History

HISTORY!KNOWLEDGE ENCYCLOPEDIA



HISTORY!KNOWLEDGE ENCYCLOPEDIA

Senior Art Editor Smiljka Surla CONTENTS
Senior Editors Sam Atkinson, Shaila Brown
Designers Mik Gates, Joe Lawrence, Mark Lloyd THE ANCIENT WORLD 8
Project Editors Claire Gell, Francesco Piscitelli, Amanda Wyatt 10
Timeline of the ancient world 12
Consultant Philip Parker Human ancestors 14
Contributors Peter Chrisp, Alexander Cox, Susan Kennedy, Sally Regan Out of Africa 16
Early humans 18
3-D Illustrators Art Agency (artists: Barry Croucher, Jean-Michel The first farmers 20
Girard, Claudia Saraceni), Peter Bull Art Studio, KJA Artists, Arran Ancient megaliths 22
Mesopotamia 24
Lewis, Brendan McCaffrey, Sofian Moumene, SJC Illustration Ancient Egypt 26
Additional Illustrations Beehive, Peter Bull Art Studio, Egyptian religion 28
Gus Scott, Mohd Zishan Egyptian daily life 30
Cartography Ed Merritt Ancient Greece 32
DK Media Archive Romaine Werblow Ancient Greek culture 34
Picture Researchers Nic Dean, Myriam Megharbi The Phoenicians 36
Managing Editor Lisa Gillespie The people of the steppes 38
Managing Art Editor Owen Peyton Jones Celtic Europe 40
Producer, Pre-Production Andy Hilliard The Persian Empire 42
Senior Producer Meskerem Berhane The Hellenistic world 44
DTP Designers Nand Kishor Acharya, Syed Md Farhan Ancient India 46
China's first emperor 48
Jacket Designers Surabhi Wadhwa-Gandhi, Tanya Mehrotra Han China 50
Jackets Design Development Manager Sophia MTT Ancient Rome 52
Jackets Senior DTP Designer Harish Aggarwal The Roman army 54
Jackets Editorial Coordinator Priyanka Sharma Roman daily life
Jackets Editor Emma Dawson Germanic peoples
Publisher Andrew Macintyre
Art Director Karen Self
Associate Publishing Director Liz Wheeler
Design Director Phil Ormerod
Publishing Director Jonathan Metcalf

First published in Great Britain in 2019 by
Dorling Kindersley Limited

80 Strand, London, WC2R 0RL

Copyright © 2019 Dorling Kindersley Limited
A Penguin Random House Company

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
001–312735–August/2019

All rights reserved.

No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in or introduced into a retrieval system, or transmitted,
in any form or by any means electronic, mechanical, photocopying,

recording, or otherwise, without the prior written
permission of the copyright owner.

A CIP catalogue record for this book
is available from the British Library.

ISBN: 978-0-2413-6337-9

Printed and bound in United Arab Emirates
A WORLD OF IDEAS:

SEE ALL THERE IS TO KNOW

www.dk.com

THE MEDIEVAL WORLD THE AGE OF REVOLUTION 126
128
Timeline of the medieval world 58 Timeline of the age of revolution 130
The power of the Church 60 The Seven Years' War 132
The Byzantine Empire 62 The Industrial Revolution 134
Medieval Japan 64 American independence 136
The early Islamic world 66 The expansion of the US 138
The Vikings 68 Colonizing Australia and the Pacific 140
Medieval Europe 70 The French Revolution 142
Empires of Southeast Asia 72 The Napoleonic Wars 144
Cultures of North America 74 The liberation of Latin America 146
China's Golden Age 76 The rise of nations 148
The Crusades 78 Medical advances 150
Sub-Saharan kingdoms 80 The US Civil War 152
Polynesian expansion 82 Life in the Old West 154
The Mongol Empire 84 The automobile 156
Ancient Americas 86 US immigration 158
Ming China 88 Age of empires

Early flight

THE MODERN WORLD

THE AGE OF EXPLORATION Timeline of the modern world 162
World War I 164
Timeline of the age of exploration 92 The Western Front 166
The Renaissance 94 The Russian Revolution 168
Joseon Korea 96 Boom and bust in the US 170
The Ottoman Empire 98 Age of dictators 172
The Printing Revolution 100 The Golden Age of Cinema 174
Early Russia 102 World War II begins 176
Voyages of exploration 104 The Holocaust 178
Conquest of the Americas 106 World War II in Africa 180
The Reformation 108 World War II becomes global 182
The Mughal Empire 110 Decolonization 184
The Scientific Revolution 112 The Cold War 186
Early colonial America 114 The Vietnam War 188
The Dutch Golden Age 116 The Civil Rights Movement 190
Edo Japan 118 The 1960s 192
The Atlantic slave trade 120 Conflict in the Middle East 194
Absolute monarchs 122 Postcolonial Africa 196
Modern Asia 198
A greener future 200

Glossary 202
Index 204
Acknowledgments 208



THE ANCIENT WORLD

Humans first evolved in Africa about 300,000 years ago, and began
to spread across the globe around 100,000 years later. From around
9000 bce, some groups of humans developed farming and settled
the first towns. Eventually, great civilizations sprang up in several
different areas of the world. The oldest were in the Middle East and
Egypt, with other civilizations forming in Europe, India, and China.

8 the ancient world TIMELINE OF THE ANCIENT WORLD

268–232 bce: Ashoka the Great 221–210 bce: Qin Shi Huangdi 206 bce–220 ce: The Han Dynasty
Ashoka expanded The king of Qin united the states The Han Dynasty ruled China for
of China for the first time, taking more than 400 years. In that time,
the Mauryan Empire in the title “Qin Shi Huangdi” (“First
India, and ordered the Emperor of Qin”). He was buried the Chinese invented paper, the
construction of many with thousands of model soldiers wheelbarrow, and the
Buddhist monuments. known as the Terracotta Army. magnetic compass.

CAPITAL (TOP) OF AN ASHOKA PILLAR CHINESE WHEELBARROW
FROM A MONASTERY AT SARNATH

336–323 bce: Alexander’s empire c.450–100 bce: La Tène Culture
Alexander the Great of Macedon A high point of Celtic civilization,
united Greece under his rule before the La Tène culture is named after
conquering the Persian Empire and an archaeological site found in La
invading India. His empire collapsed
after his death in 323 bce. Tène in Switzerland. Its people
produced intricate metalwork in
ALEXANDER THE GREAT
bronze and gold.
Timeline of the STATUES OF
ancient world RAMESES II THE “BATTERSEA SHIELD”
AT ABU SIMBEL
Early humans lived in small groups, moving c.1550–1069 bce: The New Kingdom
from place to place to find new sources of food. In New Kingdom Egypt, pharaohs were
But with the development of farming, many buried in hidden tombs in the Valley
groups began to settle down in fertile areas, of the Kings. The New Kingdom
forming larger communities. pharaoh Rameses II ruled over Egypt
for 66 years, and commanded the
The earliest towns and cities were built in Mesopotamia (in building of many statues in his image.
modern-day Iraq) and along the Nile in Egypt, more than
5,000 years ago. Centuries later, the cultures of the Greeks, 2055–1710 bce: MIDDLE
Phoenicians, and Romans developed around the edges of The Middle Kingdom KINGDOM
the Mediterranean Sea. In Asia, civilizations sprang up After a period of division, Egypt TOMB MODEL
on the shores of the Persian Gulf, around the Indus River united under the pharaohs of
in modern-day Pakistan, and along the Yangtze River in the Middle Kingdom. Much
China. Ancient regions traded with each other, but they of what we know about
also competed for land and resources, leading to war, Egyptian daily life comes
and the creation of the world’s first empires. from art of this period.

