reviews and Chapter Reviews test your
close to an estimated value of 713, calculated as 730 − 17. knowledge of the main points of the chapter.
Critical Thinking items challenge you to think
PRACTICE Answers in Appendix E about the material in different ways and in
greater depth. The Standardized Test Prep that is
1. Some hydrogen gas is collected over water at 20.0°C. The levels of Go to go.hrw.com located after each Chapter Review helps you
water inside and outside the gas-collection bottle are the same. for more practice sharpen your test-taking abilities.
The partial pressure of hydrogen is 742.5 torr. What is the baro- problems that ask you STUDY TIP Reread the Objectives and Chapter
metric pressure at the time the gas is collected? to calculate partial Highlights when studying for a test to be sure
pressure. you know the material.

Keyword: HC6GASX Use the Appendix

CHAPTER REVIEW Your Appendix contains a variety of resources
designed to enhance your learning experience.
SECTION REVIEW 6. Why can you calculate the total pressure of a mix- The Elements Handbook provides additional
information about the elements. Appendix A has
1.TDhefieneDpreesvsuerel.opment of a New tur1e2o. fUgassinesg bthyeadtwdiongeqtougaettihoenrstEhe=pahrvtiaalnpdrecs=- λv, tables which include essential problem-solving
2.AmWtehoaastmuurenimitcsenaMtrse?uosdedetlo express pressure sures odf ethrievceoamnpeoqnuenattigoanseesx?pressing E in terms of h, c, information. Appendix D provides more practice
Critical Thainndkiλn.g problems.
sEtVe1Ar3iLle.UAbHqTiuoIoNelwoGngcliMycoanEilsTgrH7ewO.s2eoD5auSr×lcdhC1il0aet5ratenaHksrezeoaotalomedrtsaraduansviodeedlowfpfaroeovrrmeatweMhaorsse fre-
3. SWEChaTtIOarNe s1tanRdEaVrdIEcoWnditions for gas 7. to
m1.eaas.urLemistenfitvs?e examples of electromagnetic 8.
awthsyl.ighEatlpyapratrbhooxivfimethaaettmedloyisst8pa.h0ne0crie×c bp1er0et7wsskeumeren?. Ethxepltawino planets is
4. Converrtatdheiaftoiollno.wing pressures to pressures in fINillF1eE4dR.bRaCpINlrloGoobodRanuElstcL-edA6deT0fIliOiansNteaaSnHonvIauPercSrtlietfiEaimcxripearlleafaiarnsactdtweoirhortyihasahnonedtoliaiupsimre-u-tsheadt is
stanbd.arWd hatamt oisspthheerseps:eed of all forms of electro- as a
a. 151.m98agknPaetic radiatibo.n4i5n6atovrar cuum?

5. A2.saPmrpelpeaoref naittrwogoe-ncoglausmisnctoalblelcet.eLdisotvtehrewparteorperties filled baglalomomnsad-roa.y source in the treatment of certain

at aotfemligphetratthuaret coafn23b.e0s°tCb. We ehxapt liasitnheedpbreyssthureewave types of cancer. If the wavelength of the gamma

of ththeenoitrryoginenognaesciof lautmons.pLhiesrticthporesessbuerestisexplained radiation from a cobalt-60 source is 1.00 ×
785bmymthHegp?article theory in the second column. 10−3 nm, calculate the energy of a photon of this

You may want to consult a physics textbook for radiation.

reference.

3. What are the frequency and wavelength ranges G A S E S 367
of visible light?
The Quantum Model
4. List the colors of light in the visible spectrum in of the Atom
order of increasing frequency.

5. In the early twentieth century, what two experi- SECTION 2 REVIEW
ments involving light and matter could not be
explained by the wave theory of light? 15. Describe two major shortcomings of Bohr’s
model of the atom.
6. a. How are the wavelength and frequency of
electromagnetic radiation related? 16. a. What is the principal quantum number?
b. How is it symbolized?
b. How are the energy and frequency of elec- c. What are shells?
tromagnetic radiation related? d. How does n relate to the number of elec-
trons allowed per main energy level?
c. How are the energy and wavelength of elec-
tromagnetic radiation related? 17. a. What information is given by the angular
momentum quantum number?
7. Which theory of light—the wave or particle
theory—best explains the following phenomena? b. What are sublevels, or subshells?
a. the interference of light 18. For each of the following values of n, indicate
b. the photoelectric effect
c. the emission of electromagnetic radiation the numbers and types of sublevels possible for
by an excited atom that main energy level. (Hint: See Table 2.)
a. n = 1
8. Distinguish between the ground state and an b. n = 2
excited state of an atom. c. n = 3
d. n = 4
9. According to Bohr’s model of the hydrogen e. n = 7 (number only)
atom, how is hydrogen’s emission spectrum 19. a. What information is given by the magnetic
produced?

PRACTICE PROBLEMS quantum number?
b. How many orbital orientations are possible

10. Determine the frequency of light whose wave- in each of the s, p, d, and f sublevels?
length is 4.257 × 10−7 cm. c. Explain and illustrate the notation for distin-

11. Determine the energy in joules of a photon guishing between the different p orbitals in a
whose frequency is 3.55 × 1017 Hz. sublevel.

124 C H A P T E R 4

Visit Holt Online Learning

If your teacher gives you a special
password to log onto the Holt Online
Learning site, you’ll find your complete
textbook on the Web. In addition, you’ll find some great
learning tools and online activities. You’ll be able to see
how well you know the material from your textbook.

H O W T O U S E Y O U R T E X T B O O K xxiii

CHAPTER 1

Matter and Change

Chemistry is central to all of the sciences.

Tartaric Acid Crystals

Chemistry Is a SECTION 1
Physical Science
OBJECTIVES
T he natural sciences were once divided into two broad categories:
Define chemistry.
the biological sciences and the physical sciences. Living things are the
main focus of the biological sciences. The physical sciences focus List examples of the branches
mainly on nonliving things. However, because we now know that both of chemistry.
living and nonliving matter consist of chemical structures, chemistry is
central to all the sciences, and there are no longer distinct divisions Compare and contrast
between the biological and physical sciences. basic research, applied
research, and technological
Chemistry is the study of the composition, structure, and properties of development.
matter, the processes that matter undergoes, and the energy changes that
accompany these processes. Chemistry deals with questions such as, FIGURE 1 A balance (a) is an
What is a material’s makeup? How does a material change when heat- instrument used to measure the
ed, cooled, or mixed with other materials and why does this behavior mass of materials. A sample of DNA
occur? Chemists answer these kinds of questions during their work. placed in a scanning tunneling micro-
scope produces an image (b) showing
Instruments are routinely used in chemistry to extend our ability to the contours of the DNA’s surface.
observe and make measurements. Instruments make it possible, for exam-
ple, to look at microstructures—things too tiny to be seen with the unaid-
ed eye. The scanning electron microscope reveals tiny structures by
beaming particles called electrons at materials. When the electrons hit a
material, they scatter and produce a pattern that shows the material’s
microstructure. Invisible rays called X rays can also be used to

(a) (b)

MATTER AND CHANGE 3

determine microstructures. The patterns that appear, called X-ray diffrac-
tion patterns, can be analyzed to reveal the arrangement of atoms, mole-
cules, or other particles that make up the material. By learning about
microstructures, chemists can explain the behavior of macrostructures—
the visible things all around you.

