Luke Yankee - The Art of Writing for the Theatre_ An Introduction to Script Analysis, Criticism, and Playwriting-Methuen Drama (2021)

The Art of Writing for the Theatre Online resources to accompany this book are available at https:// bloomsbury.pub/the-art-of-writing-for-the-theatre. If you experience any problems, please contact Bloomsbury at: onlineresources@ bloomsbury.com

INTRODUCTIONS TO THEATRE SERIES EDITOR: JIM VOLZ, CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSITY, FULLERTON, USA This series of textbooks provides a practical introduction to core areas of theatre and performance, and has been designed to support semester teaching plans. Each book offers case studies and international examples of practice, and will equip undergraduate students and emerging theatre professionals with the understanding and skills necessary to succeed—whether in study or in the entertainment industry. Directing Professionally: A Practical Guide to Developing a Successful Career in Today’s Theatre Kent Thompson ISBN 978-1-4742-8876-7 Get the Job in the Entertainment Industry: A Practical Guide for Designers, Technicians, and Stage Managers Kristina Tollefson ISBN 978-1-3501-0378-8 Introduction to Arts Management Jim Volz ISBN 978-1-4742-3978-3 Introduction to the Art of Stage Management: A Practical Guide to Working in the Theatre and Beyond Michael Vitale ISBN 978-1-4742-5720-6 The Art of Scenic Design: A Practical Guide to the Creative Process Robert Mark Morgan ISBN 978-1-3501-3954-1

“This is a must-read for anyone in the arts, but particularly for young people with a hunger to immerse themselves in the nuts and bolts of the theatre, and the crucial importance of language. The accomplished director and playwright, Luke Yankee, leaves no stone unturned in this comprehensive work; he clearly has a great love and respect, not only for playwriting, but for all the essential elements that fill in the spaces.” Victor Garber, four-time Tony nominee for Lend Me A Tenor, Deathtrap, Little Me, and Damn Yankees; six-time Emmy nominee “I only wish when I was starting out that I had a book like this. It is filled with valuable and important information. Luke Yankee’s insight and guidance is spot on! Anybody who is thinking about going into this profession should start by reading this book.” Scott Ellis, nine-time Tony nominee as Best Director; Olivier award winner as Best Director for She Loves Me “One can’t have a life in the theatre by taking shortcuts. One can’t enter this world with no regard for what has come before you. The elements needed toward becoming a true person of the theatre are beautifully illuminated and enumerated in Luke Yankee’s book. He is a playwright and a director whose heart has been in the theatre ever since he was a kid. Rightly so. Love and intelligence mix in this essential work.” Joanna Gleason, Tony winner for Into the Woods; three-time Drama Desk Award winner “You’ll have to go far and wide to find a better introduction to script analysis, playwriting, and criticism than this. Every theatre teacher should use this in their classroom. Practical and informative!” Millicent Martin, BAFTA award winner and two-time Tony nominee for Side by Side by Sondheim and King of Hearts “This book has it all! It contains a concrete approach to understanding what’s inside a scene, a terrific tutorial on putting thoughts onto paper, a look inside the nuances of criticism, and straightforward advice from professionals at the top of their game. If you are a theatre artist who plans to put words on a page, you need to read and study this book.” Professor Brian Kite, Dean - UCLA School of Theater, Film, and Television “First, let me thank Luke Yankee for this extraordinary book. It’s been a long while since I’ve read anything that so comprehensively addresses the subject as The Art of Writing for The Theatre. Not only is the book completely informative, it’s also a good read. The exploration of examples of playwriting, criticism, and analysis are invaluable. The interviews with some of the theatre’s most distinct voices is like going to the ultimate master class. The inclusion of people of diverse

backgrounds makes it all the more applicable to everyone in a personal manner. I am an actor, director, writer, teacher, and devout audience member. This book will be by my side as a guideline in the future in each of those endeavors. Any student or teacher, or for that matter, anyone interested in the theatre in its most elemental form will benefit from this book. Get it and keep it on your shelf. I would be willing to bet that you will refer to it many times in the future.” Ken Page, star of the original Broadway companies of Cats and Ain’t Misbehavin’ “This essential book sits squarely in the ‘required reading’ section for any university theatre course or for anyone who wants to understand the theatrical medium better. It begins with clear, inspiring lessons and tips that guide the writer from conception to fruition while including priceless wisdom from masters in our field. The text provides the reader with invaluable, user-friendly prompts that both allow the writer to be more understanding and critical of their own work, but also to view others’ works with a clearer eye. I simply found this book a pleasure to read and was enlightened and inspired about my own creative process as well as viewing all dramatic works with new insights. A must-read!” Professor John B. Benitz, Chair, Department of Theatre, Chapman University “Luke Yankee offers insightful discussions on the development of character, dramatic structure, and script analysis—all amply supported by interviews with distinguished contemporary theatre artists. Calling on his extensive career as actor, director, and writer, Yankee’s practical approach is an invaluable resource for anyone wishing to hone their skills in writing for the theatre.” Lucien Douglas, Associate Professor of Acting, the University of Texas at Austin “Having worked almost exclusively with new plays and emerging playwrights for over 30 years, it was fascinating to read the insights and wisdom Luke Yankee has managed to unlock from some of the best writers in our field today. This is essential reading for the next generation of playwrights. I finally have an answer when younger writers ask me what book to read about playwriting: this one!” Jon Lawrence Rivera, Artistic Director, Playwrights Arena - Los Angeles

The Art of Writing for the Theatre An Introduction to Script Analysis, Criticism, and Playwriting Luke Yankee Including interviews with: Ben Brantley * Charles Busch * Kia Corthron * Joe DiPietro * Peter Filichia Lyn Gardner * Stephen Adly Guirgis * Sheldon Harnick * Beth Henley Samuel D. Hunter * David Henry Hwang * Ismail Khalidi * David Lindsay-Abaire Donald Margulies * Marsha Norman * Octavio Solis * Naomi Wallace * David Zippel

METHUEN DRAMA Bloomsbury Publishing Plc 50 Bedford Square, London, WC1B 3DP, UK 1385 Broadway, New York, NY 10018, USA 29 Earlsfort Terrace, Dublin 2, Ireland BLOOMSBURY, METHUEN DRAMA and the Methuen Drama logo are trademarks of Bloomsbury Publishing Plc First published in Great Britain 2022 Copyright © Luke Yankee and interviewees, 2022 Luke Yankee has asserted his right under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, 1988, to be identified as Author of this work. For legal purposes the Special Thanks on pp. 188–9 constitute an extension of this copyright page. Cover design: www.ironicitalics.com Cover image: The Last Lifeboat © Paul Kennedy All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage or retrieval system, without prior permission in writing from the publishers. Bloomsbury Publishing Plc does not have any control over, or responsibility for, any third-party websites referred to or in this book. All internet addresses given in this book were correct at the time of going to press. The author and publisher regret any inconvenience caused if addresses have changed or sites have ceased to exist, but can accept no responsibility for any such changes. A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress. ISBN: HB: 978-1-3501-5558-9 PB: 978-1-3501-5557-2 ePDF: 978-1-3501-5560-2 eBook: 978-1-3501-5559-6 Series: Introductions to Theatre Typeset by Deanta Global Publishing Services, Chennai, India To find out more about our authors and books visit www.bloomsbury.com and sign up for our newsletters.

For my students—past, present, and future— who teach me so much.

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Contents Note on the Text xii Introduction 1 1 Script Analysis 3 Why Do We Need Script Analysis? 3 Definitions and Terms for Script Analysis 9 Freytag’s Pyramid and the Dramatic Arc 20 A Crash Course in Aristotle’s Poetics 27 Script Analysis Exercises 32 Exercises 40 2 Playwriting 43 The Elements of Playwriting 43 What Does “Show, Don’t Tell” Mean? 54 The Significance of Exposition 56 The Good Title Test 57 The Mechanics of Writing a Play 58 How Do You Start? 68 How to Write a Ten-Minute Play 70 Other Play Formats 73 Conclusion 75 Exercises 75 3 Criticism 77 The “Why” of Theatre Criticism 77 “I Liked It” Doesn’t Matter 80 Writing a Critique for a Play 80 “Why Am I Bored?” 84

x Contents A Sample Critique 85 Criticism as Entertainment 87 Remember: Artists Have Feelings, Too 88 When to Keep It to Yourself 90 What to Look for When Writing a Critique 91 Critiquing Other Forms 100 Exercises 101 4 The Interviews: Conversations with Acclaimed Playwrights, Critics, Librettists, and Lyricists 103 A Series of Master Classes 104 On Starting Out 105 “What Should I Write About?” 109 On Structure 114 A Writer’s Process 117 Readings and Play Development 122 On Taking Advice on Your Script 125 On Collaboration 126 On Writing Musicals 131 On the Writer as “The Outsider Looking In” 134 On Critics and Theatre Criticism 135 Advice for New Writers 140 What Do You Love About the Theatre? 145 Discussion Questions 148 5 The Brass Tacks: Practical Tools of Writing for the Theatre 151 The “How To” of a Writer’s Life 152 Read, See, and Hear 152 Theatre Blogs 153 Submission Opportunities for Playwrights 154 Cover Letters for Writers . . . and Beyond 154 Living Room Readings: The Value of Free Pizza 163 Virtual Presentations 164 A Map of Relationships 165 Opening Night Cards and Gratitude Letters: A Lost Art 166 Exercises 168

Contents xi Conclusion 171 Further Reading 173 Notes 175 Biographies of Interviewees 179 Special Thanks 188 About the Author 190 Index 192

Note on the Text fi This icon is used throughout the book to indicate that further resources are available at https://bloomsbury.pub/the-art-of-writing-forthe-theatre.

