Any Roman, including the poor, could accuse someone else of a crime. A jury of citizens decided the case. Accused persons sometimes tried to win the jury's sympathy by wearing rags or dirty clothes to court or by having their wives and children sob in front of the jury. Romans believed that one law should apply to all citizens. Still, under the empire, Roman law was not applied equally. The poor, who were often not citizens, faced harsher punishments than the rich, sometimes even torture. 3. Religion Religion was important to the Romans. As you may know, the Romans adopted many Greek gods. They also adopted gods from other cultures to create their own group of gods. Romans wanted to please their gods because they believed that these deities controlled their daily lives. At Rome's many temples and shrines, people made offerings and promises to the gods. They often left gifts of food, such as honey cakes and fruit. They also sacrificed animals, D A I L Y L I F E I N T H E R O... 66
including bulls, sheep, and oxen. When someone was sick or injured, Romans would leave a small offering at a temple in the shape of the hurt part of the body. For instance, they might leave a clay foot to remind the god which part of the body to cure. While festivals and holidays, or “holy days,” were held throughout the year to honor the gods, religion was also a part of daily life. Each home had an altar where the family worshipped its own household gods and spirits. The family hearth, or fireplace, was sacred to the goddess Vesta. Once a year, during the main meal, the family threw a small cake into the fire as an offering to Vesta. Eventually, the Romans came to honor their emperors as gods. One emperor, Caligula (kah-LIG-yoo-lah), had a temple constructed to house a statue of himself made of gold. Every day, the statue was dressed in the type of clothes that Caligula was wearing that day. As the empire grew, foreigners brought new forms of worship to Rome. The Romans welcomed most of these new religions, as long as they didn't encourage disloyalty to the emperor. D A I L Y L I F E I N T H E R O... 67
4. Family Life Family life in Rome was ruled by the paterfamilias (pah-ter-fah-MEElee-us), or “father of the family.” A Roman father's word was law in his own home. Even his grown sons and daughters had to obey him. Roman men were expected to provide for the family. In richer families, husbands often held well-paid political positions. In poor families, both husbands and wives needed to work in order to feed and care for themselves and their children. Wealthy Roman women ran their households. They bought and trained the family's slaves. Many had money of their own and were active in business. They bought and sold property. Roman babies were usually born at home. The Romans kept only strong, healthy babies. If the father didn't approve of a newborn, it was left outside to die or to be claimed as a slave. Romans found it strange that other people, such as the Egyptians, raised all their children. D A I L Y L I F E I N T H E R O... 68
Babies were named in a special ceremony when they were nine days old. A good-luck charm called a bulla (BOO-lah) was placed around the baby's neck and worn throughout their childhood. Between the ages of 14 and 18, a Roman boy celebrated becoming a man. In a special ceremony, he offered his bulla, along with his childhood toys and clothes, to the gods. Roman girls did not have a ceremony to mark the end of childhood. They became adults when they were married, usually between the ages of 12 and 18. Weddings were held at a temple. The bride wore a white toga with a long veil. The groom also wore a white toga, along with leather shoes that he had shined with animal fat. However, the new husband did not become a paterfamilias until his own father died. 5. Food and Drink What Romans cooked and ate depended on whether they were rich or poor since only the rich could afford kitchens in their homes. The poor cooked on small grills and depended on “fast-food” places called thermopolia (therm-op-oh-LEE-ah), where people could purchase hot D A I L Y L I F E I N T H E R O... 69
and cold foods that were ready to eat. Even the rich often bought their daytime meals at thermopolia because the service was fast and convenient. The main foods in ancient Rome were bread, beans, spices, a few vegetables, cheeses, and meats. Favorite drinks included plain water and hot water with herbs and honey. For breakfast, Romans usually enjoyed a piece of bread and a bowl of beans or porridge, an oatmeal-like cereal made from grains like barley or wheat. Lunch might include a small bit of cheese and bread, and perhaps some olives or celery. For dinner, poor Romans might have chunks of fish along with some asparagus and a fig for dessert. Wealthy Romans consumed more elaborate dinners. Besides the main part of the meal, they had special appetizers. Some favorites were mice cooked in honey, roasted parrots stuffed with dates, salted jellyfish, and snails dipped in milk. Roman markets offered a variety of choices to those who could afford them. Wealthy Roman women or their slaves shopped for the perfect foods for fancy dinner parties. Merchants often kept playful monkeys or colorful birds on display to attract customers. Shelves were packed with fruits, live rabbits, chickens, geese, baskets of snails, and cuts of meat. Large clay jars were filled with a salty fish sauce, called garum, that the Romans liked to pour over the main dish at dinner. 6. Housing Similar to food, housing in Rome differed greatly for the rich and for the D A I L Y L I F E I N T H E R O... 70
poor. The spacious, airy homes of the rich stood side by side with the small, dark apartments that housed the poor. Wealthy Romans lived in grand houses, built of stone and marble. Thick walls shut out the noise and dirt of the urban city. Inside the front door was a hall called an atrium where the family received guests. An indoor pool helped to keep the atrium cool, and an opening in the roof allowed for plenty of light. Beyond the atrium, there were many rooms for the family and guests. The fanciest room was the dining room because its walls were covered in pictures, both painted murals and mosaics made of tiles. Mosaics also decorated the floors, while graceful statues stood in the corners. Some dining rooms had beautiful fountains in the center to provide guests with cool water. During dinner parties, guests lay on couches and ate delicious meals prepared by slaves. While they feasted, they listened to slaves play music on flutes and stringed instruments, such as the lyre and the lute. Nearby, many of the poor crowded into tall apartment buildings. Others lived in small apartments above the shops where they worked. Without proper kitchens, the poor cooked their meals on small portable grills, which filled the rooms with smoke. The apartments were cramped, noisy, and dirty. Filth and diseasecarrying rats caused sickness to spread rapidly. Fire was another danger since many of the buildings were made of wood, and the cooking grills caught fire easily. In 64 C.E., a disastrous fire broke out that burned down much of the city. D A I L Y L I F E I N T H E R O... 71