Branches of Chemistry

Chemistry includes many different branches of study and research. The
following are six main areas, or branches, of study. But like the biologi-
cal and physical sciences, these branches often overlap.
1. Organic chemistry—the study of most carbon-containing compounds
2. Inorganic chemistry—the study of non-organic substances, many of

which have organic fragments bonded to metals (organometallics)
3. Physical chemistry—the study of the properties and changes of

matter and their relation to energy
4. Analytical chemistry—the identification of the components and com-

position of materials
5. Biochemistry—the study of substances and processes occurring in

living things
6. Theoretical chemistry—the use of mathematics and computers to

understand the principles behind observed chemical behavior and to
design and predict the properties of new compounds

In all areas of chemistry, scientists work with chemicals. A chemical
is any substance that has a definite composition. For example, consider
the material called sucrose, or cane sugar. It has a definite composition
in terms of the atoms that compose it. It is produced by certain plants in
the chemical process of photosynthesis. Sucrose is a chemical. Carbon
dioxide, water, and countless other substances are chemicals as well.

Knowing the properties of chemicals allows chemists to find suitable
uses for them. For example, researchers have synthesized new sub-
stances, such as artificial sweeteners and synthetic fibers. The reactions
used to make these chemicals can often be carried out on a large scale
to make new consumer products such as flavor enhancers and fabrics.

Basic Research

Basic research is carried out for the sake of increasing knowledge, such
as how and why a specific reaction occurs and what the properties of a
substance are. Chance discoveries can be the result of basic research.The
properties of Teflon™, for example, were first discovered by accident. A
researcher named Roy Plunkett was puzzled by the fact that a gas cylin-
der used for an experiment appeared to be empty even though the mea-
sured mass of the cylinder clearly indicated there was something inside.
Plunkett cut the cylinder open and found a white solid. Through basic
research, Plunkett’s research team determined the nonstick properties,
molecular structure, and chemical composition of the new material.

4 CHAPTER 1

Applied Research

Applied research is generally carried
out to solve a problem. For example,
when certain refrigerants escape into
the upper atmosphere, they damage the
ozone layer, which helps block harmful
ultraviolet rays from reaching the sur-
face of Earth. In response to concerns
that this atmospheric damage could
pose health problems, chemists have
developed new refrigerants. In applied
research, researchers are driven not by
curiosity or a desire to know but by a
desire to solve a specific problem.

Technological

Development

Technological development typically FIGURE 2 The chemical structure of the material in an optical fiber
involves the production and use of gives it the property of total internal reflection. This property, which
products that improve our quality of allows these fibers to carry light, was discovered through basic and
life. Examples include computers, applied research. The use of this property to build networks by sending
catalytic converters for cars, and data on light pulses is the technological development of fiber optics.
biodegradable materials.

Technological applications often lag far behind the discoveries that

are eventually used in technologies. For example, nonstick cookware, a

technological application, was developed well after the accidental dis-

covery of Teflon. When it was later discovered that the Teflon coating

on cookware often peeled off, a new challenge arose. Using applied

research, scientists were then able to improve the bond between the

Teflon and the metal surface of the cookware so that it did not peel.

Basic research, applied research, and technological development often

overlap. Discoveries made in basic research may lead to applications that

can result in new technologies. For example, knowledge of crystals and

light that was gained from basic research was used to develop lasers. It

was then discovered that pulses of light from lasers can be sent through

optical fibers. Today, telephone messages and cable television signals are

carried quickly over long distances using fiber optics.

SECTION REVIEW Critical Thinking

1. Define chemistry. 4. INFERRING RELATIONSHIPS Scientific and techno-
2. Name six branches of study in chemistry. logical advances are constantly changing how
3. Compare and contrast basic research, applied people live and work. Discuss a change that you
have observed in your lifetime and that has made
research, and technological development. life easier or more enjoyable for you.

MATTER AND CHANGE 5

SECTION 2 Matter and Its
Properties
OBJECTIVES
L ook around you. You can see a variety of objects—books, desks,
Distinguish between the
physical properties and chairs, and perhaps trees or buildings outside. All those things are made
chemical properties of matter. up of matter, but exactly what is matter? What characteristics, or prop-
erties, make matter what it is? In this section, you will learn the answers
Classify changes of matter as to these questions.
physical or chemical.
Explaining what matter is involves finding properties that all matter
Explain the gas, liquid, has in common. That may seem difficult, given that matter takes so
and solid states in terms many different forms. For the moment, just consider one example of
of particles. matter—a rock. The first thing you might notice is that the rock takes
up space. In other words, it has volume. Volume is the amount of three-
Explain how the law of con- dimensional space an object occupies. All matter has volume. All mat-
servation of energy applies to ter also has a property called mass. Mass is a measure of the amount of
changes of matter. matter. Mass is the measurement you make using a balance. Matter can
thus be defined as anything that has mass and takes up space. These two
Distinguish between a mix- properties are the general properties of all matter.
ture and a pure substance.

Carbon atom Basic Building Blocks of Matter

Matter comes in many forms. The fundamental building blocks of mat-
ter are atoms and molecules. These particles make up elements and
compounds. An atom is the smallest unit of an element that maintains the
chemical identity of that element. An element is a pure substance that
cannot be broken down into simpler, stable substances and is made of
one type of atom. Carbon is an element and contains one kind of atom.

Hydrogen atom

(b) Oxygen atom Carbon atom

(a) FIGURE 3 Both elements and compounds are made of atoms, as shown in
these models of (a) diamond and (b) sucrose (table sugar).
6 CHAPTER 1

A compound is a substance that can be broken down into simple sta-
ble substances. Each compound is made from the atoms of two or more
elements that are chemically bonded. Water is an example of a com-
pound. It is made of two elements, hydrogen and oxygen. The atoms of
hydrogen and oxygen are chemically bonded to form a water molecule.
You will learn more about the particles that make up compounds when
you study chemical bonding in Chapter 6. For now, you can think of a
molecule as the smallest unit of an element or compound that retains all
of the properties of that element or compound.

Properties and Changes in Matter FIGURE 4 Water boils at 100°C
no matter how much water is in the
Every substance, whether it is an element or a compound, has charac- container. Boiling point is an inten-
teristic properties. Chemists use properties to distinguish between sub- sive property.
stances and to separate them. Most chemical investigations are related
to or depend on the properties of substances.

A property may be a characteristic that defines an entire set of sub-
stances. That property can be used to classify an unknown substance as
a member of that group. For example, many elements are classified as
metals. The distinguishing property of metals is that they conduct elec-
tricity well. Therefore, if an unknown element is tested and found to
conduct electricity well, it is a metal.