SAHELANTHROPUS 1.89 million years ago: 200,000 to 18,400 years ago: HUNTING A MAMMOTH
TCHADENSIS Homo erectus Humans spread across the world IN NORTH AMERICA
Homo erectus were the first Modern humans travelled out of
7–6 million years ago: human ancestors to have similar
Sahelanthropus tchadensis bodies and limb sizes to those of East Africa and eventually
The earliest human ancestors to walk modern humans. They used fire spread to every continent
upright, Sahelanthropus tchadensis and developed hand-axe tools.
may have spent as much time up in apart from Antarctica.
the trees as they did on the ground. HOMO ERECTUS

9

27 bce: The Roman Empire 9 ce: Germanic tribes ROMULUS AUGUSTULUS 476 ce: Fall of the
Augustus became the first of many defeat Rome Western Roman Empire
Roman emperors. At its greatest An alliance of Germanic In 286 ce, the Roman Empire
extent in 117 ce, the Roman Empire tribes under the chieftain had split into western and
stretched from Spain and Britain to Arminius defeated Roman eastern halves. In 476 ce,
modern-day Syria and the Red Sea. armies at the Battle of Romulus Augustulus, the last
Teutoburg Forest. Western Roman Emperor, was
EMPEROR AUGUSTUS overthrown by a Germanic king.
ARMINIUS

492–479 bce: c.500–336 bce: Classical Greece
The Greco-Persian Wars The Greeks of the Classical Age
Darius I of the Persian Empire
and his son Xerxes I launched made great advancements in
invasions of Greece. Darius was philosophy, politics, and science,
defeated by an Athenian army, and developed the first theatres.
Xerxes by an alliance of city-states.
Classical Greek culture spread
PERSIAN AND GREEK WARRIORS throughout the Mediterranean.

ROMAN
SOLDIER

c.1200 bce: The Phoenicians 559–330 bce: The Persian Empire c.510 bce: The Roman Republic
The seafaring Phoenician The Persians of the Middle East The Romans overthrew their king,
civilization, based in conquered many lands, and their
modern-day Lebanon empire stretched from Egypt to establishing the Roman Republic.
in the Middle East, began northwest India. The Persians It was governed by elected officials
to dominate trade across allowed conquered peoples to
the Mediterranean. keep their customs and religions. and the Senate, a council of nobles.
Under the Republic, Rome became a
great power across the Mediterranean.

PHOENICIAN CARGO SHIP

PAINTING OF BULL From c.2500 bce: The Indus INDUS STATUE
LEAPING, KNOSSOS trade with Mesopotamia OF A BULL
KHAFRA
2900–1450 bce: Minoan civilization The people of the Indus Valley
The earliest civilization in Europe, the Minoans built civilization in ancient India
palaces such as Knossos on their island home of Crete, created trade routes with
and set up trading centres across the Mediterranean. other cultures, such as the
Sumerians of Mesopotamia.

c.9000 bce: The first farmers c.3300–3100 bce: CUNEIFORM TABLET 2686–2181 bce: The Old Kingdom
Some groups began to settle down and First cities in Mesopotamia During the period known as the
The earliest cities were established
produce their own food rather than in Mesopotamia in the Middle East. Old Kingdom, the ancient Egyptians
living by hunting and gathering. They The Mesopotamians developed constructed pyramid tombs and
grew plants to eat and tamed animals rulership, religion, and a form of
writing, known today as cuneiform, other monuments for their pharaohs
for meat and to work the land. that was written on clay tablets. (ancient Egyptian rulers). The three

EARLY FARMING AXE greatest pyramids were the tombs of the
pharaohs Khufu, Khafra, and Menkaure.

10 the ancient world HUMAN ANCESTORS The brains of humans are almost twice the
size of those of our ancestors, Homo habilis.

SAHELANTHROPUS TCHADENSIS Human ancestors Standing upright
Like today’s humans,
Region: Africa Modern humans are the only survivors of a family Homo erectus would
Period: 7–6 million years ago of apes that walked upright. These apes are called have stood upright.
hominins, and they first appeared in Africa around
The earliest apes that walked upright, Sahelanthropus seven million years ago.
tchadensis lived in western Central Africa, in a
region of lakes, forests, and grassy woodland. Hominins diverged from other primates that would
Although they could walk upright, they may have later evolve into human’s closest living relative, the
spent just as much time in the trees as on the ground. chimpanzee. There were many species of hominins,
but only some are the ancestors of modern
humans. Over millions of years, they began to
walk on two legs, evolved increasingly larger
brains, started to make tools, and learned to
control fire. These adaptations, as well as many
others, were passed on to modern humans.

AUSTRALOPITHECUS AFARENSIS Long legs
Homo erectus could run
Region: Africa
Period: 3.85–2.95 million years ago away from predators
using their long legs.
Like their ancestors Sahelanthropus, Australopithecus
afarensis could still climb trees, but they were better Eyes
adapted to living in East Africa’s grasslands. Their Homo erectus may have
improved upright stance meant they could run faster evolved whites to their
and see predators and prey across open plains. eyes, which would have

improved their vision.

Cooked meat
Homo erectus ate meat,

and may have also
cooked it. This increased

energy intake and
fuelled brain growth.

HOMO HABILIS

Region: Africa
Period: 2.4–1.4 million years ago

Homo habilis (meaning “handy man”) had brains
that were 50 per cent larger than those of
Australopithecus. They made simple stone choppers
by striking river pebbles with other stones to make
a cutting edge.

Staying cool Fire
Homo erectus could keep cool Fire provided warmth,

better than earlier hominins light, and protection
as they had less body hair from predators.
and bigger sweat glands.

Humans were the only species in their 99% The percentage of DNA humans share with 11
family to spread all over the world. their closest living relative, the chimpanzee.

HOMO ERECTUS Child HOMO HEIDELBERGENSIS
Homo erectus had a short
Region: Africa, Asia childhood and reached Region: Europe, Africa
Period: 1.89 million years ago–143,000 years ago puberty by the age of 12. Period: 700,000–200,000 years ago
Homo erectus (meaning “upright man”) were the
first hominins with similar bodies and limb sizes to Homo heidelbergensis were named after Heidelberg
those of modern humans. They learned to control in Germany, where their remains were first found in
fire and invented a new kind of stone tool, 1908. They hunted large animals, such as elephants,
a hand axe with a diamond-shaped blade. using spears. They were the first hominins to adapt
to colder climates and build shelters.

Digging tool HOMO NEANDERTHALENSIS
Homo erectus may have
used sticks to dig for roots Region: Europe, Asia
and tubers to eat. Period: 400,000–40,000 years ago

Strong jaw Neanderthals, modern humans’ closest relatives,
Strong muscles in Homo were named after the Neander valley in Germany
erectus’ mouth helped where fossils were discovered in 1856. Neanderthals
to chew tough food. were skilled toolmakers, wore clothes of animal
skin, painted cave art, and buried their dead.

HOMO SAPIENS

Region: Worldwide
Period: 300,000 years ago–present

Our species, Homo sapiens (meaning “thinking man”),
is the most versatile hominin. From African origins,
we spread throughout the world, eventually
replacing all other hominin species. We developed
language and writing, which allowed us to
communicate and work together in large groups.

Hand tool Sculptures
Homo erectus used Modern scientists
diamond-shaped tools have discovered that
to skin their prey. Homo erectus sculpted
figures out of rock.

12 the ancient world OUT OF AFRICA 200,000 The number of years it took for humans to
spread all over the world, except Antarctica.
Neanderthal Close relatives
Neanderthals lived at Denisovans, a human-like
the same time as early species, were discovered
humans in Europe, usually in 2008. A finger bone
keeping apart from them. of a female was found
in the Denisova cave in
Siberia. Denisovans
lived in East Asia.

MLADEČ KOSTENKI MALAIA SYIA MAL’TA
KENTS CAVERN DENISOVA CAVE
CLOCLOVINA
PESTERA
CU OASE BACHO KIRO OKLADNIKOV
CAVE
LAGAR MISLIYA CAVE ZHOUKOUDIAN
VELHO SKHUL TESHIK TIANYUAN CAVE
TASH
TEMARA
DAR ES- QAFZEH AL WUSTA YAMASHITA-CHO
SOLTAN TARAMSA

JEBEL TAM PA
IRHOUD LING CAVES
BALANGODA
SAHARA
DESERT

SINGA HADAR
OMO KIBISH HERTO /
MIDDLE AWASH

LAETOLI Exploring the world Flores man
Homo floresiensis,
DRAKENSBERG Early humans first spread into
BLOMBOS the Middle East, and then Asia and a tiny hominin,
Australia. They later ventured lived on the island
CAVE north into the colder climates of of Flores between
Europe and northern Asia. During
the last Ice Age, low sea levels 100,000 and
created a land bridge between 60,000 years ago.
Asia and North America. Early
The earliest human humans walking across this
Inside Jebel Irhoud cave reached the Americas.
in Morocco, scientists
have discovered the Unchanged communities Aborigine ancestors
earliest human remains Early humans sailed across
yet found. The skull is There are many cultures and
300,000 years old and groups around the world the 90-km (56-mile)
is very similar to those today that still follow a stretch of sea from
of modern humans, but hunter-gatherer lifestyle.
has a primitive, slightly This way of life can only Indonesia to New Guinea
elongated braincase support a small band of and Australia. There, they
at the back. people, usually made up
of extended families. hunted prehistoric giant
San Bushmen of South Africa kangaroos and big
The hunter-gatherer San Bushmen flightless birds.
tribes have lived in the Kalahari
Desert for about 20,000 years.