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If you had grown up in ancient Rome, your education would have depended on the type of family you were born into. Many poor children in Rome were sent to work instead of to school in order to learn trades, such as leatherworking and metalworking, to earn money for their families. In wealthier families, boys and girls were tutored by their fathers, or often by slaves, until they were about six years old. Then boys went off to school. Classes were held in public buildings and private homes. Many of the tutors were educated Greek slaves. A typical school day in Rome began very early in the morning. Students walked through crowded streets, carrying their supplies in a leather shoulder bag. On the way, they stopped at local breakfast bars where they purchased beans, nuts, and freshly baked bread to munch on while they walked to class. Once at school, students sat on small stools around the tutor and used a pointed pen, called a stylus, to copy down lessons on small, waxcovered wooden boards. When the lesson was over, they rubbed out the writing with the flat end of the stylus so they could use the board again. The school day lasted until two or three o'clock in the afternoon. Roman boys learned Latin, Greek, math, science, literature, music, and public speaking. They typically became soldiers, doctors, politicians, or lawyers. Girls might become dentists, real estate agents, or tutors, while some female slaves or freedwomen could become midwives (nurses who helped with childbirth). Upper-class boys remained in school until age 12 or 13. Boys from very wealthy families often continued their studies until they were 16, when they began to manage their own properties. D A I L Y L I F E I N T H E R O... 73
8. Recreation There were many forms of recreation in Rome. Wealthy Romans had a lot of leisure, because slaves completed the work. The rich enjoyed plays in theaters and musical performances in one another's homes. Both rich and poor often relaxed at Rome's public baths where they could bathe, swim, exercise, and enjoy a steam bath or a massage. The baths also had gardens, libraries, shops, and art galleries. Roman emperors made sure to provide the poor with “bread and circuses”—food and entertainment—to keep them occupied and happy. Besides the numerous festivals throughout the year, rich and poor alike flocked to two spectacles: gladiator contests and chariot races. Romans watched gladiators fight in large public arenas, like the Colosseum. Both men and women were gladiators. Usually, they were slaves or prisoners of war, although some won or bought their freedom eventually. The crowd shouted as the gladiators fought each other and wild animals to the death. Many thousands of gladiators died bloody and painful deaths for the entertainment of the spectators. A favorite gathering place was the Circus Maximus, a huge racetrack capable of accommodating 200,000 spectators. There, Romans watched thrilling chariot races. Wealthy citizens rested on plush cushions close to the track, with shades protecting them from the sun. The poor sat on wooden benches high above the track. Men and women sat in separate sections at the Colosseum, but could D A I L Y L I F E I N T H E R O... 74
sit together at the Circus Maximus. A Roman poet said the Circus Maximus was the best place to meet a new boyfriend or girlfriend because you never knew who would sit next to you. 9. Country Life Rome was one of many cities scattered throughout the Roman Empire. But 90 percent of the empire's people lived in the country where the rich and poor also led very different lives. Wealthy Romans often owned country estates with large homes, called villas. A villa was a place for Romans to invest their money in raising crops and livestock. And it was a pleasant place to relax in the summer's heat. When they went to the country, wealthy estate owners checked up on how their farms were being managed. But they had plenty of time left over for reading and writing, as well as for hunting, picnicking, and taking long walks in the fresh air. D A I L Y L I F E I N T H E R O... 75
The empire's farms provided much of the food for Rome and other cities. They produced grain for bread, grapes for wine, and olives for oil. Goats and sheep provided cheese, and their skins and wool were made into clothing. Cattle and pigs were raised for their meat. Farmers also kept bees for making honey, the sweetener used by the Romans. Slaves did much of the actual work of farming. Overseers, or supervisors, closely watched the slaves and often treated them cruelly. Many people in the countryside were not slaves, but their lives were still difficult. They lived in huts and worked their own small farms, trying to earn enough to survive. Or, they labored on the estates, tending the animals, helping with the crops, or working as servants. In the 1st century C.E., Paul of Tarsus, a Christian writer, summed up the lives of the empire's poor when he wrote, “He who does not work shall not eat.” Lesson Summary In this lesson, you learned about daily life for the rich and the poor in the Roman Empire. Rome was a large, thriving capital D A I L Y L I F E I N T H E R O... 76
city. Daily Life in Ancient Rome Nearly one million people lived in the city of Rome. The Forum was its center. The empire had many large cities, but most people lived in the country. Law and Order Romans believed in the rule of law. Laws were strict, but crime was common. Any Roman could accuse someone else of a crime, but a jury decided the case. Religion Religion was part of daily life. Romans made offerings to the gods. Festivals and holy days were held throughout the year. Each home had an altar for household gods and spirits. The Romans also honored their emperors as gods. Family Life Each family was ruled by the paterfamilias. At nine days old, a baby was given a bulla, which he or she wore throughout childhood. Between 14 and 18, a boy became a man. Girls became adults when they were married, between 12 and 18. Food, Drink, and Housing Only the rich had kitchens. The poor cooked on small grills or bought “fast food.” The main foods were bread, beans, spices, vegetables, cheeses, meats, and garum. Drinks included plain water and hot water with herbs and honey. The rich resided in large houses, constructed around a central atrium. The poor crowded into apartment buildings. Education and Recreation Many poor children in Rome learned trades, instead of attending school. Wealthier boys and girls were tutored by their fathers or by slaves until they were about 6. Then boys went to school. Roman boys learned Latin, Greek, math, science, literature, music, and public speaking. Upper-class boys remained in school until age 12 or 13. The rich enjoyed plays and musical performances. Both rich and poor often relaxed at Rome's public baths. Besides celebrating many festivals, rich and poor alike enjoyed viewing gladiator contests and chariot races. Country Life Ninety percent of the empire's people lived in the country. The wealthy often owned villas. Farms provided much of the food for the cities. Slaves did much of the farm work. Many country people were not slaves, but their lives were challenging. They lived in huts and worked their own small farms or on the great estates. D A I L Y L I F E I N T H E R O... 77
Investigating Primary Sources Were Gladiators Heroes? As spectators cheered, ancient gladiators battled one another and ferocious animals, often until someone suffered a brutal death. Who were these men and women who fought so violently for entertainment? You are going to analyze the details of four primary sources about gladiators. Then you will make an argument to support your opinion about whether or not gladiators were heroes. The first gladiator fights were held at funeral services. Most likely, people believed that the deceased person would be protected in the afterlife by the defeated gladiator of a contest. Eventually, the thrill of watching a gladiator contest became so popular that thousands of fans poured into stadiums, such as the Colosseum, to watch these violent matches where gladiators frequently fought to their deaths. Who became a gladiator in ancient Rome? Most gladiators were slaves or prisoners who did not fight out of choice. However, sometimes people who lost their jobs volunteered to become gladiators in hopes of earning fame and money. Owning gladiators and entering them in contests was considered a legal business. But to be in charge of a gladiator-training school was considered a disgraceful occupation. The bas relief, or carved stone with raised figures, shown here depicts a gladiator contest held at a Roman stadium. This artifact dates back to between the 1st and 3rd centuries C.E. Identify the gladiator and describe the armor, weapons, and what the gladiator is fighting. What D A I L Y L I F E I N T H E R O... 78