Properties can help reveal the identity of an unknown substance.
However, conclusive identification usually cannot be made based on
only one property. Comparisons of several properties can be used
together to establish the identity of an unknown. Properties are either
intensive or extensive. Extensive properties depend on the amount of
matter that is present. Such properties include volume, mass, and the
amount of energy in a substance. In contrast, intensive properties do not
depend on the amount of matter present. Such properties include the
melting point, boiling point, density, and ability to conduct electricity and
to transfer energy as heat. Intensive properties are the same for a given
substance regardless of how much of the substance is present. Properties
can also be grouped into two general types: physical properties and
chemical properties.

Physical Properties and Physical Changes

A physical property is a characteristic that can be observed or measured
without changing the identity of the substance. Physical properties describe
the substance itself, rather than describing how it can change into other
substances. Examples of physical properties are melting point and boiling
point.Those points are, respectively, the temperature at which a substance
melts from solid to liquid and the temperature at which it boils from liq-
uid to gas. For example, water melts from ice to liquid at 0°C (273 K or
32°F). Liquid water boils to vapor at 100°C (373 K or 212°F).

A change in a substance that does not involve a change in the identity
of the substance is called a physical change. Examples of physical

MATTER AND CHANGE 7

www.scilinks.org changes include grinding, cutting, melting, and boiling a material. These
Topic: Physical/Chemical types of changes do not change the identity of the substance present.

Changes Melting and boiling are part of an important class of physical
Code: HC61145 changes called changes of state. As the name suggests, a change of state
is a physical change of a substance from one state to another. The three
common states of matter are solid, liquid, and gas.

Matter in the solid state has definite volume and definite shape. For
example, a piece of quartz or coal keeps its size and its shape, regardless
of the container it is in. Solids have this characteristic because the par-
ticles in them are packed together in relatively fixed positions. The par-
ticles are held close together by the strong attractive forces between
them, and only vibrate about fixed points.

Matter in the liquid state has a definite volume but an indefinite shape;
a liquid assumes the shape of its container. For example, a given quan-
tity of liquid water takes up a definite amount of space, but the water
takes the shape of its container. Liquids have this characteristic because
the particles in them are close together but can move past one another.
The particles in a liquid move more rapidly than those in a solid. This
causes them to overcome temporarily the strong attractive forces
between them, allowing the liquid to flow.

Matter in the gas state has neither definite volume nor definite shape.
For example, a given quantity of helium expands to fill any size contain-
er and takes the shape of the container. All gases have this characteristic
because they are composed of particles that move very rapidly and are
at great distances from one another compared with the particles of liq-
uids and solids.At these great distances, the attractive forces between gas
particles have less of an effect than they do at the small distances

between particles of liquids and solids.
An important fourth state of matter is plasma. Plasma is a

high-temperature physical state of matter in which atoms lose
most of their electrons, particles that make up atoms. Plasma is
found in fluorescent bulbs.

Melting, the change from solid to liquid, is an example of
a change of state. Boiling is a change of state from liquid to
gas. Freezing, the opposite of melting, is the change from a
liquid to a solid. A change of state does not affect the identi-
ty of the substance. For example, when ice melts to liquid
water or when liquid water boils to form water vapor, the
same substance, water, is still present, as shown in Figure 6.
The water has simply changed state, but it has not turned into
a different compound. Only the distances and interactions
between the particles that make up water have changed.

FIGURE 5 Because it possesses certain chemical Chemical Properties and Chemical Changes
properties, a test strip containing Benedict’s solu-
tion is used to test for the presence of sugar in Physical properties can be observed without changing the
urine. The test strip is dipped into the sample. The identity of the substance, but properties of the second type—
test strip is then matched to a color scale to deter- chemical properties—cannot. A chemical property relates to a
mine the sugar level in the urine. substance’s ability to undergo changes that transform it into dif-
ferent substances. Chemical properties are easiest to see when

8 CHAPTER 1

Solid Gas FIGURE 6 Models for water
Liquid in three states. The molecules are
close together in the solid and liquid
states but far apart in the gas state.
The molecules in the solid state are
relatively fixed in position, but those
in the liquid and gas states can flow
around each other.

substances react to form new substances. For example, the ability of Historical Chemistry
charcoal (carbon) to burn in air is a chemical property. When charcoal
burns, it combines with oxygen in air to become a new substance, carbon Go to go.hrw.com for a full-length
dioxide gas. After the chemical change, the amounts of the original sub- article on the chemical reactions of
stances, carbon and oxygen, are less than before. A different substance noble gases.
with different properties has been formed. Other examples of chemical
properties include the ability of iron to rust by combining with oxygen in Keyword: HC6MTXX
air and the ability of silver to tarnish by combining with sulfur.

A change in which one or more substances are converted into different
substances is called a chemical change or chemical reaction. The sub-
stances that react in a chemical change are called the reactants. The sub-
stances that are formed by the chemical change are called the products. In
the case of burning charcoal, carbon and oxygen are the reactants in a
combustion, or burning, reaction. Carbon dioxide is the product. The
chemical change can be described as follows:

Carbon plus oxygen yields (or forms) carbon dioxide.

Arrows and plus signs can be substituted for the words yields and plus,
respectively:

carbon + oxygen ⎯→ carbon dioxide

MATTER AND CHANGE 9

Mercury Oxygen
Physical properties: silver-white, Physical properties: colorless,
liquid metal; in the solid state, mercury odorless gas, soluble in water
is ductile and malleable and can be Chemical properties: supports
cut with a knife combustion; reacts with many
Chemical properties: forms alloys metals
with most metals except iron; com-
bines readily with sulfur at normal
temperatures; reacts with nitric acid
and hot sulfuric acid; oxidizes to
form mercury(II) oxide upon heating

Mercury(II) oxide
Physical properties: bright red or
orange-red, odorless crystalline solid,
almost insoluble in water
Chemical properties: decomposes
when exposed to light or at 500ºC
to form mercury and oxygen gas

FIGURE 7 When mercury(II) The decomposition of the mercury compound shown in Figure 7 can
oxide is heated, it decomposes to be expressed as follows:
form oxygen gas and mercury
(which can be seen on the side of mercury(II) oxide ⎯→ mercury + oxygen
the test tube). Decomposition is a
chemical change that can be Chemical changes and reactions, such as combustion and decomposi-
observed by comparing the proper- tion, form products whose properties differ greatly from those of the
ties of mercury(II) oxide, mercury, reactants. However, chemical changes do not affect the total amount of
and oxygen. matter present before and after a reaction. The amount of matter, and
therefore the total mass, remains the same.
10 C H A P T E R 1
Energy and Changes in Matter

When physical or chemical changes occur, energy is always involved.
The energy can take several different forms, such as heat or light.
Sometimes heat provides enough energy to cause a physical change, as
in the melting of ice, and sometimes heat provides enough energy to
cause a chemical change, as in the decomposition of water vapor to
form oxygen gas and hydrogen gas. But the boundary between physical
and chemical changes isn’t always so clear. For example, while most
chemists would consider the dissolving of sucrose in water to be a phys-
ical change, many chemists would consider the dissolving of table salt in
water to be a chemical change. As you learn more about the structure
of matter, you will better understand why the boundaries between
chemical and physical changes can be confusing.