Introduction The theatre is a strange beast that seems to get stranger all the time. Ironically, the stranger it gets, the more familiar it becomes. People far more eloquent than I have written about the cavemen sitting around the campfire telling stories of the hunt and how this was the first form of theatre. Pundits have been predicting its demise ever since, and yet, it still remains. Why is that? What is that desperate need we all have to tell our stories? It’s as primal an instinct as breathing. We all want some record that we were here, that we mattered, and that our lives meant something. I have grown up in the theatre. I went to my first Broadway opening when I was nine years old, in a tiny, rented tuxedo with a bow tie that seemed nearly as big as I was. I remember that night as if it were yesterday. There was such a sense of anticipation, excitement, and wonder. The play was a totally forgettable, dark comedy that opened and closed on the same night. Nonetheless, I sat there as transfixed as if I were watching Death of a Salesman. Regardless of the play, something happened to me that night. I experienced for the first time the magic of sitting in the dark with a room full of strangers watching a story being told. It was a palpable and formative moment for me. It was the night I knew there was no turning back. The theatre would be my life. After acting and directing for many years, once I started writing plays, I realized I could create my own tempest in a teacup. I could escape into whatever world I chose. It wasn’t chosen by the director or the other actors; it was my creation. The exhilaration and freedom of that choice are as daunting as the dread of the responsibility. What if I create my own world and no one likes it? The act of creation itself has to be enough. This book is geared toward anyone wanting to learn the craft of writing for the theatre. It is for aspiring playwrights, critics, theatre teachers, and really anyone who wants to better understand the intricacies of the craft. While it is primarily focused on those starting out, there is valuable information for writers at all levels. Whether you are taking your first script analysis class, delving into your twentieth play, or asking yourself why you like a musical so you can write about it, this book is for you. Most importantly, while there are many brilliant books on script analysis, playwriting, and criticism, this book is

2 The Art of Writing for the Theatre intended as a way to combine them all. It’s “one-stop shopping” for the theatre writer. These are the high points of each of these forms, peppered with specific anecdotes and lessons from a life lived toiling in the vineyards of dramatic writing. The book is broken into five different sections. While you can jump around, they are intended to be read sequentially, as one builds on the other. At the end of each chapter, there are exercises, discussion topics, and ways to enhance your knowledge. Let me say a few words on each section: “Script Analysis”—the foundation of it all. In this chapter, I define a lot of terms and concepts, setting up the reader for dramatic success. There are examples from a number of plays (both classical and contemporary) illustrating my points and demonstrating how things work. “Playwriting”—how to actually write a play, including dialogue, formatting, and techniques for creating various types of plays. “Criticism”—what to look for in a good play, what is lacking in a lessthan-good play, how to tell the difference, and how to write about it. “The Interviews”—excerpts from eighteen different conversations I held expressly for this book with some of the most respected playwrights, critics, librettists, and lyricists working in the theatre today. The “greatest hits” of these interviews have been broken down into various topics to enhance every stage of a writer’s work. “The Brass Tacks”—“I’ve written something! Now what?” This chapter features a collection of online submission opportunities, websites for further reading, and a list of resources to support you as you continue your journey in writing for the theatre. After a substantial professional career as a writer, director, producer, and actor, I decided it was time to teach what I’ve learned. I have taught script analysis, criticism, and all levels of playwriting for a number of years now. I know it sounds cliché, but the more I teach, the more I learn. While I was always a “theatre nerd,” in recent years, I have become more of a “word nerd,” relishing the beauty of dramatic language. If I am able to convey anything to you through these pages, it would be that love of the language of the theatre. I still have the passion of that nine-year-old in his teeny tux waiting with eager anticipation for the houselights to dim. It’s opening night on the next chapter of your life as a writer for the theatre. Break a leg! —Luke Yankee

1 Script Analysis I often feel I’m incredibly lucky to do a job where maybe six, seven, if I’m really lucky, maybe twelve times a year I go and see something that is so astonishing that I can only describe it as being the equivalent of what you feel like when you fall in love. And it is because it’s a form of falling in love with theatre for the first time, even though actually it’s the 100 thousandth show you’ve seen. —Lyn Gardner, theatre critic Why Do We Need Script Analysis? “Why do we need to study script analysis? What exactly is it? What will it teach us? And why on earth would I need tools to read a play, anyway? I’ve seen enough shows on TV to be able to figure out what’s going on and how a good story is told. Isn’t that enough?” I’m afraid the answer would be “no.” If you’re simply reading a play for enjoyment (and frankly, I don’t think very many people do), then maybe just knowing the “who” and the “what” will be enough. But if you are studying a play for performance, production, design, direction, or stage management, you have to know the road upon which you Chapter Outline Why Do We Need Script Analysis? 3 Definitions and Terms for Script Analysis 9 Freytag’s Pyramid and the Dramatic Arc 20 A Crash Course in Aristotle’s Poetics 27 Script Analysis Exercises 32 Exercises 40

4 The Art of Writing for the Theatre are traveling. You need to have a sense of what the playwright intended— and more importantly, why. It may sound trite, but you wouldn’t bake a cake without a recipe or build a house without a blueprint. If you are working on a play in whatever capacity, you need to know what the playwright intended. Analyzing the text of a play gives us the “why” so that we can make informed choices as we move forward into rehearsal or production. When it comes right down to it, script analysis, like acting, is about making choices. But they must be informed choices. So, how do we do this? The American acting teacher Stella Adler was a master at what she called “script interpretation.” Her method was thorough, but not complicated. She would read a play again and again, asking a myriad of questions. She would look to what the playwright had given her and make decisions and assumptions based on that. There is a video clip on YouTube from one of her classes where she is deconstructing a scene from Ibsen’s A Doll’s House. In it, she stops and analyzes every single line. I am paraphrasing Ms. Adler’s remarks, but this will give you a sense of what she did:1 Hello, Mrs. Helmer. Hello, Mr. Krogstaad. I’ve never met people with those names. Are they German? Scandinavian? They don’t tell me anything because I have no association with those names. Someone has forgotten to close the door. This gives me a sense of being closed in. A small, confined space. Not expansive. Cramped. In my mind, I see row houses with a stoop and steps going up to the second floor from the street. I’m still not sure where we are. But I don’t see an elevator. I don’t feel “elevator.” In essence, Ms. Adler is doing nothing different than what we do every day: using her deductive powers of reasoning to make informed decisions. Let’s say you are channel surfing and you stop in the middle of a television program that holds your attention. Since you haven’t seen it from the beginning, you start piecing things together. “So, that couple is obviously in love. Are they married or just dating? Oh, now I see they’re wearing wedding bands. I don’t think they’re newlyweds. They’re too familiar with each other. Ouch! She just criticized him in a really cold way. They are definitely not in the honeymoon phase. I wonder why she got so mad at him just because he forgot to put out the recycling bin?”

Script Analysis 5 You get the idea. When we analyze a script, this is exactly what we are doing. As human beings, we are constantly making decisions about people and situations based on our instincts. It is the same when we analyze a script. Let’s look at the scene from one of my plays, The Man Who Killed the Cure, 2 and see how much we can learn about it. This scene is from act 1, scene 2. I have intentionally chosen a scene that is not the opening of the play. How much can you figure out just by reading this scene? Dr. Max Gerson, a man in his thirties, examines some dirt under a microscope. He is focused, driven, and idealistic. Max examines the dish of earth as a thirtysomething Rudy enters carrying an empty valise. Rudy You haven’t started packing? Max Rudy, you have to see this! Rudy Max . . . Max Just look. Picking his battles, Rudy puts down the valise and crosses to the microscope. Max is like a little boy with a new toy. Max Tell me what you see. Rudy I see a bunch of organisms moving away from the soil. Max That’s because it’s one of those new, synthetic fertilizers. They can’t stand the chemicals so they move as far away from it as they can. Now, in this one, with real dirt, they stay put . . . Max reaches for another dish as Rudy stops him. Rudy You do realize we’re leaving in two hours? Gretchen, Max’s pleasant-looking wife, and Young Charlotte, Max’s daughter, enter. Gretchen You haven’t started packing? Rudy and Gretchen exchange a look. Max returns to his microscope. Rudy I’ll help him, Gretchen. Young Charlotte Vati, why are you looking at dirt? Max stays focused on the microscope. Rudy takes Young Charlotte and puts her on his lap. Rudy Because he’s trying to grow you a baby brother for your sixth birthday! Young Charlotte That’s not how babies are born, silly!