do you think the person on the right is doing? What do you think the figures in the upper left corner represent? What does this bas relief reveal about gladiators? In a gruesome way, gladiators fascinated Romans from all walks of life —rich and poor, young and old. Many of them sat among the bloodthirsty crowds as gladiators faced other gladiators and sometimes ferocious lions, tigers, and bears. Marcus Tullius Cicero wrote about gladiators in the 1st century B.C.E. He was one of the most famous Roman orators (speakers) of all time. As a lawyer, political leader, scholar, and writer, he combined philosophy, humor, argument, and emotion to comment and persuade on issues of the time. This text is from a book called On Bearing Pain, which is part of a series of books collectively entitled Tusculan Disputations. In his writing, Cicero talks about the importance of controlling destructive emotions and maintaining a virtuous will. This excerpt, which is taken from a section about the importance of endurance, highlights some of the strengths of the gladiators. After you read the excerpt from Cicero's Tusculan Disputations, answer the following questions: How does Cicero portray gladiators in this text? What qualities of gladiators does he mention? According to this source, why would gladiators be willing to die to make their masters happy? Why would Cicero describe gladiators this way? Do you think his opinion is trustworthy? Do you see any similarities to this portrayal of gladiators and the way modern athletes are portrayed? D A I L Y L I F E I N T H E R O... 79
However, not everyone enjoyed the blood and gore of the gladiator games. Here is a letter written by Lucius Annaeus Seneca who lived from 4 B.C.E. to 65 C.E. Seneca was one of Rome's most respected philosophers and statesmen. As a writer, he authored numerous works, including philosophical essays, tragic plays, and letters about moral problems. Seneca was known for his interesting beliefs on morality in various aspects of Roman daily life such as marriage and slavery. In this letter from the work Moral Letters to Lucilius, Seneca is describing to his friend, Lucilius, his time as a spectator in the gladiator arena and how the crowd responded while the gladiators were thrown into violent, and often deadly, competitions. Based on information in Seneca's letters, some scholars believe Lucilius was a natural science writer who lived on and governed the island of Sicily in the Mediterranean Sea. According to this letter, what happened to gladiators at the morning and midday games? How does Seneca portray the gladiators? Do you think Seneca is a reliable source? How is Seneca's description similar to and different from Cicero's observation? Why might these two men have different opinions of the gladiators? After reading this letter, do you think that gladiators were heroes? Why or why not? While Seneca attended the gladiator games, he may have witnessed the heart-stopping final moments of a fight. As one gladiator defeated another, the wounded athlete might have asked to be saved from the final death-blow. As the crowd cheered, they knew it was not the victor's decision to let the opponent live or die. Rather, there was a D A I L Y L I F E I N T H E R O... 80
referee, called an editor, who made the decision. Emperors, senators, and politicians often served as editors in the arena. To please the cheering fans, the editors looked up to the spectators. Some historians believe that spectators raised their thumbs up to indicate that they wanted the gladiator to live, or thumbs down if they wanted the gladiator put to death. Other historians report that a thumbs up pointing toward the heart meant that a spectator wanted the gladiator killed. From 264 B.C.E. to 423 C.E., these competitions were so popular that artists put gladiator images on everyday objects. This clay oil lamp from 3rd-century Rome is one example. Look at the image on this artifact, and notice how one gladiator is kneeling in a plea for mercy. At whom might the gladiator on the left be looking? Why might images of gladiators be placed on common objects such as this lamp? What does this suggest about the significance of gladiators in ancient Rome? Consider the four primary sources about gladiator competitions. Which are most trustworthy in giving an honest portrayal of gladiators in ancient Rome? Make an argument about whether or not ancient Roman gladiators were heroes. Support your argument with evidence from the primary sources. D A I L Y L I F E I N T H E R O... 81
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Roman Citizenship Just like people in our country today, people in ancient Rome were proud to be citizens. Citizens have a sense of belonging to a country. (In the case of Rome, they belonged to an enormous empire.) Citizenship gives people a voice in their government. Citizens also have responsibilities. How was citizenship in the Roman Empire similar to and different from citizenship in the United States today? Citizenship was a unique concept for ancient civilizations. The Roman Republic was one of the first to allow everyday people, outside of the wealthy elite, to participate in lawmaking. Roman citizens elected representatives to speak for them as laws were made. But citizenship in the Roman Empire meant different things for different people. D A I L Y L I F E I N T H E R O... 83
Wealthy Romans What did citizenship mean to the patricians, or wealthy Romans? Wealthy people in ancient Rome had large homes, fancy possessions, and good educations. They also had the ability to help build a better society. Members of the small wealthy class of Roman citizens came from a long line of elite families. These people had the best chances of winning respect, power, and maybe a seat in the Roman Senate. It was important for them to keep this respect, especially as the empire grew. They needed to remind the public of their accomplishments, by bragging or other means. Perhaps that is why wealthy citizens contributed their personal assets to improve city life. Many wealthy citizens helped fund buildings, statues, and events for the public. Think about ways that this is similar to and different from the United States today. Research to find specific examples of how wealthy U.S. citizens have contributed their time, money, or efforts to improve the United States, or the world. Common People D A I L Y L I F E I N T H E R O... 84