Accounting for all the energy present before and after a change is
not a simple process. But scientists who have done such experimenta-
tion are confident that the total amount of energy remains the same.
Although energy can be absorbed or released in a change, it is not
destroyed or created. It simply assumes a different form. This is the law
of conservation of energy.

Classification of Matter FIGURE 8 This classification
scheme for matter shows the
Matter exists in an enormous variety of forms. Any sample of matter, relationships among mixtures,
however, can be classified either as a pure substance or as a mixture. compounds, and elements.
The composition of a pure substance is the same throughout and does
not vary from sample to sample. A pure substance can be an element or
a compound. Mixtures, in contrast, contain more than one substance.
They can vary in composition and properties from sample to sample
and sometimes from one part of a sample to another part of the same
sample. All matter, whether it is a pure substance or a mixture, can be
classified in terms of uniformity of composition and properties of a
given sample. Figure 8 illustrates the overall classification of matter into
elements, compounds, and mixtures.

Mixtures

You deal with mixtures every day. Nearly every object around you,
including most things you eat and drink and even the air you breathe,
is a mixture. A mixture is a blend of two or more kinds of matter, each

Matter

Yes Can it be separated? No

Mixtures Pure substances

Is the Can it be decom-
composition
Yes uniform? No posed by ordinary

Yes chemical means? No

Homogeneous Heterogeneous Compounds Elements
mixtures mixtures (water, sodium (gold, aluminum,
chloride, sucrose) oxygen, chlorine)
(air, sugar in water, (granite, wood,
stainless steel) blood)

M A T T E R A N D C H A N G E 11

(a) (b) (c)

12 C H A P T E R 1 FIGURE 9 (a) Barium chromate can be separated from the solution in the
beaker using filtration. (b) A centrifuge can be used to separate certain solid
components. The centrifuge spins rapidly, which causes the solids to settle to the
bottom of the test tube. (c) The components of an ink can be separated using
paper chromatography.

of which retains its own identity and properties. The parts, or compo-
nents, of a mixture are simply mixed together physically and can usually
be separated. As a result, the properties of a mixture are a combination
of the properties of its components. Because mixtures can contain vari-
ous amounts of different substances, a mixture’s composition must be
specified. This is often done in terms of percentage by mass or by vol-
ume. For example, a mixture might be 5% sodium chloride and 95%
water by mass.

Some mixtures are uniform in composition; that is, they are said to be
homogeneous. They have the same proportion of components through-
out. Homogeneous mixtures are also called solutions. A salt-water solu-
tion is an example of such a mixture. Other mixtures are not uniform
throughout; that is, they are heterogeneous. For example, in a mixture
of clay and water, heavier clay particles concentrate near the bottom of
the container.

Some mixtures can be separated by filtration or vaporized to sepa-
rate the different components. Filtration can be used to separate a mix-
ture of solid barium chromate from the other substances, as shown in
the beaker in Figure 9a. The yellow barium compound is trapped by the
filter paper, but the solution passes through. If the solid in a liquid-solid
mixture settles to the bottom of the container, the liquid can be care-
fully poured off (decanted).A centrifuge (Figure 9b) can be used to sep-
arate some solid-liquid mixtures, such as those in blood. Another
technique, called paper chromatography, can be used to separate mix-
tures of dyes or pigments because the different substances move at dif-
ferent rates on the paper (Figure 9c).

Pure Substances

Any sample of a pure substance is homogeneous. A pure substance has
a fixed composition and differs from a mixture in the following ways:
1. Every sample of a given pure substance has exactly the same charac-

teristic properties. All samples of a pure substance have the same
characteristic physical and chemical properties. These properties are
so specific that they can be used to identify the substance. In contrast,
the properties of a mixture depend on the relative amounts of the
mixture’s components.
2. Every sample of a given pure substance has exactly the same compo-
sition. Unlike mixtures, all samples of a pure substance have the
same makeup. For example, pure water is always 11.2% hydrogen
and 88.8% oxygen by mass.

Pure substances are either compounds or elements. A compound can
be decomposed, or broken down, into two or more simpler compounds
or elements by a chemical change. Water is a compound made of hydro-
gen and oxygen chemically bonded to form a single substance. Water
can be broken down into hydrogen and oxygen through a chemical
reaction called electrolysis, as shown in Figure 10a.

Sucrose is made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Sucrose breaks
down to form the other substances shown in Figure 10b. Under intense
heating, sucrose breaks down to produce carbon and water.

Hydrogen Oxygen FIGURE 10 (a) Passing an
molecule, H2 molecule, O2 electric current through water
causes the compound to break
down into the elements hydrogen
and oxygen, which differ in compo-
sition from water. (b) When sucrose
is heated, it caramelizes. When it
is heated to a high enough tempera-
ture, it breaks down completely into
carbon and water.

Water
molecule, H2O
(a) (b)

M A T T E R A N D C H A N G E 13

TABLE 1 Some Grades
of Chemical Purity

↑ Primary standard reagents
⏐
⏐ ACS (American Chemical FIGURE 11 The labeling on a reagent bottle lists the grade of the reagent
⏐ Society–specified and the percentages of impurities for that grade. What grade is this chemical?
⏐ reagents)
Laboratory Chemicals and Purity
Increasing purity ⏐ USP (United States
⏐ Pharmacopoeia The chemicals in laboratories are generally treated as if they are pure.
⏐ standards) However, all chemicals have some impurities. Chemical grades of puri-
⏐ CP (chemically pure; ty are listed in Table 1. The purity ranking of the grades can vary when
⏐ purer than technical agencies differ in their standards. For some chemicals, the USP grade
⏐ grade) may specify higher purity than the CP grade. For other chemicals, the
⏐ opposite may be true. However, the primary standard reagent grade is
⏐ NF (National Formulary always purer than the technical grade for the same chemical. Chemists
⏐ specifications) need to be aware of the kinds of impurities in a reagent because these
impurities could affect the results of a reaction. For example, the chem-
⏐ FCC (Food Chemical ical label shown in Figure 11 shows the impurities for that grade. The
⏐ Code specifications) chemical manufacturer must ensure that the standards set for that
⏐ Technical (industrial reagent by the American Chemical Society are met.
⏐ chemicals)
⏐

SECTION REVIEW 3. How do you decide whether a sample of matter is
a solid, liquid, or gas?
1. a. What is the main difference between physical
properties and chemical properties? 4. Contrast mixtures with pure substances.

b. Give an example of each. Critical Thinking

2. Classify each of the following as either a physical 5. ANALYZING INFORMATION Compare the composi-
change or a chemical change. tion of sucrose purified from sugar cane with the
a. tearing a sheet of paper composition of sucrose purified from sugar beets.
b. melting a piece of wax Explain your answer.
c. burning a log