6 The Art of Writing for the Theatre Rudy No? Young Charlotte No! You cut the cabbage and the baby pops out! Rudy Lottie, you’re getting so smart! Rudy tickles Young Charlotte. She laughs. Gretchen Mr. Wienski called. He’ll be thirty minutes late. Rudy (to Max) You don’t have time to see any more patients! Max This is the last one. Rudy What if he’s a spy for the SS? Max He has migraines! Gretchen Rudy has a point, liebchen. We can’t trust people the way we used to. Max I don’t know how to act any other way. Gretchen kisses Max tenderly. Rudy Max, you’ve got to start packing! Max I can’t touch the office until after I see Mr. Wienski. Rudy (sighing) I’ll start with your clothes. Max Don’t forget my tan sweater. Rudy (sarcastically) Yes, dear. Exercise Based on what you have just read, how many of these questions can you answer? Even if you don’t know conclusively, do you have hunches or suppositions? Take a moment and really think about each one, rereading the scene if necessary: 1) What is the relationship between Max and Rudy? How do they feel about each other? 2) What about Max, Rudy, and Gretchen? Do Gretchen and Max have a good marriage? 3) Where and when is this taking place? How did you determine that? 4) Who has a better relationship with Young Charlotte? Rudy or her father?

Script Analysis 7 5) What can we determine about the personalities of each of these characters? 6) What is the mood or tone of the scene? 7) Any thoughts about why the family is packing? 8) What about the title: The Man Who Killed the Cure? Does this scene tell you anything about where the play might be going or what it is about? 9) Who might be the leading character? 10) What is the style of the play (comedy, drama, tragedy, farce?) What makes you think that? 11) Are there any other things that you know for sure? Do you have strong hunches or suppositions about the characters or the play as a whole? Congratulations! You have just analyzed a scene. Of course, there are specific methods and devices that one can use, and we will discuss those in detail in the rest of this chapter. But when you first read a script, you are using your intellect to make suppositions and form opinions. Of course, these will change as you delve deeper into the play, but when you start, all you have to go on are your instincts. They have gotten you through this far in your life, so it’s a good idea to trust them. Before we go on, take a moment to acknowledge yourself for how much you were able to determine from this short scene. If you’d like to see how accurate you were, the answers are below. But remember, even if you didn’t get them all right, it doesn’t really matter. The important thing is that you stretched your muscles of deductive reasoning and started to make decisions. You are learning how to be your very own Sherlock Holmes when it comes to a dramatic text. You just took the first steps to earning your magnifying glass and deerstalker hat! Answers to Exercise Questions 1) What is the relationship between Max and Rudy? How do they feel about each other? We can determine a great deal about Max and Rudy’s relationship from this scene. From the level of familiarity, we can tell that they are good friends and colleagues. They are very comfortable with each other.

8 The Art of Writing for the Theatre 2) What about Max, Rudy, and Gretchen? Do Gretchen and Max have a good marriage? Max and Gretchen are tender with each other, yet Gretchen also gently scolds him. This would lead us to believe they have been married a long time and that they have a strong bond. 3) Where and when is this taking place? How did you determine that? Max refers to his wife as Liebchen, which is a German expression of endearment. Also, there is a reference to the fact that Max’s patient might be a spy for the SS, which tells us we are in Nazi-occupied Germany. 4) Who has a better relationship with Young Charlotte? Rudy or her father? It is clear that Young Charlotte has a better relationship with Rudy, as he is playful with her. Max doesn’t know how to relate to her and doesn’t answer her questions, but instead looks to Rudy for help. 5) What can we determine about the personalities of each of these characters? Max is so focused on his work that he can lose sight of the practicalities of life. Rudy is taking charge of the situation and sees the potential danger if they don’t act quickly, as is Gretchen. In some ways, Max acts like more of a child than his daughter, Young Charlotte. 6) What is the mood or tone of the scene? There is a great sense of urgency from everyone except Max, who is oblivious to time. 7) Any thoughts about why the family is packing? Most likely, they are running from the Nazis. 8) What about the title: The Man Who Killed the Cure? Does this scene tell you anything about where the play might be going or what it is about? Max is obsessed with his microscope, and this might imply that he is going to find a cure for something. It is unclear at this point who would “kill” it, or why. 9) Who might be the leading character? Rudy is clearly driving the scene, but Max seems to be the focal point. At this stage, it would be hard to determine between these two. 10) What is the style of the play (comedy, drama, tragedy, farce?) What makes you think that? While there are comic overtones, it seems very dramatic. The situation is very dire. 11) Are there any other things that you know for sure? Do you have strong hunches or suppositions about the characters or the play as a whole? I’ll leave you to your own devices on this one!

Script Analysis 9 Now that you have tried analyzing a script on your own, let’s look at some of the tools available to make it easier and a more precise art. Definitions and Terms for Script Analysis There is a lot of terminology one uses when analyzing a script. Once you understand it, you can make informed, intelligent decisions about the play and the playwright’s choices. We will use many of these terms throughout this book. Some will be familiar to you, and some will not, so it’s important that you take the time to read this section carefully. Narrative A narrative is a sequence of connected events, whether real or imaginary. Basically, a narrative is the same as a story. The word “narrative” comes from the Latin word narrare, which means “to tell.” Narratives can be found in all aspects of human expression, from everyday speech to performances of all types, including plays, television, movies, dances, and even in the visual arts; basically, anything that tells a story. (I’m sure you have heard the expression, “A picture is worth a thousand words.”) Let’s look at one of my favorite classical speeches. It is from the prologue to act 4 of Shakespeare’s Henry V: 3 Chorus Now entertain conjecture of a time When creeping murmur and the poring dark Fills the wide vessel of the universe. From camp to camp, through the foul womb of night, The hum of either army stilly sounds, That the fixed sentinels almost receive The secret whispers of each other’s watch. Fire answers fire, and through their paly flames Each battle sees the other’s umbered face; Steed threatens steed in high and boastful neighs

10 The Art of Writing for the Theatre Piercing the night’s dull ear; and from the tents The armorers, accomplishing the knights, With busy hammers closing rivets up, Give dreadful note of preparation. This is an example of a narrative. Shakespeare chose to open each act of the play with a prologue spoken by a chorus who lays out what we are about to see. Here, he creates the tense atmosphere and emotionally charged energy of the night before a battle. Because of these prologues, each act of the play is not meant to tell what happened but to show us why. (We will talk a lot more in this book about showing versus telling. After all, that is the nature of all good drama.) Of course, this is a very lofty example of a narrative. “Little Miss Muffet sat on a tuffet” is also one. Anything that tells a story is a narrative. For our purposes, we will refer to it more often as a story, but it’s a good place to start. Plot The plot (often referred to as the storyline) is a series of events that occur during the course of the story (or narrative) and the way in which they are presented. The Greek philosopher Aristotle stated that plots must have a beginning, middle, and end, and that each event in the plot causes the next event to happen. All plays and stories have a plot. Sometimes, if you look at a story backward, you will see clearer examples of it. “If only X had never happened, then Y wouldn’t have to do that.” In his brilliant book on script analysis, Backwards and Forwards, 4 author David Ball talks about the actions in a play being like a series of dominoes. If you look at them from a forward perspective, there are a number of different possibilities. If you look at it backward, you see how, in many cases, the choices that were made and the actions that occurred were inevitable. In Edmond Rostand’s Cyrano De Bergerac, if Cyrano hadn’t written eloquent love letters for the doltish but handsome Christian, Roxanne would not have fallen in love with him and she would not be pining away over his death in a convent, never giving Cyrano a chance to profess his feelings for her. If we look at this sequence of events going forward, we see lots of different options. If we look at it backward, the actions of the play seem inevitable; there could be no other outcome.