Humans sailed to Australia Early humans reached some large islands, such as modern-day 13
on rafts made of bamboo. Britain and the islands of Japan, by walking over land bridges.

CALGARY

Hunting MANIS
Early humans walked across
a land bridge from Asia to
North America, possibly
following herds of animals.

Out of Africa ANZICK MEADOWCROFT
CHILD
The first humans evolved in Africa 300,000 years
ago. When the climate in the previously impassable PAISLEY Using tools
Sahara Desert briefly turned wetter 100,000 years 5-MILE The earliest known
later, they started to explore elsewhere. POINT North Americans were
the Clovis people.
When humans migrated out of Africa, they shared the BUTTERMILK CREEK They were toolmakers,
planet with several different kinds of human-like species COMPLEX and made distinctive
called hominins. The most common were the Neanderthals YUCATAN diamond-shaped blades.
in Europe and western Asia and the Denisovans in East CAVES
Asia. All early humans were hunter-gatherers. They moved
from place to place as they searched for fresh sources of Key HUACA PRIETA PEDRA FURADA
food. This lifestyle meant early humans were great CUNCAICHA
travellers. Humans’ ability to travel and adapt to changing Between 194,000 and
environments meant they survived while all other 88,000 years ago
hominins went extinct by about 40,000 years ago. Over Between 120,000 and
many generations, early humans gradually travelled 45,000 years ago
further and further. By 15,000 years ago, humans had Between 80,000 and
spread into every continent (except Antarctica). 40,000 years ago
Between 50,000 and
25,000 years ago
Between 18,000 and
15,000 years ago
Land during low
sea levels

Fossil sites of
early humans

CUEVA BAUTISTA

Mixing populations MONTE
VERDE
Scientists have studied and HUMAN
compared DNA of modern
humans and DNA extracted
from the remains of other
hominin species. They have
discovered that we share many
genes with these hominins.
As early humans left Africa and
came into contact with other
hominins, we interbred with
them. Modern humans are the
result of this interbreeding.

NEANDERTHAL

14 the ancient world EARLY HUMANS 110,000 years old – the age of the oldest jewellery
made by early humans that has been found.
Early humans
Hunting woolly mammoths
Earth was undergoing an Ice Age between 60,000
and 40,000 years ago. Early humans living in Europe and During the Ice Age, early humans hunted
northern Asia at that time experienced a cold and dry woolly mammoths and other large
climate, and much of Europe and Asia were covered mammals on the steppes of Europe and
with steppes (treeless grasslands). Asia. Mammoths provided them with
meat, skin for clothing, and bones and
Early humans lived in small groups of between 25 and 50 people. tusks to build shelters and make spears.
They kept on the move and lived in temporary shelters. There
were no leaders, and men and women were equally important. Hut Spear
While men hunted large animals, women gathered plant foods Some early humans made These early humans
and cared for children. Early humans made a wide range of tools, huts from mammoth made spears tipped with
including bone needles for sewing and harpoons for fishing. bones and skin. mammoth-tusk blades.
Because they travelled from place to place, early humans came
into contact with a range of foods and
as a result they had a varied diet.
They were also very adaptable
to changes in the climate.

Clothes
Early humans wore
thick clothing sewn
together from animal

skin and furs.

CAVE ART

About 40,000 years ago, early humans
started to paint animals in caves. Cave
art has been found in Europe, Africa, and
Australia. Early humans painted using
fingers smeared with red ochre (clay)
and sticks dipped in charcoal. Prehistoric
art is evidence for the first humans’
ability to imagine and create.

Lascaux cave paintings
These 20,000-year-old paintings of
horses and aurochs (wild cattle) are

from the Lascaux cave in France.

73,000 years old – the age of the earliest Humans’ close relatives, the 15
drawing discovered so far. Neanderthals, also painted cave art.

Tusks 43,000-year-old flutes made
Mammoths used their from ivory and bone found
tusks, which could grow in Germany in 2012 are the
up to 5 m (16 ft) long,
to defend themselves earliest known
against attacking humans.
musical instruments.
Fur
Mammoths were Jewellery
covered with a coat Early humans wore necklaces
of long hair over a made from animal bones and
thick layer of fat.
teeth, sea shells, or beads.
Necklaces made of sea shells
have been found far from the
sea, showing that early humans

travelled great distances.

Hunters
To bring down large
animals, early humans
hunted together in groups.

CLOTHING LANGUAGE Hyoid bone

Early humans wore clothing made Humans have a hyoid bone
from animal skins, sewn together that anchors the tongue,
with bone needles. Clothes were allowing them to make
worn for display as well as for a wide range of vocal
protection from the cold. A man sounds. Neanderthals
buried 30,000 years ago near also had a hyoid bone.
modern-day Sunghir in Russia Although both species
was found wearing around 3,000 were capable of speech,
mammoth ivory beads, which had it is likely that early
been sewn onto his clothing. He also humans used language
wore a cap decorated with fox teeth. in more complex ways.

16 the ancient world THE FIRST FARMERS 35,000 years ago – dogs were
first tamed by humans.
The first farmers
CHANGE IN DIET
By around 9000 bce, the way humans lived had begun to
change. Instead of constantly being on the move, hunting Though farming was more productive than hunting and
wild animals and gathering wild plants, humans started gathering, farmers ate a less varied diet. Early farmers
to produce their own sources of food by farming. lived on a few staple crops, such as grain, which lacked
important vitamins and minerals. Early farmers were
People started to plant seeds in fertile soils and to grow crops. prone to diseases caused by a lack of nutrition.
They also learned to domesticate (tame and raise) animals, such as
sheep and goats, for food or to help them tend to crops. This was the
beginning of farming. Farming could produce much more food than
hunting and gathering, so many humans started to settle down in
permanent villages to be close to their crops. If farmers produced
more food than they needed at the time, they stored it to be eaten
when food was hard to come by. This meant that farming produced
more reliable supplies of food than hunting and gathering.

What hunter-gatherers ate What farmers ate
Hunter-gatherers had a varied Farmers had a small selection
diet, including red meat, fish, of foods, such as cereals,
and plants rich in nutrients. which they ate every day.

Appalachians Fertile Crescent Olives
Sheep
Squash Wheat Goat
Sunflower Barley Cattle
Lentils
The Sahel Chickpeas Eastern Asia Pig
Horse
Sorghum Millet Chicken
Millet Rice
Cattle Soybean
Camel

Mesoamerica

Maize
Squash
Turkey
Millet
Avocado

EARLY FARMERS The Andes Indus Valley

Farming began in several parts of Llama and alpaca Cattle
the world at different times. Some Potato Rice
areas had more plants and animals Peanut Mungbean
that could be domesticated than
others, and so people living there Key New Guinea
had an advantage as farmers. A Areas where farming and
region known as the Fertile Crescent domestication began Bananas
in the Middle East offered the best Taro
selection of plants and animals,
so farming started there.

Timeline c.8500 bce c.8500 bce c.8500 bce c.7500 bce c.7000 bce c.4000 bce c.3500 bce

Domestication GOAT

Most farm animals were
domesticated from
around 10,000 years
ago, but a few were
not tamed until later.

CATTLE SHEEP CHICKEN PIG LLAMA HORSE

Most wild animals cannot be tamed. Zebras are 4 million sq km (1.54 million sq miles) – the area of 17
too aggressive and gazelles are too easily scared. Earth’s surface now covered by wheat.