14 C H A P T E R 1

Secrets of the Cremona Violins

What are the most beautiful sound- Dr. Nagyvary and his violin Many new violins made from the
ing of all violins? Most professionals treated wood and replicated finish
will pick the instruments created which contains an enzyme called have been made, and their sound
in Cremona, Italy, following the pectinase. The pectinase softens the has been analyzed by modern signal
Renaissance. At that time, Antonio wood, making it resonate more analyzers. These violins have been
Stradivari, the Guarneri family, and freely. favorably compared with authentic
other designers created instruments Stradivari violins.
of extraordinary sound that have yet “The other key factor in a violin’s
to be matched. The craftsmen were sound,” says Dr. Nagyvary, “is the A number of expert violinists have
notoriously secretive about their finish, which is the filler and the var- praised the sound of Dr. Nagyvary’s
techniques, but, based on 20 years of nish covering the instrument. Most instruments, but some violin makers
research, Dr. Joseph Nagyvary, a pro- modern finishes are made from rub- remain skeptical of the chemist’s
fessor of biochemistry at Texas A&M bery materials, which limit the vibra- claims. They insist that it takes many
University, thinks he has discovered tions of the wood.” Modern analysis years to reveal just how good a vio-
the key to the violins’ sound hidden has revealed that the Cremona finish lin is. In the meantime, almost every-
in the chemistry of their materials. was different: it was a brittle mineral one agrees that the art and science
microcomposite of a very sophisti- of violin making are still epitomized
According to Dr. Nagyvary, cated nature. According to historical by the instruments of Cremona.
Stradivarius instruments are nearly accounts, all violin makers, including
free of the shrill, high-pitched Stradivari, procured their varnishes Questions
noises produced by modern violins. from the local drugstore chemist,
Generally, violin makers attribute this and they didn’t even know what 1. According to Dr. Nagyvary, what
to the design of the instrument, but they were using! Dr. Nagyvary and are two factors that are believed
Dr. Nagyvary traces it to a different his co-workers have identified most to have created the unique
source. In Stradivari’s day, wood for of the key ingredients of the sound of the Stradivari violins?
the violins was transported by float- Cremona finish.
ing it down a river from the moun- 2. Use the library or Internet
tains to Venice, where it was stored resources to find additional
in sea water. Dr. Nagyvary first theo- information about the Cremona
rized that the soaking process could violin makers. Who were some of
have removed ingredients from the the other instrument makers dur-
wood that made it inherently noisy. ing the time period in which
His experiments revealed that Stradivari was alive? Were other
microbes and minerals also permeat- stringed instruments made by
ed the wood, making their own con- these artisans? What are the
tribution to the mellow musical estimated present-day values of
sound. Attempting to reproduce the instruments made during this
effects of sea water, Dr. Nagyvary period in Cremona?
soaks all his wood in a “secret”
solution. One of his favorite ingredi-
ents is a cherry-and-plum puree,

M A T T E R A N D C H A N G E 15

SECTION 3 Elements

OBJECTIVES A s you have read, elements are pure substances that cannot be

Use a periodic table to name decomposed by chemical changes. The elements serve as the building
elements, given their symbols. blocks of matter. Each element has characteristic properties. The ele-
Use a periodic table to write ments are organized into groups based on similar chemical properties.
the symbols of elements, This organization of elements is the periodic table, which is shown in
given their names. Figure 12 on the next page.
Describe the arrangement
of the periodic table. Introduction to the Periodic Table
List the characteristics that
distinguish metals, nonmetals, Each small square of the periodic table shows the symbol for the ele-
and metalloids. ment and the atomic number. For example, the first square, at the upper
left, represents element 1, hydrogen, which has the symbol H. As you
www.scilinks.org look through the table, you will see many familiar elements, including
Topic: Periodic Table iron, sodium, neon, silver, copper, aluminum, sulfur, and lead. You can
Code: HC61125 often relate the symbols to the English names of the elements. Some
symbols are derived from the element’s older name, which was often in
Latin. Still others come from German. For example, wolfram comes
from the German name for tungsten. Table 2 lists some elements and
their older names.

TABLE 2 Elements with Symbols Based on Older
Names

Modern name Symbol Older name

Antimony Sb stibium

Copper Cu cuprum

Gold Au aurum

Iron Fe ferrum

Lead Pb plumbum

Mercury Hg hydrargyrum

Potassium K kalium

Silver Ag argentum

Sodium Na natrium

Tin Sn stannum

Tungsten W wolfram

16 C H A P T E R 1

Periodic Table

1 Metals Group 18

H 2

Group 1 Group 2 HeGroup 13 Group 14 Group 15 Group 16 Group 17

34 Metalloids 5 6 7 8 9 10

Li Be B C N O F Ne

11 12 Nonmetals 13 14 15 16 17 18

Na Mg AlGroup 3 Group 4 Group 5 Group 6 Group 7 Group 8 Group 9 Group 10 Group 11 Group 12 Si P S Cl Ar

19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36

K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr

37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54

Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe

55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86

Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn

87 88 89 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111

Fr Ra Ac Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg

58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71

Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu

90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103

Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr

The vertical columns of the periodic table are called groups, or FIGURE 12 The periodic table of
families. Notice that they are numbered from 1 to 18 from left to right. elements. The names of the elements
Each group contains elements with similar chemical properties. For can be found on Table A-6
example, the elements in Group 2 are beryllium, magnesium, calcium, in the appendix.
strontium, barium, and radium. All of these elements are reactive met-
als with similar abilities to bond to other kinds of atoms. The two major www.scilinks.org
categories of elements are metals and nonmetals. Metalloids have prop- Topic: Element Names
erties intermediate between those of metals and nonmetals. Code: HC60495

The horizontal rows of elements in the periodic table are called M A T T E R A N D C H A N G E 17
periods. Physical and chemical properties change somewhat regularly
across a period. Elements that are close to each other in the same
period tend to be more similar than elements that are farther apart.
For example, in Period 2, the elements lithium and beryllium, in
Groups 1 and 2, respectively, are somewhat similar in properties. However,
their properties are very different from the properties of fluorine, the
Period-2 element in Group 17.

The two sets of elements placed below the periodic table make up
what are called the lanthanide series and the actinide series. These
metallic elements fit into the table just after elements 57 and 89. They
are placed below the table to keep the table from being too wide.

There is a section in the back of this book called the Elements
Handbook which covers some elements in greater detail. You will use
information from the handbook to complete the questions in the Using
the Handbook sections in the chapter reviews.