Script Analysis 11 The Protagonist When one begins analyzing a script, being able to identify the protagonist and antagonist are among the most important, primary elements. Everything else stems from this. A protagonist, quite simply, is the central character of the story (for our purposes, the play). The word originally came from the Greeks, and in Greek drama it refers to the person who led the chorus. (Of course, this is not a chorus in the modern sense with singers and dancers— although they could do that, too. In terms of Greek tragedy, the chorus was often a series of onlookers who comment on the action.) He or she is usually a character with whom the audience empathizes (or at least cheers for), whether they are rooting for that person’s success or failure. In most stories, the protagonist is obvious: James Bond, Prince Hamlet, and Cyrano De Bergerac are without a doubt the protagonists of their respective stories. But sometimes, the protagonist isn’t so obvious. In certain instances, a false protagonist is established to intentionally mislead the audience. Later, the play reveals another character to be the true protagonist. In other cases, primary characters have major roles within a play, making the true protagonist difficult to determine. So, how do we go about identifying the real protagonist? Common Misconceptions about Protagonists People often have misconceptions about protagonists. Some common assumptions in a play are that the protagonist is the point-of-view character, the one that gets the most stage time, the first-person narrator, the hero, or whichever character gets the most attention. We often assume the character played by the most famous actor or the one with billing over the title is the protagonist. While all of these traits can be associated with them, none of them will help us identify the protagonist beyond a shadow of a doubt. Here are a few examples of plays where none of these traits are attributed to the protagonist: z Thornton Wilder’s Our Town: though this character has the most lines, the first-person narrator (in this case, the Stage Manager) is not the protagonist. z Lanford Wilson’s Balm in Gilead: set in a bar with multiple pointof-view characters, there is no practical way for all of them to be the protagonist.

12 The Art of Writing for the Theatre z Shakespeare’s Macbeth: Macbeth is the protagonist, but he’s definitely not a good guy. So, Who’s the Protagonist? While a play can have multiple protagonists, there is usually one who stands out above all the others. This is often true in an ensemble, but the strength of the protagonist can vary from scene to scene. While certain love stories or “buddy comedies” could have two protagonists, these are rare, and usually one of the characters fulfills the role of a true protagonist more than the others. Most of the time, you want to identify one character as the protagonist. So, how can we identify the true protagonist in a play? z The protagonist faces the central challenge or conflict within the play. z The protagonist needs or wants something (or has a goal). z The antagonist’s actions are preventing the protagonist from achieving their goal. z In most cases, the protagonist must make difficult choices or decisions. z These choices lead to consequences, both good and bad. z The protagonist has a dramatic, personal transformation as a result of the events within the play. z In most cases, the essence of the play is about the protagonist. In other words, it is the protagonist’s story. While other characters may possess these qualities, in most cases, the protagonist possesses these qualities more than any of the other characters. Most of all, the play, at its heart, is about the protagonist and their journey, whether it is actual or metaphorical. Identifying the Protagonist Do all protagonists have the qualities outlined above? As in life, there are exceptions to every rule. Playwriting, character development, and identifying a protagonist are certainly not exact sciences. But these criteria can be used to measure each primary character’s role within a play to determine who is truly the protagonist.

Script Analysis 13 Exercise Have you ever found yourself wondering which character in a play or movie is the protagonist (even if you didn’t know that’s what they were called)? Have you debated with a friend about which character was the protagonist in your favorite play, book, or movie? Can you think of a story with multiple or even misleading (false) protagonists? Sit down with someone and talk about your three favorite plays or movies. (For the purposes of this exercise, it would be good to come up with ones with which you are both familiar.) Talk about each one and determine who is the protagonist and why. If you have differing opinions on a particular piece, talk it out and see if you can both come to the same answer. The Antagonist The antagonist in a play is a character (or a group of characters) that functions in opposition to the protagonist (or main character). The term “antagonist” comes from the Greek word antagonistēs, which means “opponent,” “competitor,” or “rival.” But it might not always be this. Oftentimes, an antagonist is referred to as the villain (or “bad guy”), against whom the hero (or “good guy”) fights in order to save themselves or others. In some cases, an antagonist may exist within the protagonist that causes an inner, moral conflict or crisis of conscience. This internal conflict is a major theme of many dramatic works, such as Oedipus the King by Sophocles, The Picture of Dorian Gray by Oscar Wilde (which has had a number of stage and film adaptations), and Hamlet by William Shakespeare. Generally, an antagonist appears as a foil to the main character, embodying qualities that are in total contrast to them. (More about foils later.) Examples of Antagonists in Theatre Example 1: Antigone (by Sophocles) A classic example of an antagonist is King Creon in Sophocles’ tragedy, Antigone. In this case, the function of the antagonist is to halt or obstruct the main character’s progress in achieving a noble act. Antigone (the protagonist) struggles against King Creon (the antagonist) in her effort to

14 The Art of Writing for the Theatre give her brother a proper burial. But since her brother was plotting a civil war to overthrow the kingdom, Creon doesn’t exactly think he was the greatest guy. Creon tries to stop Antigone in her attempt to bury him, proclaiming that her brother was a traitor and decreeing that he must be left out in the cold where his body will be eaten by vultures, rather than have a proper burial. This conflict between the protagonist and antagonist is the central theme of this Greek tragedy. Example 2: Othello (by William Shakespeare) Another example of an antagonist is the character of Iago in Othello by William Shakespeare. Iago is considered one of the most notorious villains of all time, who spends the entire play plotting against Othello (the protagonist) and his wife, Desdemona. Through his dastardly actions, Iago convinces Othello that his wife has been having sex with other men, and even persuades him to kill Desdemona, despite her having been faithful to him. The Function of the Antagonist Conflict is a basic element of any plot. To create this conflict, there must be a protagonist and an antagonist. One opposes the other in their actions, which, in turn, creates the conflict of the play. The protagonist struggles against the antagonist, which brings the plot to a climax. As the play evolves, the conflict is resolved when the antagonist is defeated or, as in many tragedies, with the downfall of the protagonist. When defining an antagonist, sometimes one needs to cut a wide swath in terms of the definition. In certain instances, it is very clear: Iago is trying to stop Othello, the conniving Compte De Guiche wants to stop Cyrano De Bergerac, and Blanche DuBois wants to stop Stanley in A Streetcar Named Desire (and vice versa). But what about the title character in Sweeney Todd? Sweeney’s life and family have been destroyed by the evil Judge Turpin and he seeks revenge. When he cannot get to the judge right away, he seeks vengeance upon all of humanity by slitting the throats of the unfortunate clients who sit in his barber chair. In turn, his girlfriend, Mrs. Lovett, bakes them into meat pies to serve up to all of London. Is Sweeney insane? While he is far from an honorable character, we understand his motivation. Granted, there are far less twisted ways to achieve his goal of revenge, but we root for him (more or less), as we understand what is behind his actions. We are relieved when he gets his just desserts (so to speak) at the end of the play, but we have willingly gone for the ride because we empathize with his sense of loss and betrayal.

Script Analysis 15 Let’s look at another character: King Oedipus in Oedipus the King. The great king has unknowingly killed the previous king (his father) and married his mother and is now the ruler of Thebes. According to the oracle, the only way he can save his country from a terrible plague is to avenge the murder of the past king. In this case, Oedipus could be considered his own protagonist and antagonist, for he is both the result and the cause of the main conflict. Many scholars have argued that Oedipus is the protagonist and fate (or the Gods) is the antagonist. While I can see the validity of this argument, it makes the antagonist something nebulous and amorphous as opposed to something concrete. It is as if Oedipus is his own worst enemy and (in this case, he is) therefore the protagonist and the antagonist. One could argue that every character has good and bad traits and varying degrees of self-sabotage. (“I know I shouldn’t have eaten that second piece of chocolate cake, but it tasted SO good!”) Using this argument, one could say that every character is their own protagonist and antagonist. But if we are all our own worst enemy, doesn’t that defeat the purpose of dramatic conflict? It is a much stronger choice to have an opponent outside of ourselves who is trying to stop us from achieving our goals. As stated earlier, drama is based on action, and conflict is the opposition of that action. Nonhuman Antagonists and Villains Antagonists are not always people. In the book of Genesis in the Bible, a snake tempts Adam and Eve to eat the forbidden fruit, which leads to mankind’s “original sin.” Natural disasters, such as earthquakes, thunderstorms, wildfires, plagues, famines, and asteroids are other forms of nonhuman antagonists. One cannot exactly consider an explosion or a blizzard as a villain. While a villain is always an “evil” character, not all antagonists are necessarily evil or even true villains. While the terms “villain” and “antagonist” are sometimes used interchangeably, this is not always the case. In all plays, the primary cause of the conflict is the antagonist and the way in which the antagonist tries to stop them from achieving their goal. A Foil In dramatic literature, a foil is a character that has qualities in contrast with those of another character (usually the protagonist). The objective of the foil is to accentuate certain personality traits of the other character. A foil is often