The common people, or plebeians, made up 95 percent of the Roman population. Their numbers grew as the Roman Empire expanded. Even in the days of the republic, this group of people had little voice in the government. They could not hold a government office, but they were responsible for serving in the army. As Rome conquered other lands and the population of plebeians grew, they fought to gain more rights and power to make laws. But this did not last. By 14 C.E., Rome had conquered surrounding lands, and it had millions more citizens. To control such a vast empire, the Romans changed their form of government from republic to empire. As an empire, a single emperor made the rules but also delivered peace after a long period of civil war. Did the Romans give up freedom for order and peace? Compare this to the United States today. We live in a democratic republic, which means that we elect people to represent us in government. Because all U.S. citizens have the right to vote, it is critical that all citizens, not only wealthy people, are educated. Education helps people understand issues that are important to themselves and to society. Education allows people to participate in government, evaluate leaders running for office, and hold leaders accountable. It also helps all people have a chance to improve their lives and to use their talents and learning to better society. Women Women could be citizens in the patrician and plebeian classes; however, they did not have all the rights of men. Like earlier societies, the father, or oldest male in the family set the rules. Women could not attend certain public gatherings or be elected to government jobs. However, unlike more repressive places, Roman women could make wills, sue for divorce, walk in public places, and hold certain religious offices. Also, women in wealthy families could influence public decisions by voicing their opinions among male relatives. Slaves As Rome conquered new lands, it acquired hundreds of thousands of prisoners. These prisoners became slaves who worked in Rome's cities and on farms in the countryside. They typically had no rights and were often treated badly. Farms and industry may not have grown so prosperous without the hard labor of slaves. Some slaves eventually bought their freedom and became Roman D A I L Y L I F E I N T H E R O... 85
citizens. These foreign-born citizens were not allowed all the rights of citizens who lived in Rome. For example, only those who lived in Rome could vote. How might this growing number of foreign-born citizens affect the ability to govern the empire? Roman Mithraism Beginning in the 19th century, archaeologists found a number of sites across the territory of the Roman Empire. Many included artwork showing a figure in the act of killing a bull. The sites date from about 100–400 C.E. and were meeting places for the Roman cult of Mithras. They were typically caves, and even those that were not actually caves were called caves by the people who used them. The lack of references to the mysteries of Mithras, as the cult was called, make it challenging to understand it. We do know that it involved an initiation, a special entrance ceremony to become a member of the group. We know that there were seven levels of membership as well as a ritual, during which a bull was killed and a feast was shared by cult members. In trying to interpret the artwork, a 19th-century scholar suggested that they derived from the Persian god Mithra and ancient Persian forms of worship. He tried to show links between all the elements of Roman worship of Mithras and the Persian cult of Mithra. But the people who practiced the mysteries were not Persians. They were Europeans, members of the Roman empire's military and bureaucracy, as well as former slaves. And their practices were not closely connected to religious practices of the Persians, either Zoroastrian or other practices. This theory is now dismissed by a majority of scholars. Today, there is no widely accepted theory that explains how elements of Persian religion were transmitted to the Roman Empire. Moreover, there is no widely accepted theory about how the Romans invented the cult. Scholars today do agree that the cult was connected to the heavens and the zodiac, but they do not agree on the meaning of the connections. D A I L Y L I F E I N T H E R O... 86
V. The Legacy of Rome in the Modern World To what extent does ancient Rome influence us today? Introduction In the year 1764, long after the Roman Empire collapsed, a young Englishman named Edward Gibbon visited the city of Rome. Gibbon saw the ruins of ancient buildings, such as the Roman Colosseum. He marveled at Roman statues and the remains of aqueducts and bridges and wondered, “How did such a great empire come to an end?” Gibbon decided to write a book about the Roman Empire. More than 20 years later, Gibbon finally laid down his pen, after filling six books. He called this collection of works The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. It became a very important work of history and was noted for its unique style and perspective. Why did Gibbon spend so many years learning and writing about ancient Rome? One reason is that Rome has had an enormous influence on western civilization. As one historian stated, “Rome perished, yet it lived on.” In this lesson, you will discover the set of problems that collectively deteriorated the powerful Roman Empire. At the height of its power, Rome made numerous contributions to society. As you read on, you will learn how Rome's influence survives in areas such as modern art, architecture, engineering, language, philosophy, and law. Many of these contributions still continue to shape the modern world and can be found in many aspects of daily life. T H E L E G A C Y O F R O M E I... 87
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Social Studies Vocabulary aqueduct Byzantine Empire Latin natural law patron Renaissance Stoicism triumphal arch 1. The End of the Empire in the West At the height of Rome's power in the 100s C.E., Romans believed that the empire would last forever. However, by the year 500, the western half had collapsed. What happened to cause the fall of one of the mightiest empires the world has ever known? Problems in the Late Empire Most modern historians believe that a number of problems combined to bring about Rome's fall. Three of the main reasons were political instability, economic and social issues, and weakening frontiers. Political Instability Rome never solved the problem of how to peacefully transfer political power to a new leader. When the emperor died, rivals might fight each other to replace him. Real control fell into the hands of the armies, who could choose to help leaders seize power —or destroy them. Regularly, rivals grew impatient waiting for an emperor to die and resorted to murder. Economic and Social Issues Political instability led to other challenges. To finance Rome's huge armies, citizens were required to T H E L E G A C Y O F R O M E I... 89
pay heavy taxes that hurt the economy, drove many people into poverty, and negatively affected trade. Weakening Frontiers The huge size of the empire made it difficult to defend. By the 300s, Germanic tribes were pressing hard from the west as the threat of the Persians was growing in the east. Many of these people settled inside the empire and were recruited into the army. However, these soldiers often had little loyalty to Rome. The Fall of Rome In 330 C.E., the emperor Constantine took a step that changed the future of Rome. He moved his capital 850 miles to the east to the ancient city of Byzantium (bih-ZAN-tee-uhm), in what is now Turkey. He renamed the city New Rome, which was later called Constantinople. Today, it is known as Istanbul. Before Constantine, emperors had attempted to share power over the vast empire between co-rulers. After Constantine's reign, power was usually divided between two emperors, one based in Rome and one in Constantinople. Rome became the capital of just the western part of the empire. In 410 C.E., a Germanic tribe called the Visigoths attacked and looted the city. Finally, in 476, the last emperor in the west, Romulus Augustus, lost his throne to a Germanic leader, Odoacer (OH-duh-waysir). Then, the western half of the empire dissolved into separate kingdoms ruled by different tribes. In the east, the empire continued for another 1,000 years. Today, we T H E L E G A C Y O F R O M E I... 90