Superconductors Types of Elements

Any metal becomes a better conductor The periodic table is broadly divided into two main sections: metals
of electrical energy as its temperature and nonmetals. As you can see in Figure 12, the metals are at the left
decreases. In 1911, scientists discovered and in the center of the table. The nonmetals are toward the right.
that when mercury is cooled to about Some elements, such as boron and silicon, show characteristics of both
−269°C, it loses all resistance and metals and nonmetals.
becomes a superconductor. Scientists
have long tried to find a material that Metals
would superconduct at temperatures
above −196°C, the boiling point of Some of the properties of metals may be familiar to you. For example,
liquid nitrogen. In 1987, scientists dis- you can recognize metals by their shininess, or metallic luster. Perhaps
covered ceramic materials that became the most important characteristic property of metals is the ease with
superconductors when cooled only to which they conduct electricity and transfer energy. Thus, a metal is an
−183°C. These “high-temperature” element that is a good electrical conductor and a good heat conductor.
superconductors are used to build very
powerful electromagnets. Ceramic elec- At room temperature, most metals are solids. Most metals also have
tromagnets are used in medical mag- the property of malleability, that is, they can be hammered or rolled into
netic resonance imaging (MRI) machines thin sheets. Metals also tend to be ductile, which means that they can be
and in high-efficiency electric motors drawn into a fine wire. Metals behave this way because they have high
and generators. tensile strength, the ability to resist breaking when pulled.

FIGURE 13 (a) Gold has a low Although all metals conduct electricity well, metals also have very
reactivity, which is why it may be diverse properties. Mercury is a liquid at room temperature, whereas
found in nature in relatively pure tungsten has the highest melting point of any element. The metals in
form. (b) Copper is used in wiring Group 1 are so soft that they can be cut with a knife, yet others, such as
because it is ductile and conducts chromium, are very hard. Some metals, such as manganese and bismuth,
electrical energy (c) Aluminum is are very brittle, yet others, such as iron and copper, are very malleable
malleable. It can be rolled into foil and ductile. Most metals have a silvery or grayish white luster. Two
that is used for wrapping food. exceptions are gold and copper, which are yellow and reddish brown,
respectively. Figure 13 shows examples of metals.

(a) (b) (c)

18 C H A P T E R 1

(a) (b) (c) (d)
FIGURE 14 Various nonmetallic
Copper: A Typical Metal elements: (a) carbon, (b) sulfur,
(c) phosphorus, and (d) iodine
Copper has a characteristic reddish color and a metallic luster. It is
found naturally in minerals such as chalcopyrite and malachite. Pure FIGURE 15 Selenium is a non-
copper melts at 1083°C and boils at 2567°C. It can be readily drawn into metal, though it looks metallic.
fine wire, pressed into thin sheets, and formed into tubing. Copper con-
ducts electricity with little loss of energy. M A T T E R A N D C H A N G E 19

Copper remains unchanged in pure, dry air at room temperature.
When heated, it reacts with oxygen in air. It also reacts with sulfur and
the elements in Group 17 of the periodic table. The green coating on a
piece of weathered copper comes from the reaction of copper with oxy-
gen, carbon dioxide, and sulfur compounds. Copper is an essential min-
eral in the human diet.

Nonmetals

Many nonmetals are gases at room temperature. These include nitro-
gen, oxygen, fluorine, and chlorine. One nonmetal, bromine, is a liquid.
The solid nonmetals include carbon, phosphorus, selenium, sulfur, and
iodine. These solids tend to be brittle rather than malleable and ductile.
Some nonmetals are illustrated in Figure 14.

Low conductivity can be used to define nonmetals. A nonmetal is an
element that is a poor conductor of heat and electricity. If you look at
Figure 12, you will see that there are fewer nonmetals than metals.

Phosphorus: A Typical Nonmetal

Phosphorus is one of five solid nonmetals. Pure phosphorus is known in
two common forms. Red phosphorus is a dark red powder that melts at
597°C. White phosphorus is a waxy solid that melts at 44°C. Because it
ignites in air at room temperature, white phosphorus is stored under water.

Phosphorus is too reactive to exist in pure form in nature. It is pre-
sent in huge quantities in phosphate rock, where it is combined with
oxygen and calcium. All living things contain phosphorus.

Metalloids

As you look from left to right on the periodic table, you can see that the
metalloids are found between the metals and the nonmetals. A metalloid

FIGURE 16 Some noble gases are is an element that has some characteristics of metals and some character-
used to make lighted signs of various istics of nonmetals. All metalloids are solids at room temperature. They
colors. tend to be less malleable than metals but not as brittle as nonmetals.
Some metalloids, such as antimony, have a somewhat metallic luster.

Metalloids tend to be semiconductors of electricity. That is, their abil-
ity to conduct electricity is intermediate between that of metals and that
of nonmetals. Metalloids are used in the solid state circuitry found in
desktop computers, digital watches, televisions, and radios.

Noble Gases

The elements in Group 18 of the periodic table are the noble gases.
These elements are generally unreactive. In fact, it was not until 1962
that the first noble gas compound, xenon hexafluoroplatinate, was pre-
pared. Low reactivity makes the noble gases very different from the other
families of elements. Group 18 elements are gases at room temperature.
Neon, argon, krypton, and xenon are all used in lighting. Helium is used
in party balloons and weather balloons because it is less dense than air.

SECTION REVIEW 4. Describe the main differences between metals,
nonmetals, and metalloids.
1. Use the periodic table to write the names for the
following elements: O, S, Cu, Ag. Critical Thinking

2. Use the periodic table to write the symbols for the 5. INFERRING CONCLUSIONS If you find an element
following elements: iron, nitrogen, calcium, mercury. in nature in its pure elemental state, what can you
infer about the element’s chemical reactivity? How
3. Which elements are most likely to undergo the can you tell whether that element is a metal or a
same kinds of reactions, those in a group or those nonmetal?
in a period?

20 C H A P T E R 1

CHAPTER HIGHLIGHTS

Chemistry Is a Physical Science

Vocabulary • Chemistry is the study of the composition, structure, and proper-
chemistry
chemical ties of matter and the changes that matter undergoes.

• A chemical is any substance that has a definite composition or is

used or produced in a chemical process.

• Basic research is carried out for the sake of increasing knowl-

edge. Applied research is carried out to solve practical problems.
Technological development involves the use of existing knowl-
edge to make life easier or more convenient.

Matter and Its Properties

Vocabulary change of state • All matter has mass and takes up space. Mass is one measure
mass solid
matter liquid of the amount of matter.
atom gas
element plasma • Chemical properties refer to a substance’s ability to undergo
compound chemical property
extensive property chemical change changes that alter its composition and identity.
intensive property chemical reaction
physical property reactant • An element is composed of one kind of atom. Compounds are
physical change
made from two or more elements in fixed proportions.

• All substances have characteristic properties that enable chemists

to tell the substances apart and to separate the substances.

• Physical changes do not involve changes in identity of a

substance.

• The three major states of matter are solid, liquid, and gas.

Changes of state, such as melting and boiling, are physical

changes.

• In a chemical change—or a chemical reaction—the identity of

the substance changes.

• Energy changes accompany physical and chemical changes.

Energy may be released or absorbed, but it is neither created

nor destroyed.

• Matter can be classified into mixtures and pure substances.