16 The Art of Writing for the Theatre a secondary character who contrasts with the protagonist to enhance the main characteristics of him, her, or them. The term comes from jewelry making, where gems and precious stones are often backed with foil so they shine more brightly. Similarly, in theatre, a foil “illuminates” another character by showing us important aspects of their personality, which can be either positive or negative. In drama, a foil is an important aspect of character development. The comparison of the contrasting traits of the characters not only assists the audience in understanding their personalities; it also helps them to comprehend the importance of their roles and the differences between them. Have you ever been watching a play and found yourself wondering, “What’s bugging this guy?” or “Why doesn’t she just dump him?” In many cases, a character acting as a foil is the reason. Examples of Foils There are many examples of foils in plays. In Shakespeare’s Hamlet, Laertes is a foil to Prince Hamlet. Laertes is kind, thoughtful, and methodical, while Hamlet is often impulsive, headstrong, and rash. In A Streetcar Named Desire, Blanche and Stanley are total opposites. Mitch is also a foil to Stanley, because he is a man with a similar background, yet he is respectful, gentle, and kind—everything Stanley is not. In Lynn Nottage’s Intimate Apparel, the landlady Mrs. Dickson is a foil to Esther, as she has let the world make her a hardened busybody. Conversely, Esther goes about her business, keeps her head down, and never loses hope for a brighter future. Playwrights use foils to help the audience recognize and understand important qualities, characteristics, and motivations of the characters. Simply put, foils help to explain why certain characters do what they do. If an audience member asks, “What makes that character tick?” foil characters will help them find the answers. Most importantly, foils help the audience decide how they feel about the characters on a visceral level. Exercise: Finding Foils Who are some of your favorite foils in theatre, film, or TV? Can you think of ways in which the foil illuminates the traits of his or her counterpart? Do you have any foils in your own life? Is someone you know a foil to you?

Script Analysis 17 The Plot The great Russian novelist Leo Tolstoy once said, “All great literature is one of two stories: a man goes on a journey, or a stranger comes to town.” Of course, many plays are much more intricate, and many narratives include both plots. Some scholars break plots into three groups: man versus nature, man versus man, and man versus self. Other playwrights and storytellers have come up with more “master plots,” such as: z Forbidden Love z The Underdog Succeeding z Revenge z Rivalry z Metamorphosis z Discovery In drama, conflict is the result of two opposing desires or the presence of obstacles that need to be overcome. Conflict is always necessary to propel the play forward; the absence of conflict amounts to the absence of drama. Let’s take a closer look at these three types of conflict: Man versus Man A scenario where two characters have opposing desires or interests. Typically, this would be between the protagonist and antagonist. In very basic terms, it is often “the good one versus the bad one.” Clearly, this is an external conflict. Most thrillers, Westerns, and mysteries have this type of conflict. Shakespeare’s Othello is also an example of man versus man. There are other conflicts, such as racism in society, but the key struggles are between Othello and his best friend and confidant, Iago. He is upset with Othello for two main reasons: Othello has promoted another man instead of him, and Iago believes that Othello has slept with his wife, Emilia. He sets up situations in which Othello confronts tremendous obstacles. Since Iago wants to destroy Othello at all costs, he and Othello are at odds with their desires. The unsuspecting Othello remains unaware that he and Iago are in opposition to one another until it is too late, mistakenly thinking that he is against his wife Desdemona and her lover (who doesn’t really exist).

18 The Art of Writing for the Theatre Man versus Nature This is a scenario where a character is tormented by natural forces such as storms or animals. Clearly, this is an external conflict. While this sort of conflict might be more prevalent in films (think disaster stories), it also occurs in plays like Tony Kushner’s Angels in America, set during the AIDS epidemic of the 1980s. King Lear raging against the storm or the shipwreck in The Tempest are other examples. The musical Into the Woods by Stephen Sondheim and James Lapine is a clear example of man versus nature. In this reinterpretation of many classic fairy tales, the characters must go deep into the forest and overcome the obstacles there to achieve their desires, including wolves, giants, and witches. As in many “Man versus Nature” stories, the woods themselves take on a persona and become another character with distinct personality traits. Another example of this would be the sea plays of Eugene O’Neill, where the characters refer to “that ol’ devil sea”5 as they talk of shipwrecks and people being drowned. The sea and the woods are impersonal entities. Here, they are adversaries with which the characters must do battle. Man versus Self This conflict develops as a result of a protagonist’s inner struggle. Sometimes, it is about a character grappling with good and evil. In other instances, they are battling with self-doubt. This conflict can be both internal and external, as obstacles outside the protagonist force them to deal with their inner demons. William Shakespeare’s Hamlet is a prime example. Another example would be Arthur Miller’s Death of a Salesman. This is a tragedy in the sense that the main characters are all hiding from the truth. Willy Loman (the title role and patriarch) is a salesman who has worked like a dog his entire life to support his family. He and his wife Linda are under the misperception that he is well-liked and successful within his company. In reality, they view him as a dinosaur and cannot wait to get rid of him. When Willy needles his boss for a promotion, he is fired. While there are external conflicts as to how he is treated, the main dispute is between Willy and his false ideas of who he thinks he is. As the title predicts, Willy cannot overcome his conflict with himself and commits suicide, believing that this is the only way he can lift the burden for his family. Other scholars and critics have further identified more types of conflict, such as the following:

Script Analysis 19 Man versus Machine This is a more contemporary type of conflict, resulting from humans involved in an external struggle with machines. Think of the famous episode of I Love Lucy in the candy factory where the conveyor belt full of chocolates starts going faster and faster. The Terminator series is an example of this type of conflict as is Frankenstein (which has been adapted for the stage several times) and films like 2001: A Space Odyssey. Man versus Society In this type of conflict, a character must take on the whole of society as opposed to a single person. A character (usually some kind of outsider) is at odds with the community at large and expresses the need to buck convention and defy the status quo. This is an external conflict. Some examples from the world of theatre are Dürrenmatt’s The Visit or more recently, the musicals Footloose and Kinky Boots. Man versus Fate This scenario is a result of someone working against what has been foretold for that person. While this conflict is more prevalent in stories where Gods control fate (such as Greek tragedies like Agamemnon), there are still examples of this type of conflict in more contemporary drama, such as the musical, Something Rotten! Disrupting the Status Quo One of the primary elements in drama is a sense of disrupting the status quo. There is a normal pattern of events for the given world, then something happens to alter this. We then go through a conflict and a resolution, returning to a new normal. While there are many examples of this, one of the most straightforward ones is in William Inge’s play, Picnic. Everyone is getting ready for the annual Labor Day picnic in a sleepy, American, Midwestern town. A young drifter comes along and sweeps the prettiest girl off her feet and runs off with her. Once they have left, the town goes back to normal, though for some (especially the girl’s family and fiancée) it is a new normal. Some scholars refer to this as stasis and intrusion, which is followed by a new stasis.

20 The Art of Writing for the Theatre The Importance of Conflict in Drama As stated earlier, all drama requires conflict. Most plays show a progression from the beginning to the end, displaying the journey (for better or worse) of the main character. The majority of this character’s transformation happens because of conflict. Conflict challenges a character and brings out their best and worst qualities, just as it does in real life. Conflict in a character is not necessarily a bad thing. Good or bad, it always presents challenges for the protagonist. Most plays contain more than one conflict (often referred to as the “subplot” or “B” story in film and television). Still, there is one prevalent conflict throughout the entire play. Exposition In dramatic literature, exposition explains what is happening (or what has already happened) in a very matter-of-fact way. The word “exposition” comes from the Latin word expositionem, meaning “a setting or showing forth.” Exposition may present background information of the plot or the characters. It can also explain specific details about the setting, give a sense of the historical or familial context, or whatever information the audience needs to understand and contextualize the story. Playwrights are often instructed to keep exposition to a minimum so as not to overwhelm the audience, or at least to include exposition in a clever way that still keeps the action moving. (When I teach playwriting, I often say to my students, “That line is too ‘expositioney.’” This made-up word is used to convey information being stated in a clunky or obvious way.) We will talk more about how to artfully dole out exposition in the playwriting chapter. Freytag’s Pyramid and the Dramatic Arc Many well-known playwrights, authors, and scholars have written about how plots work in dramatic literature. The most common understanding of plot—which will also help you understand script analysis—is that of a pyramid, as originally theorized by the German writer, Gustav Freytag. He was a popular playwright and romance novelist in the mid-1800s. As with any great artist, he had some hits and some flops. As Freytag was also a bit

Script Analysis 21 of a math geek, he tried to find a formula for a successful play. (He probably also did this so he’d stop writing flops.) Chart: Freytag’s Pyramid Freytag’s Pyramid is more often referred to as the dramatic arc of a story. It is important to note that Freytag’s analytic system applies to classical drama. Most modern drama contains each of these five parts, though perhaps they might contain more than one climax. The following is a description of each element. Exposition As stated previously, exposition introduces the audience to the story by giving information about the setting, characters, and a general sense of the events to come. This would also be what we described earlier as establishing the world and the status quo. Inciting Incident The exposition ends with the inciting incident, which is the one incident without which there would be no story. This is the moment that sets the rest of the story in motion: the body is discovered, the handsome stranger comes into town, or the cause of plague is revealed. Rising Action The rising action is a series of events in a play which occur after the exposition and lead to the climax of the story. In most cases, rising action is responsible