EARLY TOOLS Pottery MEASURING TIME
Pots allowed
Living in one place allowed people to boil Farmers needed to know when to plant
people to use heavier tools, food, make their crops. They measured the passing
as they didn’t have to carry stews, and store seasons by keeping track of the Sun and
them around. They also and contain food. the stars. In Egypt, farming depended on the
began to make pottery, yearly flooding of the River Nile. Egyptian
which was too fragile and farmers learned that when they saw the
heavy for wandering tribes bright star Sirius rising each August,
to transport. Early farmers the Nile flood would soon follow.
sharpened pieces of flint
to make sickles and axes.

Sickle Axe Quern
Farmers harvested cereals using Stone-bladed axes were used People ground grain using
sickles that had blades of flint. to cut down trees and clear two stones, which together
the land for growing crops. were called a quern.
WILD SHEEP
FIRST SETTLEMENTS Entrance Loom
DOMESTIC SHEEP Houses were Craftwork, such as
Farming villages grew bigger until entered through weaving, took place
Selective breeding they became towns. The first town on the rooftops.
appeared in West Asia 10,000 years the roof.
When farmers bred animals, ago. The people of these early Cattle
they picked those that were towns kept sheep, goats, Cattle were
easiest to keep and take care of. and cattle and grew kept in pens
Domesticated animals became wheat, barley, and and used for
smaller and less aggressive than pulses. Towns were carrying heavy
their wild ancestors. Farmers also craft centres, items or food.
also desired certain qualities in where textiles,
their animals. They picked wild pottery, and Warfare
sheep with the thickest fur and jewellery were
smallest horns for breeding. manufactured. There was a sharp rise in
Over time, the wild sheep’s violent conflict as different
descendants gained thick House groups fought to defend their
woolly coats and their horns Made of mud and food and land.
got even smaller. bricks, houses were
tightly packed together.

Çatalhöyük
One of the world’s earliest towns was
Çatalhöyük in modern-day Turkey,
lasting from 7400 to 6200 bce. It had a
population of several thousand people.

Population growth Cooperation

As people settled in one place Farmers had to learn to cooperate
and started to produce more with one another. Many people
food than they could eat, working together on large farms
populations grew. could produce more food.

18 the ancient world ANCIENT MEGALITHS c.42,000 rocks make up the
Rujm el-Hiri megalith.

GÖbekli Tepe Tall pillar
The two tallest
The earliest megalithic structure that has been pillars were
discovered, Göbekli Tepe in present-day Turkey, more than 5 m
was built in c.10,000 bce and is made up of at (16 ft) high.
least 20 circular structures. Only two structures
Human pillar are shown here. Unlike later megaliths, it was
The tallest pillars are T-shaped. built by hunter-gatherers who had
With carved belts, arms, and only just started to farm.
hands, these represent human
figures, possibly the ancestors Side pillar
of the people who made The smaller side
Göbekli Tepe. Many stones are pillars were up to
engraved with images of wild 4 m (13 ft) high.
animals, including lions, snakes,
goats, birds, and insects.

Hand Enclosure D
Belt This circular temple, 20 m
(66 ft) across, is one of the

biggest at Göbekli Tepe.

The vulture may
be holding the

head of a person.

A scorpion Vulture Stone NEWGRANGE
climbs up towards This pillar, the Vulture Stone,
shows three vultures with a Location: Ireland
the vultures. headless person. This probably Date: c.3200 bce
shows excarnation, a common
Headless body ritual of the time in which the Newgrange contains a long, underground
bodies of the dead were exposed passage that leads to a central burial chamber.
CARNAC to be picked clean by vultures. Early people carefully designed Newgrange so
that, on the winter solstice (the shortest day of
Location: France GGANTIJA the year), the rising sun would shine through
Date: 4500–3300 bce the passage and light up the burial chamber.
At Carnac, early people erected more than 3,000 Location: Malta
standing stones in rows that stretch for many Date: c.3600-3200 bce
miles. The stones are 0.9 m (3 ft) to 2.4 m (73⁄4 ft)
tall. Their purpose remains a mystery, but it is Early people built the temple of Ggantija in
possible that each stone represents an ancestor, Malta so that the structure aligned with the
whose spirit was thought to live on inside it. sunrise during the equinoxes (when day and
night are equal in length). On these dates,
in March and September, the rising sun
illuminates the temple’s central chamber.

225 km (140 miles) – the distance some stones 19
were moved from Wales to Stonehenge.

Inner wall
This enclosure featured
a secondary wall.

Entrance
Early people could enter
this enclosure through
a short corridor.

Wooden rollers
The stones were hauled to the site,
maybe with the help of wooden rollers.
Though quarried nearby, they had to be
dragged uphill over rough, rocky ground.

Carver
Each pillar was carved with designs
before it was put into place.

Walls Ancient
Like the pillars, the walls megaliths
were made of blocks of local
limestone, with clay mortar. Around 12,000 years ago, people started to build
the world’s first large monuments called megaliths
(Greek for “big stone”).

Megaliths can be found all over the world. In Europe and
western Asia, they were built to be communal tombs, and
alignments of standing stones whose purpose remains a
mystery. Others may have been temples. They are the first
instances of permanent structures. Early people were probably
strongly aware of their ancestors, who were felt to still be
present after their deaths. Standing stones may have been
set up to honour or worship them. Builders often aligned
their megaliths with sunrises and sunsets at certain times
of the year – but the reasons for this are not yet known.

RUJM EL-HIRI STONEHENGE KOREAN DOLMEN FIELDS

Location: Syria/Israel Location: England Location: North and South Korea
Date: 3000–2700 bce Date: 3000–2000 bce Date: c.700–200 bce

Rujm el-Hiri is made up of five circular stone At Stonehenge, builders set up huge, locally A dolmen is a tomb made of three or more huge
walls that encircle one another, the largest quarried stones in a circle of trilithons (two stones arranged to resemble a table, commonly
measuring 160 m (525 ft) across. Its purpose upright stones and a horizontal stone on top). covered with a mound of earth. Though the
remains a mystery, though some features line This enclosed a circle of smaller stones that are earliest dolmens are found in western Europe,
up with the sunrise during specific dates of the thought to come from Wales, several hundred many more were built in Korea. The earth
year. Early people later built a burial ground kilometres away. Like Newgrange, it is aligned mounds that once covered the dolmens have
that stands in the centre. with the winter solstice sunrise. since been worn away by wind and rain.

20 the ancient world MESOPOTAMIA The world’s first city was Uruk,
in southern Mesopotamia.
NINEVEH
Royal hunt
ASSUR Assyrian king Ashurbanipal’s
palace at Nineveh was decorated
The god Ashur with reliefs showing him hunting
The main temple to the lions. Killing lions was seen as a
chief god of the Assyrians, way of displaying royal power.
Ashur, was based in Assur,
the original capital city of the Hammurabi’s law code
empire. Ashur was sometimes In 1754 bce, King Hammurabi
depicted as an archer inside of Babylon had a famous law
a winged disc. code carved onto a stele
(a stone slab). At the top it
Mesopotamia showed the king receiving
the laws from Shamash,
The word Mesopotamia means “the land between two god of justice.
rivers” in ancient Greek. This word is now used to refer
to a region of the ancient Middle East around the Tigris BABYLON
and Euphrates rivers, in modern-day Iraq. The people
who lived here in ancient times, known today as the AKKAD
Mesopotamians, built the world’s first cities more
than 5,000 years ago. EUPHRATES

The inhabitants of early Mesopotamia were not a unified Sargon of Akkad
people. The first cities were built in Sumer, a region of southern Historians believe this
Mesopotamia. The Sumerians were later conquered by people
from empires in the north – the Akkadians, the Babylonians, copper head shows
and the Assyrians. Through these conflicts, the people of Sargon of Akkad, the first
Mesopotamia developed the first armies, but they also
invented many of the fundamental features of civilization, ruler of the Akkadian
such as monarchies and organized religion. Empire, or possibly his

grandson, Naram-Sin.