call this eastern empire the Byzantine Empire, after Byzantium, the original name of its capital city. The Byzantines wove the Roman heritage into their own rich civilization. But, they were never able to restore the old empire. For historians, the collapse of Rome marks the end of the ancient world. Regardless, the influence of Rome lived on. Let's look now at how Rome's legacy continues to affect our lives today. 2. Art The Romans adopted aspects of other cultures by modifying and blending them with their own. This was true of Roman art. The Romans were especially influenced by the art of the Greeks, which inspired historians to coin the term “Greco-Roman” art. The Romans were skilled in creating realistic statues. They imitated Greek sculpture but were particularly good at making their sculptures true to life. The homes of wealthy Romans were decorated with colorful murals and mosaics. Again, the Romans took existing art forms and made them their own. They painted beautiful frescoes, a type of mural, created on moist plaster with water-based paints. T H E L E G A C Y O F R O M E I... 91
Roman frescoes often illustrated three-dimensional landscapes and other scenes. Looking at one of these frescoes was almost like looking through the wall at a scene outside. You have probably seen similar murals in modern restaurants, banks, on the sides of buildings, and in other public places. Romans were also great patrons, or sponsors, of art. They paid thousands of painters, sculptors, and craftspeople to create their works. As a result, the Romans left behind many examples to inspire future generations. A thousand years after the fall of the empire, Roman art was rediscovered during the period called the Renaissance. Renowned artists, such as Michelangelo, revived the Greco-Roman style in their paintings and sculptures. A famous Roman example is the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel, which shows scenes from the Bible painted by Michelangelo in the 1500s. A Roman would feel right at home viewing this amazing creation. Roman art has continued to influence painters and sculptors. Roman styles were especially popular during the early days of the United States when Americans imitated these styles to give their art dignity and nobility. For example, many statues in the capital, Washington, D.C., reflect a strong Roman influence. T H E L E G A C Y O F R O M E I... 92
The Romans also brought a sense of style and luxury to everyday objects like the highly decorative bottles of blown glass they made. For example, a bottle might be shaped like a cluster of grapes. Romans also developed the arts of gem cutting and metalworking. One popular art form was the cameo, a raised and carved portrait of a person's head or a carved scene. The Romans wore cameos as jewelry and used them to decorate vases and other objects. Examples of all these art forms still exist today. 3. Architecture and Engineering The Romans' greatest contributions to science and technology came in the fields of architecture and engineering. Roman builders learned from the Greeks, Etruscans, and others before adding their own genius to take construction in new directions. Architecture The Romans learned how to use the arch, the vault, and the dome. A vault is an arch used to support a roof. A dome is a series of vaults that form a high, rounded roof. T H E L E G A C Y O F R O M E I... 93
The Romans were the first to make widespread use of concrete, which they made by mixing broken stone with sand, cement, and water and then allowing the mixture to harden. With the use of concrete, they were able to construct much bigger arches than anyone had previously attempted. Roman baths and other public buildings often had great arched vaults. The Pantheon, a magnificent temple, now a church that still stands in Rome, is famous for its huge dome. The Romans also invented a new kind of building, a stadium. This was a large, open-air structure. The Romans used concrete to build tunnels into the famous Colosseum in Rome. The tunnels helped spectators to easily reach their seats, a feature that modern stadiums still use. The grand style of Roman buildings has inspired many architects throughout the centuries. One Roman innovation that was widely copied is the triumphal arch, a huge monument built to celebrate great victories or achievements. One modern example is the Arc de Triomphe (Arch of Triumph) in Paris, France, which celebrates the victories of the French emperor Napoleon in the early 1800s. Today, it is the national war memorial of France. You can see a Roman influence in the design of many modern churches, banks, and government buildings. A fine example is the Capitol building, the home of the U.S. Congress in Washington, D.C., which includes arches, columns, and a dome. Engineering The Romans revolutionized engineering as well as architecture. They were the greatest builders of roads, bridges, and aqueducts in the ancient world. T H E L E G A C Y O F R O M E I... 94
About 50,000 miles of road connected Rome with the frontiers of the empire. The Romans built their roads with layers of stone, sand, and gravel. Their techniques set the standard of road construction for 2,000 years. In some parts of Europe, vehicles still drive on freeways built over old Roman roads. The Romans also set a new standard for developing aqueducts. Although they did not invent the aqueduct, the Romans once again learned the technique and improved upon it. They created a system of aqueducts for Rome. The aqueducts brought water from about 60 miles away to the homes of the wealthiest citizens, as well as to the city's public baths and fountains. The Romans built aqueducts in other parts of the empire, as well. The water system in Segovia, Spain, still uses part of an ancient Roman aqueduct. Remains of Roman aqueducts can also be seen in Europe, North Africa, and Asia Minor. T H E L E G A C Y O F R O M E I... 95
4. Language One legacy of Rome that affects modern society every day is the Roman language, Latin. English speakers use the Latin alphabet, although Roman Latin used 23 letters, and English uses 26. Many English words come from Latin. Additionally, Latin proverbs are still in use. For example, look at the reverse side of a U.S. dime. You will see the words E pluribus unum, which translates from Latin to “out of many, one.” This is the official motto of the United States. The motto reminds Americans of how the colonies joined together to form the United States. Several modern European languages developed from Latin, including Italian, Spanish, and French. English is a Germanic language, but it was strongly influenced by the French-speaking Normans, who conquered England in 1066 C.E. English has borrowed heavily from Latin, both directly and by way of French. The influence of Latin can be seen in many words English speakers use today. For example, the modern calendar comes from the one adopted T H E L E G A C Y O F R O M E I... 96
by Julius Caesar. The names of several months are derived from Latin. Augus honors Caesar Augustus. September comes from Latin words meaning “the seventh month.” (The Roman year started in March.) Many English words begin with Latin prefixes. A prefix is a set of letters at the beginning of a word that carries its own meaning. Attaching a prefix to a root word creates a new word with a new meaning. In fact, the word prefix is formed this way because it comes from pre- (“in front of”) and -fix (“to fasten” or “to attach”). The table called The Roman Legacy in Modern Words and Numerals illustrates other examples, as well as other English words that come from Latin root words. For instance, manual developed from manus, the Latin word for “hand.” Finally, Roman numerals are often still used in the modern world. The Romans used a system of letters to write numbers. Look at the bottom section of the table. You may see Roman numerals, such as these, on clocks, sundials, and the first pages of books, like this one. You might also find Roman numerals on buildings and in some movie credits to indicate the year in which they were made. The Romans combined the seven letters shown in the table to express larger numbers. Putting letters after another adds the value of the additional letters. For example, VIII means 5 + 3 = 8 and XX means 10 + 10 = 20. Putting a letter before a letter with a greater value subtracts its value. For example, IV means 5 – 1 = 4 and IX means 10 – 1 = 9. T H E L E G A C Y O F R O M E I... 97