22 The Art of Writing for the Theatre for the majority of the plot, as the playwright must include all necessary events and information in order for the rest of the play to pay off for the audience. Other examples can be found in stories, speeches, and jokes. Most of the material leading up to the most exciting, climactic part of a speech could be considered rising action. A joke leading up to the punch line is also an example of rising action. Significance of Rising Action in Drama All plays and musicals contain rising action. After the audience is introduced to the characters and the main conflict (as well as what’s at stake for the protagonist), the playwright (or composer and librettist) shows us events in which the characters try to solve the conflict and interact with each other. This is a natural part of dramatic structure. If we learned of the end of the story first, what would be the point in staying to see the play? The rising action is what makes us care what happens and want to stay until the final curtain. An Example of Rising Action Romeo Oh, she doth teach the torches to burn bright! It seems she hangs upon the cheek of night Like a rich jewel in an Ethiope’s ear, Beauty too rich for use, for earth too dear. So shows a snowy dove trooping with crows As yonder lady o’er her fellows shows. The measure done, I’ll watch her place of stand, And, touching hers, make blessèd my rude hand. Did my heart love till now? Forswear it, sight! For I ne’er saw true beauty till this night. In this passage from Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet6 we see the moment in which Romeo first spies Juliet. This is a strong example of rising action, as it sets into motion their sacred and profane love which, in turn, leads to their untimely deaths. Rising action is usually a series of events, with one action

Script Analysis 23 triggering the next. Like in the diagram, it is not unlike climbing up a hill. A bunch of smaller events move the action forward to reach the summit of action, otherwise known as the climax. The Climax In dramatic terms, the climax of a play occurs when there is a turning point from which there is no going back. The climax is the point of highest tension in a drama. It is also sometimes referred to as the “all is lost” moment. In a tragedy, the climax is often the point where the protagonist’s greatest weakness is exposed, and the situation quickly deteriorates. In a comedy, events may have been bad for the protagonist up until the climax, but their true purpose is suddenly revealed, leading to the “and they all lived happily ever after” moment. The word “climax” comes from the Greek word klimax, which means “a staircase” or “a ladder.” Let’s look at the original meaning of the word along with the current definition. A staircase or ladder suggests upward movement. Therefore, the climax in a piece of theatre is the highest point of tension, to which all the action is building and from which the conclusion descends. All drama must contain conflict (which is caused by a series of actions), and in order to resolve this conflict, there must be a series of events that decides the fates of the characters. Without a climax, the audience would be frustrated to have invested so much time and attention without some sort of payoff. Imagine going to a casino and spending hours at the roulette table then walking away empty handed. Such is a play without a climax. The climax may be an event that the audience is waiting for; a fight has to happen or an inevitable meeting occurs between the protagonist and antagonist. In some cases, the climax also may be an unexpected turn of events after which nothing is the same. An Example of Climax in Drama Hamlet Come, come, and sit you down, you shall not budge. You go not till I set you up a glass Where you may see the inmost part of you. Gertrude What wilt thou do? Thou wilt not murder me? Help, help ho!

24 The Art of Writing for the Theatre Polonius (Behind) What ho! Help, help, help! Hamlet (Draws) How now, a rat? Dead for a ducat, dead. Hamlet kills Polonius. There is some debate over the climax in Shakespeare’s Hamlet. 7 While the moment where Hamlet stabs Polonius from behind the curtain is clearly one of the highest points of action, some argue that the real climax of the play is Claudius’ reaction to the play within the play, as that is where Hamlet becomes certain that his uncle murdered the king. All of the events in the play have been leading to this moment. After the climax, nothing is the same for the characters. When analyzing a script, some of my students have seen a section of dialogue where two characters are shouting at each other (often emphasized in the text by ALL CAPITAL LETTERS AND LOTS OF EXCLAMATION POINTS!!), and they immediately assume this must be the climax. Well, sometimes yes, and sometimes no. Keep in mind that for a published play, punctuation is often inserted by the stage manager in rehearsal or by an editor at the time of publication. It can add significant meaning to the script—or not. To know what defines the point of highest action, you really need to know the story. It could be something big and dramatic or something small and subtle. When Christian is killed in battle in Cyrano De Bergerac, his friend Cyrano promises to keep his secret (that Cyrano actually wrote the love letters to his beloved Roxanne) to the grave. Obviously, this is a big, dramatic moment. In Lynn Nottage’s Intimate Apparel, when Esther gives the quilt with her life savings sewn into the lining to her philandering husband out of a sense of loyalty, we see her dreams vanish. It is a devastating moment created by a very simple action which creates strong, dramatic tension and compassion from the audience. We have seen how much she has sacrificed, so the simple action of a woman handing a blanket to her husband sends a shiver down our spines. Falling Action The falling action often contains some final moments of excitement or suspense. Perhaps a subplot is resolved. Usually, the falling action takes up only a short amount of time. It is what happens after the conflict (or point of highest action) and is often akin to a snowball rolling down a hill.

Script Analysis 25 One could also think of it as the descent down the dramatic mountain. The actions have all been set in place, the conflict has played itself out, and now we are watching the results of the actions that have been set up by the rest of the play. Resolution The resolution is the part of the story where a character solves the main problem, for better or worse. The conclusion to the main action of the play occurs in this part. One could say it is where all that was hidden is now revealed. The murder is solved, the lovers kiss, or the brothers are reunited. This is where the main issues are resolved. Denouement This is the final aspect of a work of dramatic literature. The denouement (pronounced “day noo mahnt”) occurs just after the resolution and is the point at which there is a sense of closure for any remaining, minor conflicts within the script. The word comes from the French word desnouer, meaning “to untie” (originally from nodus, the Latin word for knot). In many ways, the denouement is the untying of all the knots created during a group of dramatic events. All of the loose ends of the plot are tied up in this last scene. Often, secrets are revealed, “aha” moments are realized, and there may be a sense of a cleansing or purging for the audience. It is also a return to the status quo for most of the characters, though there may be a “new normal” based on the actions of the play and what has been revealed. In a comedy, the characters end up happier than they were at the beginning, while in tragedies or dramas, the characters often end up worse off, sometimes with one or more of them winding up dead. Significance of Denouement in Drama Most works of theatre include a denouement as a way of wrapping up the story and providing a conclusion. While many plays are much more complex than this five-part model, Freytag’s Pyramid is useful for understanding the development and resolution of conflict, which is necessary in all plays. Here is an example of a denouement, from Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet: 8

26 The Art of Writing for the Theatre Prince A glooming peace this morning with it brings; The sun, for sorrow, will not show his head: Go hence, to have more talk of these sad things: Some shall be pardon’d, and some punished: For never was a story of more woe Than this of Juliet and her Romeo. This is a denouement from a tragedy. The climax of the play is the scene where the two “star cross’d lovers” commit suicide. Afterward, everyone rushes in to see what has happened and find them dead. The prince ends the play by giving a brief eulogy for the two, which leads to the new normal of the Montagues and Capulets putting an end to their longtime feud. Here is an example from a comedy: Gwendolen Ernest! My own Ernest! I felt from the first that you could have no other name! Jack Gwendolen, it is a terrible thing for a man to find out suddenly that all his life he has been speaking nothing but the truth. Can you forgive me? Gwendolen I can. For I feel that you are sure to change. Jack My own one! Rev. Chasuble (To Miss Prism) Letitia! (Embraces her) Miss Prism (Enthusiastically) Frederick! At last! Algernon Cecily! (Embraces her.) At last! Jack Gwendolen! (Embraces her.) At last! Lady Bracknell My nephew, you seem to be displaying signs of triviality. Jack On the contrary, Aunt Augusta, I’ve now realized for the first time in my life the vital importance of being Earnest. The devilish character of Jack in Oscar Wilde’s The Importance of Being Earnest9 addresses Lady Bracknell in this final moment, as the happy couples have all been reunited. They embrace each other with a mirthful expression of “At last!” and we know wedding bells will soon be chiming for one and all. These are all important elements of the structure of a play. There are many wonderful comments from award-winning theatre writers in the “On Structure” section of the chapter titled “The Interviews.” My mother used to