Timeline c.6000–4000 bce c.3300–3100 bce c.3000 bce c.2325 bce

The history of First farmers City-states emerge Sumerian bronze The Akkadian Empire
Mesopotamia Farming people from Around a dozen cities emerged in The Sumerians learned that by King Sargon of Akkad
northern Mesopotamia Sumer. Each was governed by an mixing two soft metals, copper conquered all of Sumer,
Various empires sprang up in moved south, into the flat ensi (ruler) who claimed to reign and tin, they could create a harder establishing the Akkadian
ancient Mesopotamia through southern plains of Sumer. on behalf of the local god. The metal, called bronze. They used it Empire. The language of
a series of conflicts over They worked together to Sumerians developed a writing to make tools, weapons, and pots, Akkadian, which is related
thousands of years. Cities fought irrigate their fields, building system known today as cuneiform and to create sculptures. The land to modern-day Arabic
with each other for dominance, canals, dykes, and reservoirs (meaning “wedge-shaped”), made of Mesopotamia had no metals and Hebrew, gradually
while foreign peoples arrived to store water. Over time, up of marks that could be mined from under replaced Sumerian. Even
as invaders. The last invasion villages grew larger, and imprinted on the earth, so the tin and copper the Sumerian gods were
was by the Persians, who took some people began to clay tablets. needed to make bronze had to be given new Akkadian names.
control of the region and made specialize in a single trade imported from other lands. For example, Nanna, chief
it a part of their empire. or craft. By 4500 bce, the CUNEIFORM god of Ur, was renamed Sin.
Mesopotamians had TABLET
developed the potter’s wheel.

The tombs of the kings and queens of the 907 The number of signs in the 21
city of Ur were filled with many treasures. Assyrian cuneiform language.

Mesopotamian SYR I A
empires
A S Euph Nineveh
Assyria in the north and Assur
Babylon further south Mediterranean Sea
ZAGROS MOUNTAINS created large empires rsian GulfB
that covered the whole of
Mesopotamia. These two TigrisABYLBabylon
empires battled for control rates
of the region. This map Key ONIA Pe
shows the growth of the
Assyrian Empire from 0 200 400 km Assyrian Empire – 859
859–669 bce, and the 0 100 200 miles Assyrian Empire – 669
extent of the Babylonian
Empire when it finally
fell to the invading armies
of the Persian Empire
in 539 bce.

Babylonian Empire – 539

TIGRIS Battle of Lagash
One of the earliest recorded
battles was fought between Ancient Mesopotamia
the cities of Lagash and Umma
in around 2450 bce. Lagash The fertile lands around the
won the battle. Tigris and Euphrates were ideal
for farming, and the people of
LAGASH Ziggurat of Ur ancient Mesopotamia built their
Each Sumerian city cities close to the rivers and the
UMMA had its own patron god, coast. However, the lands of
worshipped in a huge temple Mesopotamia lacked many raw
called a ziggurat. The ziggurat materials. Stone, timber, and
of Ur was the temple of metals all had to be imported
Nanna, the moon god. from distant lands.

URUK PERSIAN GULF

Gilgamesh UR
The Epic of Gilgamesh, written
before 2000 bce, is the world’s
oldest surviving story. It tells of
the adventures of Gilgamesh, a
mythical king of Uruk.

c.1900 bce c.1595–1530 bce c.911–609 bce 612 bce 539 bce

The Babylonian Empire HITTITES ON GUARDIAN STATUE The fall of Assyria Babylon conquered
The Amorites, a people A CHARIOT AT AN ASSYRIAN The cruelty of the Assyrians King Cyrus the Great of Persia
from the western deserts, ROYAL PALACE AT led to widespread rebellions conquered the Babylonian
conquered most of Hittites and Kassites DUR-SHARRUKIN against their rule. They Empire. Cyrus named himself
Mesopotamia. They ruled Two foreign peoples, the Hittites were finally overthrown by “king of Babylon, king of
from the city of Babylon, and Kassites, invaded Babylonia, The Assyrian Empire Nabopolassar, the ruler of Sumer and Akkad, king of the
and the empire they created introducing fast chariots pulled The warlike Assyrians from the north Babylon, in alliance with the four quarters of the world”.
is known as the Babylonian by horses. The Kassites ruled conquered Mesopotamia, creating an empire Medes people from the east Under his rule, Babylon
Empire. Even after the Babylon for around 500 years. stretching from Egypt to modern-day Iran. of Mesopotamia. In 612 bce, remained the most important
Amorite Dynasty was They spoke Aramaic, which became the Nabopolassar destroyed the Mesopotamian city.
overthrown, in 1595 bce, standard language across the Middle East. Assyrian cities. Babylon
Babylon remained an became the capital of a
important city. second Babylonian empire.

22 the ancient world ANCIENT EGYPT 32 The number of dynasties
(family lines) of pharaohs.

Ancient Egypt POWERFUL Khafra
PHARAOHS Pharaoh Khafra (2558–2532 bce)
Five thousand years ago, the people of ancient Egypt built the Great Sphinx – a statue of
created the world’s first united state. They invented Every pharaoh wanted to a lion with the pharaoh’s own face.
writing, created beautiful works of art, and built tombs be remembered long after
and temples, some of which still stand today. their own time. They built
statues of themselves and
Ancient Egypt was the world’s longest lasting and most stable filled temples with reliefs
civilization. For more than 3,000 years, its people spoke the showing them conducting
same language, worshipped the same gods, and dressed in religious ceremonies or
similar linen clothing. Throughout this time, they were led by leading their armies. After
rulers, called pharaohs, who were seen as living representatives their death, they were
of the gods. Life in Egypt followed an orderly pattern of work worshipped as gods.
and religious festivals, with the cycle of the Egyptian year
governed by the annual flooding of the River Nile. TOMBS OF THE PHARAOHS IMHOTEP

EMPIRE ON THE NILE The dead pharaohs of the Old Kingdom
were buried in massive stone tombs called
The ancient Egyptians built their empire in the desert alongside the pyramids, but the New Kingdom pharaohs
River Nile. For most of their history, the desert landscape protected were buried in tombs hidden underground.
the Egyptians from foreign invaders. Originally, there were two
states: Upper Egypt in the south, and Lower Egypt in the north. Early pyramids
Long after Egypt was united, a pharaoh could still be called “Lord
of the Two Lands” and symbolized this by wearing a double crown. The first pyramid was built for Pharaoh
Djoser around 2650 bce, and is thought
to have been designed by Imhotep,
Djoser’s vizier (chief minister).

Kadesh Djoser’s pyramid
Historians believe
Mediterranean Sea that this pyramid,
built with stepped
levels, was the first
large structure in the
world to be made of
stone rather than

mud bricks.

Giza HeliopolisGulf Sinai
Saqqara Memphis

LOWER uez
EGYPT oEf aSstern

Akhetaten

Western Desert Desert d
Nile e
R
Thebes Karnak
ea
UPPER S
EGYPT

Key NUBIA

Old Kingdom Abu Simbel
New Kingdom
NDubesiaenrt
0 200 400 km
0 100 200 miles Nile

Pharaoh, meaning “great house”, was a 146 m (479 ft) – the height of 23
respectful way of referring to the king. Pharaoh Khufu’s pyramid.

Mentuhotep II Hatshepsut Thutmose III Timeline History of ancient Egypt
Reuniting Egypt after A powerful queen, Hatshepsut The warrior king Thutmose III
a period of strife, (1473–1458 bce) ruled Egypt (1479–1426 bce) conquered Egypt’s long history is divided into three
Mentuhotep II in her own right as pharaoh. an empire in Asia. main periods: the Old, Middle, and New
(2055–2004 bce) kingdoms. Ancient Egyptian historians
founded recorded the names of pharaohs
the Middle and listed them in
Kingdom. numbered dynasties.

c.3100 BCE Egypt united
Previously two kingdoms, Egypt
Great Pyramid of Khufu HIEROGLYPHICS 2686–2181 BCE was first united by the pharaoh
Narmer, commemorated on this
After Djoser, pharaohs built pyramids with smooth Around 3300 bce, the Egyptians invented palette wearing the crowns of
sides. The largest was Khufu’s pyramid at Giza, the world’s first writing system, now called Upper and Lower Egypt.
which is still the world’s biggest stone building. This hieroglyphics. They used picture signs that
is also the only pyramid with a burial chamber high stood for ideas, sounds, and words, which NARMER PALETTE
up inside the structure rather than at the bottom. could also be made up of a combination of
signs. Scribes could write either from left The Old Kingdom
King’s to right or right to left. Hieroglyphics were During the Old Kingdom, pharaohs ruled from
chamber read depending on which way the faces of Memphis and built pyramid tombs and monuments
the symbols were looking; if they faced the at Giza. Huge numbers of people built the pyramids.
Queen’s right, the text was read from right to left.
chamber GREAT SPHINX OF GIZA