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5. Philosophy and Law Like art and architecture, Roman philosophy and law were greatly influenced by the Greeks. However, the Romans made contributions of their own that they passed on to future generations. Philosophy Many Romans followed a philosophy known as Stoicism (STOH-ih-sism). First developed by the ancient Greeks, this system of thinking was adopted by the ancient Romans and followed until about 200 C.E. Stoics believed that a divine intelligence ruled all of nature and that a person's soul was a spark of this divine intelligence. These individuals believed that the right way to live was in a way that agrees with nature and its laws. To the Stoics, the key to life was to maintain a good character, which meant having virtues such as self-control and courage. Stoics disagreed with those who argued that happiness meant only avoiding pain and only experiencing pleasure. They highly prized duty and the welfare of the community over their personal comfort. Additionally, they T H E L E G A C Y O F R O M E I... 99
believed that true happiness was the peace of mind that came from living up to Stoic ideals. The most famous Roman Stoic was the emperor Marcus Aurelius, who documented his private thoughts in a book he called “To Himself.” Later, it was retitled Meditations. In his writings, Aurelius constantly reminded himself of Stoic ideals. He said not to worry if you encounter ungratefulness, insults, disloyalty, or selfishness because if you think and act rightly, none of these things can hurt you. Stoics were famous for bearing pain and suffering bravely and quietly. To this day, someone who behaves in this way is referred to as “a stoic.” Law and Justice The Stoics' beliefs about justice and nature fit very well with Roman ideas about law. Roman law covered marriages, inheritances, contracts, and countless other aspects of daily life. Modern law codes in European countries, such as France and Italy, are partially based on Roman laws. Another legacy of the Romans was their concept of justice. The Romans believed that nature provides a universal law of justice. Under this natural law, they believed, every person has natural rights. Romans aimed to spread this idea by applying it to all citizens of the empire. Judges in Roman courts attempted to make just, or fair, decisions that respected individual rights. Like most people, the Romans did not always live up to their ideals, as their courts did not treat the poor or slaves equally with the rich. Emperors often made bad laws. Regardless, the Roman ideals of justice and natural law still survive. The U.S. Declaration of Independence and U.S. Constitution were influenced by Roman ideas about law and government. Like judges in Roman courts, modern-day judges make decisions based on these ideals, as well as on written law. Similarly, many people today believe that all humans have basic rights that no written law can take away. T H E L E G A C Y O F R O M E I... 100
city of a futuristic North America. So Collins could be said to use Juvenal as a model. Linking Collins’ and Juvenal’s work even more closely is Collins’ use of a key word from Juvenal’s Satire X (127 C.E. ): . . . the people that once bestowed commands, consulships, legions and all else, now meddles no more and longs eagerly for just two things----Bread and Games [panem et circenses]! Juvenal is comparing the past and present behavior of the upper class in the empire. During the republic, they participated in the running of the state, appointing officials and holding public offices. Under the empire, he says, they have no role in public life, and are happy to simply eat and be entertained. Collins chose a telling word from Juvenal for the name of her futuristic country: she called it Panem. The capital of Panem is characterized by citizens’ focus on food, luxury, and the Hunger Games. By using this one word, Panem,Collins provides a whole backstory for any reader who knows (or researches to find out) where it comes from. This is called allusion. Other 21st-century writers use allusions to Rome to provide backstory. For example, the goddess Minerva helped Hercules in his labors (Hyginus Stories, 30) and was identified as the goddess of wisdom by Greeks and Romans. If a reader knows (or researches to find out) these facts, he or she will have expectations for a character with this name. An example is Minerva McGonagall, Professor of Transfiguration and later Headmistress of Hogwarts in the Harry Potter series by J. K. Rowling. T H E L E G A C Y O F R O M E I... 113
VI. The Development of Feudalism in Western Europe How well did feudalism establish order in Europe in the Middle Ages? Introduction The collapse of the Roman Empire in 476 C.E. marks the beginning of the period in Europe known as the Middle Ages. During this time period, a complex political and economic system developed that largely shaped people's lives. Historians divide the Middle Ages into three periods. The Early Middle Ages lasted from about 476 to 1000 C.E. The High Middle Ages lasted from about 1000 to 1300. The Late Middle Ages lasted from about 1300 to 1450. The Middle Ages began with the fall of the Roman Empire, which had unified much of Europe for about 500 years. After its collapse, life became dangerous and difficult in Western Europe. People worked hard simply to survive and to have enough to eat. They also needed to protect themselves from conquest by invading barbarians and neighboring kingdoms. These challenges gave rise to the economic and political system historians call feudalism (FEWD-ahl-ism) in which people had clearly defined roles and relationships with each other. In the feudal system, people pledged loyalty to a lord—a ruler or powerful landholder. In return, they received protection from that lord. Warriors fought on behalf of their lords, and peasants worked the land. At the bottom of the system were serfs, or peasants who were not free to leave the lord's land without permission. In this lesson, you will discover more about the difficulties people faced during the Early Middle Ages. Then you will learn about the rise of feudalism and how it helped to establish order and security after the fall of Rome. Finally, you will explore what daily life was like for people living under feudalism. T H E D E V E L O P M E N T O F F... 114
Social Studies Vocabulary Charlemagne chivalry Christianity feudalism fief serf 1. Western Europe During the Early Middle Ages T H E D E V E L O P M E N T O F F... 115