Script Analysis 27 say, “Steal from the best. I would have stolen the fillings out of my grandmother’s teeth if it would have helped make my onstage performance better.” While this is a little over-the-top, I hope you find things you can steal in The Interviews section or, for that matter, in any other part of this book. A Crash Course in Aristotle’s Poetics One of the chief components of Western drama is Aristotle’s Poetics. 10 Aristotle is considered the first theorist of theatre, so his Poetics is the origin and basis of all subsequent script analysis and theatre criticism. It was written in the fourth century, sometime after 335 BC. The important thing to remember is that when Aristotle was writing his Poetics, Greek theatre was already past its prime, and he was writing more than 100 years after the golden age of Greek tragedy. In that regard, it’s like a contemporary critic writing about the plays of Henrik Ibsen or Oscar Wilde. The playwrights are already long dead, but their plays have survived. Aristotle himself wasn’t so lucky with his lectures on comedy. Only his lectures on tragedy still exist. Here are some notes illustrating the key points of Aristotle’s Poetics, considered the first great work of literary criticism in the Western world. In a nutshell, he says, “Tragedy imitates the actions of the best people in society, while comedy imitates the behavior of the worst kinds of people in society.” Not unlike Freytag and his pyramid, Aristotle’s Poetics is really an attempt to analyze the features that make some tragedies more successful than others. Aristotle was very concerned with what an audience member learned by watching a play. Aristotle’s definition of tragedy can be summed up as “An imitation of an action which has serious and far-reaching consequences.” In other words, there is nothing trivial, for that is the purview of comedy. Comedy is inconsequential. For this reason, tragedy must deal with the lives of great men and women because only their actions will be of consequence to the larger community. Today, we place a great deal more value on the individual, but to the ancient Greeks, individuality was seen as a negative thing; they believed it would lead to the breakdown of the fabric of society. To the ancient Greeks, it was all about being a good citizen by supporting your leaders and doing as you were told. Everything was for the good of the community.

28 The Art of Writing for the Theatre Aristotle divides the soul of tragedy into six parts, ranking them in order from most important to least important: (1) plot, (2) character, (3) thought, (4) diction, (5) melody, and (6) spectacle. The first essential element to creating a good tragedy is that it should maintain unity of plot. Since Aristotle was the first theorist of drama, his Poetics is the origin and basis of all subsequent theatre criticism. Plot and Character Plot is the most important element of tragedy. A tragedy should have only one plot and all of its action should relate to this plot. Aristotle discusses painting to demonstrate how plot is more important than character. “It is much the same case as with painting. The most beautiful pigments smeared on at random will not give as much pleasure as a black-and-white outline picture.” According to Aristotle, character is second to plot in terms of importance. Tragedy is the “imitation of an action” performed primarily for the sake of the action itself, not because of any interest in the psychology of character. What Aristotle is essentially saying is that the actions of the character influence the character. Therefore, action (or plot) comes first because it defines the character. Aristotle on Character According to Aristotle, a character’s aims must be good; they must be appropriate; there should be a likeness to human nature in general. They should be consistent. Even if the person being imitated is inconsistent, Aristotle says, he must be inconsistent in a consistent fashion. In other words, if a character is mad and behaves like a crazy person, that’s fine, but he can’t be a raving lunatic in one scene and sane in the next. Also, in terms of consistency, doctors cannot be afraid of blood and old people must be wise. Of course, the protagonist is the main character. Their actions are most significant to the plot. (Remember, according to Aristotle, plot is primary over character. As we will see later on, not all dramatists adhere to this belief.) All of the protagonist’s actions must lean toward the good, except for one: the hero’s hamartia or tragic flaw. In fact, that is the element that screws everything up for our hero (or heroine, although there were only a few of those in the plays of the ancient Greeks).

Script Analysis 29 The unities of time, place, and action were of central importance to Aristotle. This meant all stories had to take place within roughly twenty-four hours, in one location, and with no subplots. All actions had to be interconnected. Tragedy represents a complete action with a clear beginning, middle, and end. The protagonist’s tragic flaw (hamartia) is the only imperfection that exists within them. From a writer’s viewpoint, the audience should be motivated to empathize or identify with the protagonist because the main function of tragedy is to excite pity and fear in the audience. These feelings will only be provoked if the protagonist’s fortunes go from good to bad. A change in fortune (usually for the worse) should come about due to the protagonist’s tragic flaw. In many cases, this flaw is hubris—having too much pride. The change needs to be logical and intentional, and it must be motivated by the actions of the protagonist. Oedipus the King is Aristotle’s example of a great tragedy. It’s arguably one of a handful of the most influential literary texts ever written, along with Hamlet and certain passages from the Bible. And yet, to give you an idea of how much great Greek drama has not survived through the ages, Oedipus the King only came in second at that year’s Festival of Dionysus. First prize went to a lost play by the nephew of Aeschylus. Oedipus the King is bound up with the idea of fate. It’s beyond Oedipus’ control that he will kill his father and marry his mother. This has already been decreed by the Gods. This makes it a bit unfair to describe his “tragic flaw” as his own fault. In a sense, this intensifies the amount of sympathy the audience has for Oedipus, since what happens comes about because of fate. However, it’s possible to argue that Oedipus’ tragic flaw is his pride. This is what has led him to kill his father without realizing the identity of the man. This results in his mother, Jocasta, being widowed and free to remarry. It is the moment of his reversal of fortune, which leads Oedipus to recognize his tragic flaw; it comes about when he discovers he killed his father, leading to him unknowingly marrying his mother. This is what causes his downfall. In other words, one could say his hamartia is his hubris. Following this reversal of fortune, we have the reparation, where the character suffers for his mistake. In Oedipus the King, Oedipus blinds himself and is shunned by the state; in her shame and disgrace, Jocasta hangs herself. Greek tragedies had to end on a note of balance. The social order had to be restored. Obviously, this isn’t the happiest of endings. So, what’s the aim of tragedy, according to Aristotle? To teach you how to be a better person. Because the

30 The Art of Writing for the Theatre spectator empathizes with the protagonist, he will be led to recognize his own tragic flaw, whatever that may be. (Sorry, ladies. Only men were allowed to view these plays. While there were a handful of powerful female characters in Greek drama—like Antigone and Medea, as well as Lysistrata in the comedies, the women had to stay at home and prepare the post-festival feast.) The spectator will want to discover his tragic flaw so that he does not have the same fate as the fallen hero. Aristotle’s term for this is “catharsis.” The audience member should be purged of undesirable elements that lead to unhappiness. There can be no reason for an individual to go against the laws of the state. And yet, the spectator can still empathize with the hero. We pity Oedipus’ fate because he is basically a good man. He has many heroic qualities, and he is essentially a good leader. This makes his downfall all the more tragic. This is also emphasized by his role in society; since he is the king, his actions have major societal implications. Catharsis When used in dramatic terms, catharsis is the release of emotions such as pity, sadness, and fear through witnessing tragedy. Catharsis involves the purging of “dark” emotions to lead to internal restoration and renewal. The word “catharsis” comes from the Greek word katharsis, which means “purification” or “cleansing.” Catharsis was first linked to drama (especially to tragedy) by Aristotle. He created the definition based on the medical use of purgative drugs or herbs which cleansed the body and used this metaphor for the drama to cleanse the emotions and the mind. Aristotle’s theory was that by viewing tragedy, people learned to display emotions at a proper amount and lessen excessive outbursts of emotion in daily life. As stated earlier, since the most important aspect of life in ancient Greece was being a good citizen, catharsis helped one to have a clear head (and thus, remember to vote and pay your taxes) by purging negative emotions. There are two ways in which catharsis is significant in drama. The first is the classical definition of catharsis in which watching a tragedy allows the audience to experience intense emotions in an indirect way and feel a cleansing or purging. In other words, it’s as if you saw Hamlet and thought, “Poor Hamlet! No one seems to care that he lost his father. I remember when my dog died, and people told me to ‘buck up’ because it was just a stupid animal. I can relate to what he must have been feeling.” Thus, the audience members empathize with what the character is experiencing.