MUMMY FESTIVAL 2055–1710 BCE 1650 BCE c.1550 BCE 1352–1336 BCE The Middle Kingdom
After a 26-year period of division, Egypt was
Inside the pyramid RIVER reunited by the pharaohs of the Middle Kingdom.
Khufu’s pyramid has a complex internal The period is remembered for beautiful art and
structure with at least three chambers, a TOMB PRIEST poetry, much of which depicted Egyptian daily life.
grand gallery, and two mysterious air shafts.
1279–1213 BCE 664–332 BCE Kingdom invaded
The Valley of the Kings The Hyksos moved into northern Egypt from western
Asia, destroying the Middle Kingdom. They ruled the
The burial place of New Kingdom north while Egyptian pharaohs ruled the south.
pharaohs was the Valley of the
Kings, in the desert west of their The New Kingdom begins
capital, Thebes. These tombs Ahmose, ruler of Thebes, drove out the
were almost all robbed of their Hyksos and reunited Egypt, founding the
treasures in ancient times. New Kingdom. The Theban god Amun
became the chief Egyptian god.
Treasures of Tutankhamun
The only unrobbed tomb was that of Sun worship
Tutankhamun, a pharaoh in the 14th The pharaoh Akhenaten introduced
century bce. His tomb was found by a new religion, making the
British archaeologist Howard Carter Egyptians worship the Aten, the
in 1922, still filled with treasures. solar disc. He built a new capital
called Akhetaten, with open-air
DEATH MASK OF TUTANKHAMUN temples for Sun worship.

WORSHIPPING THE SUN

The great pharaoh
Rameses II ruled for 66 years and fathered around
100 children. He famously fought a battle at
Kadesh against the Hittites that he claimed to
have won single-handedly from his chariot.

Cartouche Late Period
A cartouche is an oval with a horizontal line at Egypt’s power waned as the country was conquered
one end. Cartouches were used to show that the by a series of foreign powers. Three thousand years
text within them was a royal title – in this case of Egyptian rule ended in 332 bce, when Egypt was
the name of Pharaoh Rameses II. conquered by Alexander the Great.

24 the ancient world EGYPTIAN RELIGION The name Rameses means “born of Ra”,
another name for the Sun god Re.
Egyptian gods and goddesses
Re-Horakhty
There were many Egyptian gods, who might be depicted A statue of
in different forms, as humans, animals, or a mixture of
the two. Over time, some gods were combined, creating Re-Horakhty stands
new gods. In the New Kingdom, for example, Re the Sun in the alcove above
god merged with Horus, becoming Re-Horakhty.
the entrance.

Osiris Isis Royal family
Usually depicted A protector, Around the
as a mummy, magician, and
the king of the mother, Isis pharaoh’s legs
dead’s green was crowned stand small statues
skin represented with a Sun disk of his wife, mother,
new life. or cattle horns.
Set Anubis and children.
The god of the The jackal-
desert, disorder, headed Anubis Royal wedding
and storms, Set protected A carving in stone
was depicted tombs and depicts Rameses’
with the head watched over wedding to a
of an animal. mummification. Hittite princess.

Thoth Bast
The god of The protector
writing had the goddess had
head of an ibis, the head of a
a bird whose cat, an animal
beak resembled that killed pests
a reed pen. in the home.

The Egyptian afterlife

Egyptians believed that they could live again in
Osiris’s kingdom after death – yet their souls would
still need a physical body, kept in a tomb, as a place
to live. Those who could afford it therefore had
their bodies preserved by mummification.

Preserving the dead Abu Simbel
After the inner organs were removed, the body was dried
with natron (a salt), then stuffed and wrapped in bandages. South of Egypt, in Nubia, Pharaoh
Rameses II had a great temple carved out
of solid rock. It was dedicated to the gods
Ptah, Amun, and Re-Horakhty, and to the
pharaoh himself, who was worshipped
alongside them. By claiming equal status
with the gods, Rameses meant to impress
the Nubians with his great power.

2,000 At least this many gods were 20 m (65 ft) – the height of each 25
worshipped by the ancient Egyptians. of the four statues of Rameses.
Sanctuary
Pharaoh’s crowns Side chambers The temple was aligned so that
Rameses wears the double These were used for twice a year, during February and
crown of Upper (southern) storing documents, ritual October, the rising Sun shone into
and Lower (northern) Egypt. tools, food, and sacrifices. the sanctuary, lighting up the
statues of Re-Horakhty, Rameses,
and Amun. The statue of Ptah, on
the left of this image, was always

shrouded in darkness.

Small pillared hall
Each day, priests brought
offerings to this small hall
in front of the sanctuary.

“Rameses, chosen of Re,
beloved of Amun, given

life forever.”

Abu Simbel inscription

Large pillared hall Egyptian religion
The hall is lined with eight
30ft (9m) tall statues of
Rameses, depicted as Osiris.

The great pharaoh The Egyptians believed that they lived in a
Rameses II ruled Egypt well-ordered world, overseen by gods, and ruled
for 66 years, giving him by the gods’ earthly representative, the pharaoh.
time to commission more It was the gods who made the Nile flood, the Sun
statues of himself than any rise, and the plants grow in the fields.
other pharaoh. Wanting to
be remembered, he even The pharaoh was seen as a son of the gods in heaven as
had his name carved on well as the earthly form of Horus, the sky god. After death,
earlier kings’ monuments. he united with Osiris, god of the dead. As chief priest, the
It is no wonder that he pharaoh made sure that the gods continued to watch over
later became known as Egypt. The gods all had their own centres of worship.
Rameses the Great. Ptah, the creator god, had his temple in Memphis,
while Re the Sun god was worshipped at Heliopolis.

26 the ancient world EGYPTIAN DAILY LIFE 20,000 The number of towns and villages
according to ancient Egyptian records.

The cycle of the Nile Egyptian clothing Roof spaces
For most of ancient Egyptian Egyptian houses had
The annual Nile flood was history, people dressed in plain flat roofs. Families would
caused by summer rains in white linen clothes. Men wore a often sleep on the roof
Ethiopia, to the south of Egypt. shenti (a short kilt) and women when the weather was hot.
The flood left behind black silt, wore long dresses. Decorated
which was perfect for growing clothes became more fashionable
crops. Farmers did not need during the New Kingdom, but
fertilizers because their soil was were only worn by the rich.
replaced each year. Their year
was divided into three seasons:
akhet (flood), peret (growth),
and shomu (harvest).

FLOOD

GROWTH

HARVEST

Loom
Linen, from the flax plant,

was woven into cloth
using a horizontal loom.

Kiln Pottery
Pottery was fired over Potters, who were usually

burning charcoal in male, made pots using a
the kiln. slow-turning wheel.

Egyptian
daily life

Most ancient Egyptians were farmers who lived in Food and drink
villages along the banks of the Nile. They usually The men in this model from an Egyptian
worked on great estates, which were owned by tomb are making bread, while the women
the pharaoh, the temple priests, or the nobles. are making beer. Ancient Egyptians also
regularly ate fish, onions, and pulses.
Farming in Egypt depended on the River Nile, which flooded
every summer covering the fields. When the rains came, many
farmers left their villages to work on building projects for the
pharaoh. After the Nile waters sank, they returned to plough
and plant their fields. A farmer’s busiest time was during the
harvest season, when everyone worked from sunrise to sunset,
gathering the crops.

34 years – the life expectancy for The ancient Egyptians believed that 27
Egyptian men; for women it was 30. even the afterlife included hard work.

Counting grain Dovecote Shaduf Draught animals
There were two types of granary: Pigeons and doves, Water was lifted using Egyptian cattle pulled
round or rectangular. In this model both sources of meat, a shaduf, a swinging pole ploughs and provided
of a rectangular granary, officials were housed in these meat, leather, and milk.
called scribes record the amount of mud-brick towers. with a counterweight
grain brought in by the peasants. on one end.

Threshing
Farmers walked cattle over
harvested grain to separate
the seeds from the husks.