Elements • Each element has a unique symbol. The periodic table shows the

Vocabulary elements organized by their chemical properties. Columns on the
group table represent groups or families of elements that have similar
family chemical properties. Properties vary across the rows, or periods.
period
metal • The elements can be classified as metals, nonmetals, metalloids,
nonmetal
metalloid and noble gases. These classes occupy different areas of the
periodic table. Metals tend to be shiny, malleable, and ductile
and tend to be good conductors. Nonmetals tend to be brittle
and tend to be poor conductors.

• Metalloids are intermediate in properties between metals and

nonmetals, and they tend to be semiconductors of electricity.
The noble gases are generally unreactive elements.

M A T T E R A N D C H A N G E 21

CHAPTER REVIEW

Chemistry Is a 12. a. How does a solid differ from a liquid?
Physical Science b. How does a liquid differ from a gas?
c. How is a liquid similar to a gas?
SECTION 1 REVIEW d. What is a plasma?

1. What is chemistry? 13. What is meant by a change in state?
2. What branch of chemistry is most concerned 14. Identify the reactants and products in the fol-

with the study of carbon compounds? lowing reaction:
3. What is meant by the word chemical, as used by potassium + water ⎯→

scientists? potassium hydroxide + hydrogen
4. In which of the six branches of chemistry would 15. Suppose different parts of a sample material

a scientist be working if he or she were doing have different compositions. What can you con-
the following: clude about the material?
a. investigating energy relationships for various
Elements
reactions
b. comparing properties of alcohols with those SECTION 3 REVIEW

of sugars 16. What is the significance of the vertical columns
c. studying reactions that occur during the
of the periodic table? What is the significance of
digestion of food
5. Identify each of the following as an example of the horizontal rows?

either basic research, applied research, or tech- 17. Compare the physical properties of metals, non-
nological development:
a. A new type of refrigerant that is less damag- metals, metalloids, and noble gases, and describe

ing to the environment is developed. where in the periodic table each of these kinds
b. A new element is synthesized in a particle
of elements is located.
accelerator.
c. A computer chip is redesigned to increase 18. Suppose element X is a poor conductor of elec-

the speed of the computer. tricity and breaks when hit with a hammer.

Matter and Its Properties Element Z is a good conductor of electricity

SECTION 2 REVIEW and heat. In what area of the periodic table

6. a. What is mass? does each element most likely belong?
b. What is volume?
19. Use the periodic table to write the names of the
7. How does the composition of a pure compound
differ from that of a mixture? elements that have the following symbols, and

8. a. Define property. identify each as a metal, nonmetal, metalloid, or
b. How are properties useful in classifying
materials? noble gas.

9. What is the difference between extensive prop- a. K c. Si e. Hg
erties and intensive properties?
b. Ag d. Na f. He
10. a. Define chemical property.
b. List two examples of chemical properties. 20. An unknown element is shiny and is found to

11. Distinguish between a physical change and a be a good conductor of electricity. What other
chemical change.
properties would you predict for it?

21. Use the periodic table to identify the group

numbers and period numbers of the following

elements:

a. carbon, C c. chromium, Cr

b. argon, Ar d. barium, Ba

22 C H A P T E R 1

CHAPTER REVIEW

MIXED REVIEW USING THE HANDBOOK

22. a. Define physical property. 30. Review the information on trace elements in
b. List two examples of physical properties. the Elements Handbook in the back of this text.
a. What are the functions of trace elements in
23. How can you tell the difference between an ele- the body?
ment and a compound? b. What transition metal plays an important role
in oxygen transport throughout the body?
24. Identify each of the following as either a physi- c. What two Group 1 elements are part of the
cal change or a chemical change. Explain your electrolyte balance in the body?
answers.
a. A piece of wood is sawed in half. RESEARCH & WRITING
b. Milk turns sour.
c. Melted butter solidifies in the refrigerator. 31. Research any current technological product of
your choosing. Find out about its manufacture
25. Write a brief paragraph that shows that you and uses. Also find out about the basic research
understand the following terms and the rela- and applied research that made its development
tionships between them: atom, molecule, com- possible.
pound, and element.
32. Investigate current and proposed technological
26. Pick an object you can see right now. List three applications of superconductors. Find out which
of the object’s physical properties that you can of these applications have been successfully
observe. Can you also observe a chemical prop- tested or are already in use.
erty of the object? Explain your answer.
ALTERNATIVE ASSESSMENT
CRITICAL THINKING
33. During a 1 h period, make a list of all the
27. Interpreting Concepts One way to make changes that you see around you and that
lemonade is to start by combining lemon juice involve matter. Note whether each change
and water. To make the lemonade taste better seems to be a physical change or a chemical
you could add some sugar. Is your lemonade- change. Give reasons for your answers.
sugar combination classified as a compound or
a mixture? Explain your answer. 34. Make a concept map using at least 15 terms from
the vocabulary lists. An introduction to concept
28. Analyzing Results A pure white, solid materi- mapping is found in Appendix B of this book.
al that looks like table salt releases gas when
heated under certain conditions. There is no Graphing Calculator
change in the appearance of the solid, but the Graphing Tabular Data
reactivity of the material changes. Go to go.hrw.com for a graphing calculator
a. Did a chemical or physical change occur? exercise that asks you to graph temperature
How do you know? vs. time for a chemical reaction.
b. Was the original material an element or a
compound? Keyword : HC6MTXX

29. Interpreting Concepts
a. Is breaking an egg an example of a physical
or chemical change? Explain your answer.
b. Is cooking an egg an example of a physical or
chemical change? Explain your answer.

M A T T E R A N D C H A N G E 23

Math Tutor SIGNIFICANT FIGURES

The certainty of a measurement is expressed by significant figures. Significant figures in
a measurement consist of all the digits known with certainty plus one final digit. Look
at the reading below, which was obtained when measuring the mass of a paper clip.

mass of paperclip

23

Balance reading = 2.37 g

You know with certainty that the paper clip has a mass of 2.3 g. You can also estimate
an additional mass of 0.07 g for a total of 2.37 g. Each of the three digits in 2.37 g is
significant because it is either certain or estimated.

Problem-Solving S

• Every nonzero digit is significant. Zeros between nonzero digits are significant.
• Zeros appearing in front of the first nonzero digit are not significant.
• If there is no decimal point, zeros that follow the last nonzero digit are not

significant.
• If there is a decimal point, zeros that follow the last nonzero digit are significant.
• When measurements are added or subtracted, the result must be rounded to the

same number of decimal places that the quantity with the fewest decimal places has.
• When measurements are multiplied or divided, the result must be rounded to the

same number of significant figures that the quantity with the smallest number of
significant figures has.