For 500 years, much of Europe was part of the Roman Empire. The rest of the continent was controlled by groups of people the Romans called “barbarians” because they did not follow Roman ways. When Rome fell to invading barbarians in 476 C.E., Europe was left with no central government or system of defense. Throughout Western Europe, many invading groups set up kingdoms that were often at war with one another. The most powerful rulers were those who controlled the most land and had the greatest warriors. Charlemagne's Empire One powerful group during this time was the Franks (from whom modern-day France takes its name). The Franks were successful because they had developed a new style of warfare that depended on troops of knights, heavily armed warriors who fought on horseback. To achieve and hold power, a ruler needed the services and loyalty of many knights. In return for their loyalty and service, the ruler rewarded knights with land and privileges. One of the early leaders of the Franks was an ambitious young warrior named Clovis. In 481 C.E., at the age of 15, Clovis became leader of the Franks. Five years later, he defeated the last great Roman army in Gaul at Soissons. During his 30-year reign, he led the Franks in wars that largely extended the boundaries of the Frankish kingdom. Clovis also helped convert the Franks to Christianity. Clovis married a Christian woman, Clotilda, and eventually was baptized into the Roman Catholic Church. Many of his followers became Christians, as well. The most important leader of the Franks was Charlemagne (SHAR-luhmain), which means “Charles the Great.” This impressive king ruled for over 40 years, from 768 to 814. Writings from that period say that he was six feet four inches tall—extremely tall for his time—and “always stately and dignified.” Legend has it that he read very little and couldn't write, yet he loved to have scholarly works read to him. He encouraged education and scholarship, making his court a center of culture. Most important, he unified nearly all the Christian lands of Europe into a single empire. One of the poets at his court called him the “King Father of Europe.” Charlemagne built his empire with the help of a pope—Leo III, the leader of the Roman Catholic Church. The Church was a central part of society during this time, and for Charlemagne, the blessings of the Church sent the message, “God is on my side.” The Church also valued support from the empire, and Leo needed the backing of someone with an army. In return for Charlemagne's help, the pope crowned him Holy T H E D E V E L O P M E N T O F F... 116
Roman emperor in 800 C.E. Charlemagne's empire survived many attacks. After his death in 814, however, it quickly fell apart. The weak rulers who followed him could not defend the empire against new waves of invasions. Still, these kings helped prepare the way for the system of feudalism by following Charlemagne's example of rewarding knights with land and privileges in return for military service. A Need for Order and Protection In the 9th and 10th centuries, Western Europe was threatened by three main groups. Muslims, or the followers of the religion of Islam, advanced from the Middle East and northern Africa into what is now Spain. The Magyars, a central Asian people, pressed in from the east. Vikings swept down from present-day Norway and Denmark. The Vikings were fierce warriors who instilled fear in the people of Europe. At times, the Vikings' intent was to set up colonies, but they were best known for their terrifying raids on towns and religious centers. Picture a Viking attack. The people of the town are at early morning church services when an alarm bell starts to clang. Vikings! Long, shallow wooden boats have brought the Vikings close to shore. Now they leave their boats and run toward the town with swords and axes raised over their heads. People are running in all directions, while several villagers who attempt to resist are killed. Others are seized by the Viking raiders and taken back to the ships. Clearly, the people of Western Europe needed to figure out new methods of defense. To protect themselves and their property, they gradually developed the system we call feudalism. T H E D E V E L O P M E N T O F F... 117
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2. Feudalism: Establishing Order By the High Middle Ages (about 1000 C.E.), Europeans had developed the system of feudalism. Feudalism provided people with protection and safety by establishing a stable social order. Under this system, people were bound to one another by promises of loyalty. In theory, all the land in the kingdom belonged to the monarch (usually a king, but sometimes a queen). A large amount of land was also owned by the Church. The king kept some land for himself and gave fiefs (FEEFS), or land grants, to his most important lords, who became his vassals. In return, each lord promised to supply the king with knights in times of war. A lord then enlisted lesser lords and knights as his vassals. At times, these arrangements were written down, and some of these contracts even survive to this day in museums. At the bottom of the social system were peasants. Lords rented some of their land to the peasants who worked for them. However, some peasants, called serfs, were “tied” to the land they worked, which T H E D E V E L O P M E N T O F F... 119
meant that they could not leave the lord's land without permission and had to farm his fields in exchange for a small plot of their own. Most lords and wealthier knights lived on manors, or large estates. A manor included a castle or manor house, one or more villages, and the surrounding farmland. Manors were in the country, far from towns, which required peasants to produce everything the people on the manor needed. Only a few goods came from outside the manor, such as salt for preserving meat and iron for making tools. During the Middle Ages, people were born into a social class for life. They had the same social position, and often the same job, as their parents. Let's take a closer look at the social classes in feudal society. T H E D E V E L O P M E N T O F F... 120
3. Monarchs During Feudal Times At the very top of feudal society were the monarchs, or kings and queens. As you have learned, medieval monarchs were also feudal lords. They were expected to keep order and to provide protection for their vassals. Most medieval monarchs believed in the divine right of kings, the idea that God had given them the right to rule. In reality, the power of monarchs varied greatly. Some had to work hard to maintain control of their kingdoms, and few had enough wealth to keep their own armies. They had to rely on their vassals, especially nobles, to provide enough knights and soldiers. In some places, especially during the Early Middle Ages, great lords grew very powerful and governed their fiefs as independent states. In these cases, the monarch was little more than a figurehead, a symbolic ruler who had little real power. In England, monarchs became quite strong during the Middle Ages. Since the Roman period, a number of groups from the continent, including Vikings, had invaded and settled England. By the mid-11th T H E D E V E L O P M E N T O F F... 121
century, it was ruled by a Germanic tribe called the Saxons. The king at that time was descended from both Saxon and Norman (French) families. When he died without an adult heir, there was confusion over who should become king. William, the powerful Duke of Normandy (a part of present-day France), believed he had the right to the English throne. However, the English crowned his cousin, Harold. In 1066, William and his army invaded England. William defeated Harold at the Battle of Hastings and established a line of Norman kings in England. His triumph earned him the nickname “William the Conqueror.” When William of Normandy conquered England, he brought feudal institutions from Europe with him. Supported by feudalism, strong rulers brought order to England. In fact, by the start of the High Middle Ages, around 1000 C.E., the feudal system had brought stability to much of Europe. 4. Lords and Ladies During Feudal Times Like monarchs, lords and ladies were members of the nobility, the highest-ranking class in medieval society. Most of them lived on manors. Some lords had one manor, while others had several. Those who had more than one manor usually lived in one for a few months and then traveled with their families to another. Manor Houses and Castles Many of the people on a manor lived with the lord's family in the manor house. Built of wood or stone, manor houses were surrounded by gardens and outbuildings, such as kitchens T H E D E V E L O P M E N T O F F... 122