Building materials Fishing Life by the Nile
While stone was used for Egyptians fished with nets
temples and tombs, Egyptian Egyptian villages occupied a
houses were constructed from but also used harpoons narrow strip of land between the
mud bricks. These were made and lines with hooks. Nile and the desert, with the fields
by mixing wet mud and straw alongside. Houses were small, with
in wooden moulds and leaving Reed boats two or three rooms. People did not
them out to dry in the sun. Small boats were made have much furniture; they sat on
from bundles of papyrus the ground or on low stools, and
slept on straw mattresses. Apart
reeds tied together. from houses, the most important
buildings were granaries, where
grain was stored after harvest.

28 the ancient world ANCIENT GREECE 2,500 sq km (965 sq miles) – the size
of the city-state of Athens.

DELPHI

The Tholos of Delphi
This temple was where the god

Apollo was believed to give
advice through his priestess,
who was known as the oracle.

OLYMPIA

The Olympic Games SPARTA
The ancient Olympic Games were
held every four years in Olympia in Spartan hoplite
honour of Zeus, king of the gods. Soldiers of the Greek poleis
were known as hoplites. Spartan
Athletes competed on foot and hoplites were trained from an
in chariot races, as well as boxing, early age, and were the most
wrestling, and discus competitions.
feared warriors in Greece.
Future ages will
City-states of central
wonder at us, as the present and southern Greece
age wonders at us now.
In the Classical Age, many of the
Pericles, an Athenian politician, in a speech powerful poleis were clustered in
to the people of Athens in 430 bce central Greece and the Peloponnese,
a peninsula in southern mainland
Ancient Greece Greece. Each polis had its own
government, laws, coinage, and
More than 2,500 years ago, the ancient Greeks created calendar. The two leading poleis
one of the world’s most influential civilizations. The were Athens, an artistic centre and
height of Greek culture is known as the Classical Age, great naval power, and Sparta,
which lasted from around 500 bce to 336 bce. whose male citizens spent all
their time training for warfare.
The Greeks were not a united people, but lived in more than
1,000 rival poleis, or city-states, which were often at war with
each other. But they did share a common sense of identity,
joining together to defend their homeland against invaders,
and to compete in athletic festivals, such as the Olympic Games.
The Greeks also developed philosophy, politics, science, history
writing, and theatre in this period. The Classical Age ended
when Alexander the Great of Macedon united the people of
Greece and conquered the neighbouring Persian Empire.

The Greeks established colonies all around 1 The number of events held at 2,918 m (9,573 ft) – the height of Mount Olympus, which the 29
the Mediterranean and the Black Sea. the first-ever Olympic Games. ancient Greeks believed to be the home of the gods.

The sphinx of Thebes
The symbol for the polis
of Thebes was the sphinx,
a monster that guarded the
city in Greek mythology.

THEBES ATHENS
CORINTH

The Parthenon Key
At the centre of a
citadel rising above Greek area of in uence in 500
Athens stood the
Corinthian coins Parthenon, a temple MACEDON Aegean Sea of
The city of Corinth was to the goddess Athena. Sea Marmara
a major trading centre The Athenians took Mount
during the Classical Age. Athena as their patron Olympus PERSIAN
god, and believed she EMPIRE
watched over the city. GREECE

Ionian
Sea

Pelopo Mycenae

nnese Rhodes
Area of
main map Sea of Crete 100 200 km
50 100 miles
Mediterranean Sea Knossos

Crete 0
0

Greek influence

The poleis of Greece controlled all of the lands
around the Aegean Sea by the beginning of the
Classical Age in 500 bce. They also set up colonies
throughout the Mediterranean and the Black Sea.

Timeline 2900–1450 bce 1600–1200 bce 1200–800 bce 800–500 bce 500–336 bce
The Minoan Age
The ages of On the island of Crete, the Minoan The Mycenaean Age The Dark Age The Archaic Age The Classical Age
ancient Greece civilization built large palaces The Mycenaean civilization Mycenaean civilization The Archaic (“old”) During the Classical
decorated with images of bulls, developed on the Greek collapsed around Age was a period Age, Greek culture was
Early influential Greek which were sacred in Minoan mainland. The Mycenaeans 1200 bce, when all the when Greek at its height. Athens
cultures sprang up on religion. The Minoans also founded were warlike and, around major palaces were civilization slowly and Sparta joined
the island of Crete and trading settlements across the 1450 bce, they conquered destroyed by unknown recovered from the together to defeat
in the city of Mycenae, eastern Mediterranean. Crete, becoming the leading enemies. Greece entered Dark Age. A new two invasions by the
but these civilizations power in the eastern a “dark age”, in which alphabet was Persian Empire, in 490
both collapsed over MINOAN BULL LEAPING WALL PAINTING Mediterranean. writing was forgotten introduced, trade and 480 bce. The two
time. Centuries later, the and long-distance trade revived, and the cities later fought a
Classical Age revived MYCENAEAN declined. The Greek Greeks founded long war against each
the influence of Greece FUNERAL language broke up into many colonies other, in 431–404 bce,
in the Mediterranean. MASK several different dialects, throughout the in which most of
and knowledge of Mediterranean. Greece took sides. The
ironworking spread. final victor was Sparta.

30 the ancient world ANCIENT GREEK CULTURE The word philosophy comes from Ancient Greek:
philos, meaning “love”, and sophia, meaning “wisdom”.

Ancient Greek culture GREEK PHILOSOPHY

During the Classical Age of Greece, between around 500 and 336 bce, Greek thinkers known as philosophers
the Greek city-states produced some of history’s most brilliant wanted to make sense of the world around
politicians, thinkers, and writers. The thoughts and ideas of these them: from the way people behaved, to
influential figures are still important today. what made the seasons change, to the
motions of the stars. In seeking knowledge
As Greece flourished, its citizens began to develop new ways of looking at the and wisdom they created new ways of
world. Thinkers asked more questions, poets and artists began to record what thinking and of testing ideas. Some of the
they saw, and astronomers tried to make sense of the Universe. Even 2,500 years greatest philosophers set up schools, which
later, our understanding of subjects such as maths, science, and architecture is helped spread their ideas far and wide.
based on the work of these great scholars.
“KNOWLEDGE IS THE
DEMOCRACY
FOOD OF THE SOUL”
Around 508 bce, the city of PLATO, PROTAGORAS,
Athens developed a new 5TH CENTURY bce
system of government called
democracy (meaning “rule LITERATURE AND DRAMA
by the people”). In Athenian
democracy, citizens could vote The earliest works of Greek literature were
on new laws to be introduced not written but performed, and were
to the city. But democracy passed on from generation to generation
didn’t include everyone: only by word of mouth. In the 6th century bce,
adult men who were free (not poets such as Sappho began to write their
slaves) were allowed to vote. poems down. Dramatic plays dominated
Greek women would not win 5th-century literature, and the first
the right to vote until 1952. historians – notably Herodotus – also
began writing at around this time. Together,
The Pnyx these writers created forms of literature
Athenian assemblies met at the Pnyx, a hill near the Acropolis. that we still use today.
Pericles, a famous politician, is seen here giving a speech.
Homer
Voting for banishment Voting stones
When voting to ostracize The most famous Greek poet was Homer, who
The Athenian lawgiver, Kleisthenes, someone, voters would lived in the 8th century bce. We know nothing
introduced a new law called write the person’s name on for certain about him, but tradition says that he
ostracism in around 506 bce. This shards of pottery called was blind. His long poems, the Iliad and the
was designed to prevent any single ostraka. These would then Odyssey, would originally have been learned and
individual becoming too powerful. be counted. passed on by word of mouth, and were not
If enough citizens voted in favour, a written down until hundreds of years later.
person could be sent into exile for
10 years, but without losing his
citizenship of Athens or property.

GREEK MYTHOLOGY Poseidon
Poseidon was the brother
The Greek myths are a large collection of of Zeus. As well as being god of
stories that were first used to explain the the sea, he was thought to be
world as seen by the ancient Greeks. Some responsible for earthquakes
showed people how they should – and and other natural disasters.
should not – behave. Others revealed how
places and things were first created, and Zeus
how the gods influenced the events in Zeus was “King of the Gods”.
people’s lives. With their heroes, gods, and He was also the father of
monsters, many of these myths have been many lesser gods, goddesses,
used by artists and writers for thousands of and heroic figures, including
years, and still appeal to our imaginations. Aphrodite, Perseus, Apollo,
and Helen of Troy.