SAMPLE 1 SAMPLE 2
Divide 79.7 g by 0.89 cm3.
How many significant figures does 0.007 09 kg
have? The quantity 79.7 g has 3 significant figures, but
0.89 cm3 has only 2 significant figures. So, the
All nonzero digits are significant. The zero product 8.955 056 18 g/cm3 must be rounded to 2
between the 7 and 9 is significant. The zeros to the significant figures. The rounded quantity is
left of the decimal point are not significant. The 9.0 g/cm3.
quantity 0.007 09 kg has 3 significant figures.
2. Perform the following calculations and apply the
PRACTICE PROBLEMS rules for significant figures.
a. 56.05 g ÷ 13.3 cm3 b. 1.057 g + 3.02 g + 12.4 g
1. Determine the number of significant figures.

a. 42.200 L
b. 0.055 00 mol

24 C H A P T E R 1

Standardized Test Prep

Answer the following items on a separate piece of paper. 8.Three of the following must contain two or
more kinds of atoms. Which one does not
MULTIPLE CHOICE contain two or more kinds of atoms?
A. element
1.Magnesium reacts with hydrochloric acid to B. compound
produce magnesium chloride and hydrogen gas. C. homogeneous mixture
The reactants in this reaction are D. heterogeneous mixture

A. magnesium and magnesium chloride. 9.Which of the following symbols does not match
the element name given?
B. hydrochloric acid and hydrogen gas. A. Al, aluminum
B. Co, copper
C. magnesium and hydrochloric acid. C. K, potassium
D. P, phosphorus
D. magnesium chloride and hydrogen gas.
SHORT ANSWER
2.Matter that has a definite shape and a definite
volume is 10.Give three examples of mixtures, and tell
whether each one is homogeneous or hetero-
A. a liquid. C. a solid. geneous. Give three examples of compounds.

B. an element. D. a gas. 11.In trying to identify a sample of a pure sub-
stance, we observe the following properties.
3.We know that air is a mixture and not a Tell whether each one is a chemical property
compound because or a physical property.
A. Its mass is 124.3 g.
A. it can be heated to a higher temperature. B. It is a shiny solid at room temperature.
C. It is easily etched by nitric acid.
B. it can be compressed to a smaller volume. D. It melts when heated to 670°C.
E. It is 31.7 centimeters long.
C. it is colorless. F. It is a good heat conductor.
G. It burns in air.
D. its composition can vary. H. It is a good conductor of electrical energy.

4.Matter can be defined as anything that EXTENDED RESPONSE

A. has weight. 12.Describe the difference between a chemical
change and a physical change. Give one
B. has mass and volume. example of each kind of change.

C. is uniform throughout. 13.Describe general properties of metals,
nonmetals, and metalloids.
D. exhibits both chemical and physical properties.
Remember that if you can elimi-
5.Which of the following is best classified as a nate two of the four answer choices, your chances of
homogeneous mixture? choosing the correct answer choice will double.

A. pizza C. hot tea

B. blood D. copper wire

6.A compound differs from a mixture in that a
compound

A. contains only one element.

B. varies in chemical composition depending

on the sample size.

C. has a definite composition by mass of the

elements that the compound contains.

D. can be classified as either heterogeneous or

homogeneous.

7.Which of the following is not a physical state
of matter?

A. solid C. element

B. gas D. liquid

M A T T E R A N D C H A N G E 25

CHAPTER LAB ?SEE PRE-LAB INQUIRY

EXTRACTION AND FILTRATION LAB

Mixture Separation

OBJECTIVES BACKGROUND
The ability to separate and recover pure substances
• Observe the chemical and physical proper- from mixtures is extremely important in scientific
ties of a mixture. research and industry. Chemists need to work with
pure substances, but naturally occurring materials are
• Relate knowledge of chemical and physical seldom pure. Often, differences in the physical prop-
properties to the task of purifying the erties of the components in a mixture provide the
mixture. means for separating them. In this experiment, you
will have an opportunity to design, develop, and
• Analyze the success of methods of purifying implement your own procedure for separating a mix-
the mixture. ture. The mixture you will work with contains salt,
sand, iron filings, and poppy seeds. All four sub-
MATERIALS • plastic forks stances are in dry, granular form.
• aluminum foil
• cotton balls • plastic spoons SAFETY
• distilled water
• filter funnels • plastic straws For review of safety, please see Safety in the
• filter paper Chemistry Laboratory in the front of your book.
• forceps • rubber stoppers
• magnet PREPARATION
• paper clips • sample of mixture 1. Your task will be to plan and carry out the sepa-
• paper towels and components ration of a mixture. Before you can plan your
• Petri dish (sand, iron filings, experiment, you will need to investigate the
• pipets salt, poppy seeds) properties of each component in the mixture.
The properties will be used to design your mix-
• test tubes and rack ture separation. Copy the data table on the
following page in your lab notebook, and use
• tissue paper it to record your observations.

• transparent tape PROCEDURE
1. Obtain separate samples of each of the four
• wooden splints mixture components from your teacher. Use the
equipment you have available to make observa-
tions of the components and determine their
properties. You will need to run several tests with
each substance, so don’t use all of your sample

26 C H A P T E R 1

DATA TABLE

Properties Sand Iron filings Salt Poppy seeds
Dissolves
Floats
Magnetic
Other

on the first test. Look for things like whether 2. Designing Experiments: If you could do the
the substance is magnetic, whether it dissolves, lab over again, what would you do differently?
or whether it floats. Record your observations Be specific.
in your data table.
3. Designing Experiments: Name two materials
2. Make a plan for what you will do to separate a or tools that weren’t available that might have
mixture that includes the four components from made your separation easier.
step 1. Review your plan with your teacher.
4. Applying Ideas: For each of the four compo-
3. Obtain a sample of the mixture from your nents, describe a specific physical property that
teacher. Using the equipment you have avail- enabled you to separate the component from
able, run the procedure you have developed. the rest of the mixture.

CLEANUP AND DISPOSAL EXTENSIONS
4. Clean your lab station. Clean all equip-
ment, and return it to its proper place. 1. Evaluating Methods: What methods could be
Dispose of chemicals and solutions in used to determine the purity of each of your
the containers designated by your teacher. Do recovered components?
not pour any chemicals down the drain or throw
anything in the trash unless your teacher directs 2. Designing Experiments: How could you sepa-
you to do so. Wash your hands thoroughly after rate each of the following two-part mixtures?
all work is finished and before you leave the lab. a. aluminum filings and iron filings
b. sand and gravel
ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION c. sand and finely ground polystyrene foam
1. Evaluating Methods: On a scale of 1 to 10, how d. salt and sugar
successful were you in separating and recovering e. alcohol and water
each of the four components: sand, salt, iron f. nitrogen and oxygen
filings, and poppy seeds? Consider 1 to be the
best and 10 to be the worst. Justify your ratings 3. Designing Experiments: One of the components
based on your observations. of the mixture in this experiment is in a different
physical state at the completion of this experi-
CONCLUSIONS ment that it was at the start. Which one? How
1. Evaluating Methods: How did you decide on would you convert that component back to its
the order of your procedural steps? Would any original state?
order have worked?

M A T T E R A N D C H A N G E 27

CHAPTER 2

Measurements
and Calculations

Quantitative measurements are fundamental to chemistry.

Velocity distribution in a Bose-Einstein condensate