and stables. They were protected by high walls. The manor house was the center of the community, and in times of trouble, villagers entered its walls for protection. Its great hall served as the lord's court, but it also offered a place for special celebrations and feasts, such as those given at Christmas or after a harvest. Kings and queens, high-ranking nobles, and wealthy lords lived in even grander structures: castles. Castles were built for many purposes, but one of their main functions was to serve as a home. Castles were also one of the most important forms of military technology. With their moats, strong walls, and gates, they were built for defense. Finally, their large size and central locations made castles visual reminders of the social hierarchy and the power of the ruling classes. The earliest medieval castles were built of wood and surrounded by high wooden fences. The strongest part, the motte, was built on a hilltop. A walled path linked the motte to a lower enclosed court, the bailey, where most people lived. After about 1100 C.E., most castles were built of stone to resist attacks by more powerful siege weapons. Castles gradually became more elaborate. Many had tall towers for looking out across the land. The main castle building had a variety of rooms, including storerooms, kitchens, a dining hall, sleeping quarters for distinguished guests, and the lord and lady's quarters. The Responsibilities and Daily Life of Lords and Ladies It was the lord's responsibility to manage and defend his land and its laborers. The lord appointed officials to make sure villagers fulfilled their duties, which included farming the lord's land and paying rent in the form of crops, meat, and other foods. Lords also acted as judges in manor courts and had the power to fine and punish those who broke the law. Some lords held posts in the king's government. In times of war, lords fought for their own higher-ranking lords, or at least supplied them with a well-trained fighting force. In theory, only men were part of the feudal relationship between lord and vassal. However, it was quite common in the Middle Ages for noblewomen to hold fiefs and inherit land. Except for fighting, these women had all the duties that lords had. They ran their estates, sat as judges in manor courts, and sent their knights to serve in times of war. Noblewomen who were not landowners were still extremely busy. They were responsible for raising and training their own children and, often, the children of other noble families. Ladies were also responsible for T H E D E V E L O P M E N T O F F... 123
overseeing their household or households. Some households had hundreds of people, including priests, master hunters, and knights-intraining called pages and squires, who assisted the knights. There were also cooks, servants, artists, craftspeople, and grooms. Entertainment was provided by musicians and jesters who performed amusing jokes and stunts. When they weren't hard at work, lords and ladies enjoyed hunting and hawking (hunting with birds), feasting and dancing, board games such as chess, and reading. Ladies also did fine stitching and embroidery, or decorative sewing. Although nobles and monarchs had the most privileged lives in medieval times, they were not always easy or comfortable by modern standards. Lit only by candles and warmed only by open fires, manor homes and castles could be gloomy and cold. There was little or no privacy. Fleas and lice infected all medieval buildings, and people generally bathed only once a week, if that. Clothes were not washed daily either. Diseases affected the rich as well as the poor. And, of course, warfare was a great and ever-present danger. T H E D E V E L O P M E N T O F F... 124
5. Knights During Feudal Times Knights were the mounted soldiers of the medieval world. In general, knights needed to have a good deal of wealth, since a full suit of armor and a horse cost a small fortune. Knights were usually vassals of more powerful lords. Becoming a Knight The path to becoming a knight involved many years of training. A boy started as a page, or servant. At the age of seven, he left home and went to live at the castle of a lord, who was often a relative. Nearly all wealthy lords had several pages living in their castles and manors. A page learned how to ride a horse and received religious instruction from the local priest or friar. During this first stage of training, a page spent much of his time with the ladies of the castle and was expected to help them in every way possible. During this period, the ladies taught pages how to sing, dance, compose music, and play the harp—skills that were valued in knights. After about seven years as a page, a young boy became a squire. T H E D E V E L O P M E N T O F F... 125
During this part of his training, he spent most of his time with the knight who was his lord. The squire helped care for his horse and polished the knight's armor, sword, shield, and lance. He even waited on his lord at mealtime, carrying water for hand washing, carving meat, and filling his cup when it was empty. Most importantly, squires trained to become warriors. They learned how to fight with a sword and a lance, a kind of spear that measured up to 15 feet long. They also learned how to use a battle-axe and a mace (a club with a heavy metal head). Squires practiced by fighting in makebelieve battles, but they also went into real battles. A squire was expected to help dress his lord in armor, care for his weapons and horses, follow him into battle, and look after him if he was wounded. In his early 20s, if deserving of the honor, a squire became a knight, a process that at times was a complex religious event. A squire often spent the night before his knighting ceremony in prayer. The next morning, he bathed and put on a white tunic, or long shirt, to show his purity. During the ceremony, he knelt before his lord and said his vows. The lord drew his sword, touched the knight-to-be lightly on each shoulder with the flat side of the blade, and knighted him. Sometimes, if a squire did particularly well in battle, he was knighted on the spot. The Responsibilities and Daily Life of Knights Being a knight was T H E D E V E L O P M E N T O F F... 126
more than a profession. It was a way of life. Knights lived by a strong code of behavior called chivalry. (Chivalry comes from the French word cheval, meaning “horse.”) Knights were expected to be loyal to the Church and to their lord, to be just and fair, and to protect the helpless. They performed acts of gallantry, or respect paid to women. From these acts, we get the modern idea of chivalry as traditional forms of courtesy and kindness toward women. Jousts and tournaments were a major part of a knight's life. In a joust, two armed knights on horseback galloped at each other with their lances extended, aiming to unseat the opponent from his horse. Jousts were held as sporting events, for exercise, or as serious battles between rival knights. A tournament involved a team of knights in oneon-one battle. Knights fought wearing heavy suits of armor. In the 11th century, armor was made of linked metal rings, called chain mail. By the 14th century, plate armor was more common and offered better protection. The medieval style of knighthood lasted until about the 17th century, when warfare changed with the growing use of gunpowder and cannons. Knights, who fought one-to-one on horseback, were no longer effective against such weapons. But knights were only a small group in medieval society. Next, let's turn to daily life for the vast majority of the population: the peasants. T H E D E V E L O P M E N T O F F... 127