Script Analysis 31 The second form of catharsis is when the audience relates to the character from a space once removed. It’s as if their emotional response is, “That Hamlet is such a sucker! I’m never going to let that happen to me!” This is another form of purging or emotional clarity. In either case, catharsis asks the reader to identify strongly with the main character(s) and experience those strong emotions at a safe distance. A playwright also may choose to show a character going through a cathartic event of his or her own. (A good example is Linda Lohman’s final speech at the end of Death of a Salesman, arguably one of the greatest modern-day tragedies, based on the format of the Greeks.) When a dramatic character goes through catharsis, we may expect that character to act differently afterward or experience an intellectual clarifying. Common Examples of Catharsis We often experience catharsis in our daily lives. For example, if you ever go to a movie, see a play, or watch a television show that you know is going to make you cry, and you watch it for that express reason, this is catharsis. Here are some other common examples: z When a relationship ends, one person might choose to “purge” the former partner out of their life. For instance, they may tear photos in half and give away shared objects. z When a loved one dies, the family might scatter the ashes together to feel a rebirth of the spirit. z When a significant life transition occurs, such as graduating from college or getting married, there is a ceremony that encourages strong emotions so that they may be released. (Have you heard the expression, “I love to cry at weddings?”) Usually, one has anticipated this day for many years, and along with the ceremony where one experiences a sense of catharsis, there is also a sense of celebration. Deus Ex Machina Deus Ex Machina is a Greek term literally meaning “God in the Machine.” At the end of a Greek tragedy, when everything has become an irreconcilable mess, an actor representing one of the Gods would be lowered onto the stage on a pulley and would magically clean up the mess through divine intervention. This also happens in Shakespeare’s comedy, As You Like It,

32 The Art of Writing for the Theatre when Hymen, the Roman god of marriage, appears during the final act to “fix” the romantic entanglements of the main characters. Modern examples would be when Lois Lane (or another heroine of your choice) is pushed off the building and Superman (or Batman, or Spider-Man) swoops by and catches her before she falls to her death. Or, in Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets, when a giant fanged snake is after Harry, it seems like an “all is lost” moment until a magical phoenix flies into the chamber, dropping the Sorting Hat in front of Harry. Inside Harry finds the sword of Gryffindor, which he uses to kill the snake. The phoenix’s tears even heal Harry’s wounds. Many consider this moment to be a Deus Ex Machina. Script Analysis Exercises Let’s put all of these skills and terms into practice. There are a number of great script analysis worksheets available online, but this one is pretty allinclusive. I’ll show you the example, then we’ll answer the questions. Script Analysis Worksheet Your Name: Name of Play: Playwright: I. Characters (describe): A. Protagonist B. Antagonist C. Other major characters D. Secondary or minor characters (list name and what they do in the play, who they are) II. Exposition (all the information needed to get the audience “set up” for the story) A. Time B. Place C. Preliminary situation fi

Script Analysis 33 III. Plot (which follows the preliminary action) A. Inciting Incident: How does the plight of the main characters begin? B. Main conflict C. Rising action (summary) D. Climax (turning point) E. Falling action (summary) F. Denouement (Resolution or final outcome for each major character) G. How do the characters’ lives change throughout the story? What is their plight at the end of the play? IV. Theme of Play A. What was the main idea or theme of the play and what does it say about the time in which it was set? B. Meaning of the Title: what is the core meaning, or what is the play saying? Often an idea is expressed through a feeling. What lies subliminally beneath the feeling? C. Philosophical statements in the play: cite actual quotations found in the script. Pinpoint the line(s) that makes direct reference to your interpretation of its meaning. D. Implications of the action: what personal and societal changes do the characters deal with and how does this affect the main idea of the play? E. Consider each scene: determine the purpose of each scene in the play. What idea is it trying to convey? How does it help the overall idea? V. Personal Reaction A. Did you like the play? Why or why not? Would you recommend it to others? B. What actors in Hollywood might be suitable to play the characters from this play on the big screen? VI. Mood A. What is the mood of the play? B. What is the mood of the beginning compared to the end?

34 The Art of Writing for the Theatre Take a moment to really study these questions. Then apply them to this scene from my play, The Last Lifeboat: Background Information: J. Bruce Ismay is the owner of the White Star Shipping Line. He is responsible for building the Titanic, which has recently sunk, causing the biggest maritime disaster in history. This is towards the middle of the first act, where Ismay is reflecting on his life and what could have gone so horribly wrong. In previous scenes of his childhood, we have seen his father, Thomas Ismay, berate him and tell him he will never amount to anything. The scene takes place in Liverpool, England in 1899 in Thomas Ismay’s bedroom as he is dying. Young Ismay (now 37) has come to say goodbye to his father. His wife, Florence, waits in the parlor.11 Thomas Ismay lies there, pale, frail, and on the verge of death. Ismay enters and kneels beside him. Ismay How do you feel, father? Thomas Ismay Ripping. I think I’ll swim the channel. How do you think I feel, you idiot? Ismay adjusts the pillow behind his father’s head. Ismay At least you haven’t lost your fight. Thomas Ismay I’ve got something for you. It’s in the bottom drawer. Ismay reaches into the dresser and takes out an ornate, wooden box. It contains an elaborate, pearl handled pistol. Thomas Ismay My father’s handmade pistol. A Bulldog Webley. It’s all I have left of him. Mind you don’t ever have to use it. Ismay It’s beautiful, father. He closes the box. Thomas Ismay’s breathing gets heavier and more labored. Thomas Ismay Keep it away from the children. You know I’m leaving you the company. Ismay Really? To me? Thomas Ismay Did you think I’d leave it to the sausage vendor? Ismay Thank you, Father. Thomas Ismay It’s not a set of hoops to roll about. Be sure you do something with it. Ismay I will, father. I’ll make you proud.

Script Analysis 35 Thomas Ismay How? Ismay thinks a moment. Ismay I shall build the biggest, grandest, most luxurious steamship the world has ever seen. Thomas Ismay Now, that would make me proud. Ismay I shall do it, father. All I ever wanted was to make you happy. Thomas Ismay (smiling) Well, we can’t have everything, can we? The old man’s breathing gets even more labored. Thomas Ismay Take care of that pretty little thing you married. She loves you terribly. He sits up and starts coughing heavily. Ismay holds him. His breath gets more shallow until it stops. Realizing he has passed, Ismay gently places his father down on the bed and closes his eyes. Florence enters. Florence It’s over, then? Ismay nods. Florence Are you alright? Ismay forces a smile. Ismay I’ll be with you in a moment. Florence exits. Ismay stands downstage of the bed, isolated in a pool of light. He holds the box containing the pistol very tightly, as if he were hugging his father. He starts to well up with emotion, but stifles it. He clutches the box even more tightly. Let’s answer the questions on the worksheet, using this scene: Completed Script Analysis Worksheet Your Name: Jane Q. Public Name of Play: The Last Lifeboat (Titles ALWAYS go in italics or quotes) Playwright: Luke Yankee

36 The Art of Writing for the Theatre I. Characters (describe): A. Protagonist: Because the scene is about Ismay and his relationship with his father, Thomas Ismay, J. Bruce Ismay is the protagonist. B. Antagonist: Since this is a two-person scene, Thomas Ismay is the antagonist, because he is opposing Bruce Ismay, who is clearly trying to make peace with his father before he dies. C. Other major characters: None in this scene D. Secondary or minor characters (list name and what they do in the play, who they are): Florence (Ismay’s wife). II. Exposition (All the information needed to get the audience “set up” for the story). (We don’t know this from the scene, but from the background information. If we had read the play up until this point, this information would have been revealed.) A. Time: 1899 B. Place: Liverpool, England C. Preliminary Situation: The Titanic has recently sunk, and J. Bruce Ismay is reflecting on his life and how he got to this point. III. Plot (which follows the preliminary action. We will answer this based on the scene) A. Inciting Incident: How does the plight of the main characters begin? Ismay is saying goodbye to his father, who is on his deathbed. B. Main conflict: Ismay wants to have a final, tender moment with his dying father, who is incapable of tenderness. C. Rising Action (summary): Thomas Ismay gives his son the handmade pistol. (This is the rising action because it implies that it might lead to the words of kindness the younger Ismay craves.) D. Climax (turning point): Thomas Ismay dies in his son’s arms. (This is the highest point of action.)

Script Analysis 37 E. Falling Action (summary): Florence enters and asks if Thomas is dead. Ismay confirms this. F. Denouement (Resolution or final outcome for each major character): Thomas Ismay is dead. Florence leaves Ismay alone to have his moment of grief. Ismay hugs the box containing the pistol tightly to his chest as if he were hugging his father (something we imply he could never do in life). G. How do the characters’ lives change throughout the story? What is their plight at the end of the play? This would be more complex in a full play, but in this scene, Ismay has vowed to his father that he will make him proud by building “the biggest, grandest ship the world has ever seen.” Thomas Ismay has died without expressing his love to his son in any direct way. IV. Theme of Play A. What was the main idea or theme of the play and what does it say about the time in which it was set? One could look at this from several vantage points. One could see the theme as “Life is short, make every minute count,” or “Don’t hold back your feelings,” or some combination therein. B. Meaning of the Title: what is the core meaning, or what is the play saying? Often an idea is expressed through a feeling. What lies subliminally beneath the feeling? At this point in the play, one can only speculate about the title (which is actually referring to the last lifeboat on the Titanic), but even without any context, it implies a sense of urgency and finality. C. Philosophical statements in the play: cite actual quotations found in the script. Pinpoint the line(s) that makes direct reference to your interpretation of its meaning. To call some of the statements in this particular scene “philosophical statements” is a bit of a stretch, but there are lines which contain hidden or subliminal meaning. When Thomas Ismay says, “Take care of that pretty little thing you married. She loves you