30,000 The estimated number of Athenian citizens allowed 90 The estimated number of plays written by 31
to vote, out of a population of around 250,000. Aeschylus. Only seven have survived.

Thales Democritus Socrates Plato Aristotle
Thales was one of the first The investigations of Socrates thought that the best Plato founded his own Like his teacher, Plato, Aristotle
Greek philosophers. He worked Democritus into the natural way to discover the truth was academy, or school, in Athens also founded a school, called
out how to measure the height world paved the way for the to ask questions – though he in 367 bce. Many of his the Lyceum. He wrote about
of the Egyptian pyramids, and first scientists. One of his didn’t claim to know the writings survive, and have many different subjects,
believed that water was the theories was that all things answers. He wrote nothing been hugely influential, from money to music, nature
substance from which all other that exist are made of tiny, down, and much of what we particularly on the subjects to poetry, and language to
things came. indivisible particles. know of his work comes from of religion and politics. politics. He also tutored
his student, Plato. Alexander the Great.

A Greek theatre
Greek plays were performed

on a round stage, with the
audience sitting on rows of
seats built into surrounding
hillsides. In the middle of the
5th century bce, a “backdrop”
was added behind the stage,
where actors could change

their costumes.

Homer’s influence Drama and theatres
Homer’s inspirational
stories have been told Greek drama reached its peak during
many times over, originally the 5th century bce with the tragedies
on pots and in paintings, of Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides,
and nowadays in films. and the comedies of Aristophanes.
Unfortunately, most of their plays
have been lost. Performances took
place in huge open-air theatres, with
seating for thousands of people. The
architects understood acoustics (how
sound travels), so even people seated
a long way from the stage could still
hear the actors.

Athena Heracles
The goddess of wisdom, The greatest of the Greek
Athena is usually shown heroes, this lion-skin-wearing
strongman is most famous
with a helmet and for performing 12 “labours”
shield. She was not as punishment for killing his
born, but sprang fully
formed from the head wife and children.
of her father, Zeus.
Artemis
Often pictured with a
wild deer, and carrying
a bow or a quiver of
arrows, Artemis was the
goddess of hunting and
of the Moon. She also
protected the young.

32 the ancient world THE PHOENICIANS 12,000 The number of murex snails needed
to make 1.4 g (0.05 oz) of Tyrian dye.

Phoenician trade The Phoenicians

Phoenician merchants sailed all around the The Phoenician civilization began in port
Mediterranean searching for new markets to cities on the coast of modern-day Lebanon,
sell their products. They established many in the Middle East. Though they had no land
trading stations, several of which became empire, the Phoenicians became the leading
great cities, including Cadiz and Cartagena in seafaring merchants of the Mediterranean
Spain and Palermo in Sicily. Others, such as from 1200 bce.
Kition in Cyprus, survive only as ruins.
The main Phoenician cities were Byblos, Tyre, and
To SPAIN Corsica Rome PERSIAN Sidon, each ruled by a different monarch. The people
Britain Gades Sardinia EMPIRE of these cities did not see themselves as a single nation.
I TA LY It was the Greeks who called them Phoenicians – from
To GREECE Byblos phoinos, meaning dark red, perhaps after their most
West Sidon expensive product, a dye known as Tyrian purple.
Africa Carthage Tyre The Phoenicians were the greatest navigators of
EGYPT
NORTH Leptis the ancient world. Apart from their voyages across the
AFRICA Mediterranean, they explored the Atlantic coast of
Europe and the west coast of Africa.
Key

Phoenician trade route
Phoenician homeland

The Phoenician alphabet Horse’s head Ivory tusks
The figurehead may have honoured Ivory, taken from the
The Phoenicians’ alphabet formed Yam, the Phoenician sea god. Like the tusks of elephants in
the basis of all later Western writing Greek sea god Poseidon, Yam was also North Africa, was carved
systems. Easy to learn, it had just 22 signs, worshipped as the god of horses. into decorative panels by
all standing for consonants. It was adapted Phoenician craftworkers.
by the Greeks, who added signs for vowels. Water container
This large amphora Textiles
aleph beth gimmel daleth he waw (pottery jar) Rolls of textiles were
contained water
zayin heth teth yodh kaph lamedh for the crew. dyed and woven in
Phoenician workshops.
mem nun samekh ayin pe tsadi
PHOENICIAN
qoph res sin taw ALPHABET

The Carthaginian Empire Timeline Anchor
The crew dropped
The city of Carthage in North Africa broke the heavy anchor
away from Phoenician rule in c.650 bce into the sea when
and became the centre of a Carthaginian they arrived at a port.
Empire, controlling western Sicily, Corsica,
Sardinia, and southern Spain. The rivalry 264–241 bce 218–201 bce
of Carthage and Rome led to three wars,
which the Romans called the Punic Wars.

First Punic War
During the First Punic War, Carthage fought
Rome for control of the island of Sicily. Carthage
lost, and Rome became a great naval power.

CARTHAGINIAN Second Punic War
COIN SHOWING The Carthaginian general
Hannibal led an army, including
HANNIBAL elephants, from Spain to Italy.
After three great victories, he
was finally defeated by Rome,
which became the dominant
power in the Mediterranean.

Third Punic War 149–146 bce
The Romans conquered and destroyed Carthage.

They took control of all Carthaginian territory

and enslaved or killed the entire population.

According to the Bible, Phoenician cedar wood was used The Carthaginian explorer Hanno the Navigator 33
to make the roof of Solomon’s Temple in Jerusalem. explored the west coast of Africa in the 5th century bce.

Tyrian purple Phoenician merchant ship
This rich, purple-coloured dye
was one of the Phoenicians’ With big, broad, rounded hulls,
most sought-after exports. Phoenician merchant ships could carry
large amounts of cargo. They were
slow but stable, and could be sailed
or, if the wind dropped, rowed. Reliefs
from Assyria in the ancient Middle
East show that the ships had horse
figureheads at the front. The Greeks
called these ships “hippoi” (horses).

Square sail
With only a single
sail, the ship had
trouble sailing
into the wind.

Steering oar
Two oars at the stern (the
rear of the ship) were used to
change the ship’s direction.

Amphora Cedarwood logs
These large pottery jars Phoenician cedar, prized
held olive oil or wine which for its aroma, was exported
were both produced all to Greece, Egypt, and
around the Mediterranean. Mesopotamia, where
building timber was in
GLASS AMPHORA short supply.

Copper ox hide ingots IVORY SPHINX Luxury goods
Copper, from Cyprus, was mixed BEARDED Phoenician cities
with tin to make a piece of bronze. HEAD were centres of craft
With handles at each corner, the PENDANT production, making
ingot’s shape resembled an ox hide. glassware and ivory
carvings. Craftworkers
were influenced by
Mesopotamian and
Egyptian art, and the
Phoenicians spread
these styles across
the Mediterranean.

The people of
the steppes

In the ancient world, the steppes
(vast treeless plains) of Europe and
Asia were home to tribes of nomads,
who lived by moving from place to
place to find fresh pastures for their
horses, sheep, cattle, and goats.

The people of the steppes usually lived
in small tribes. The power and speed of
their horses made them feared warriors,
so when they united, these groups of
nomads became a deadly threat to the
settled civilizations to the east and west.
The greatest threat came from the Huns,
who conquered large areas of Asia and
Europe in the 4th and 5th centuries ce.

c.3500–3000 bce c.900–200 bce
The horse was first The Scythians, a group
tamed on the steppes of of nomadic tribes who
Asia. This gave humans lived on the steppes
their first fast method to the north of the
Black Sea, extended
of transport. their control eastwards
across Siberia in
215–212 bce northeast Russia to
The first emperor of the borders of China.

China ordered the 1st century bce
construction of a barrier The nomadic Yuezhi
people were united
along China’s northern under the Kushan, who
border. The Great Wall went on to conquer an
empire that covered
was built to prevent Afghanistan, parts
raids from the Xiongnu of central Asia, and
northern India. The
tribes that controlled Kushan Dynasty
much of north and maintained control
central Asia in the of these regions until
3rd century bce. the 3rd century ce.

c.370 ce 441–453 ce
Europeans first became The leader of the Huns,
Attila, launched a series
aware of the Huns as of attacks to take
they began to conquer control of lands in
eastern and central
their neighbours, Europe. But soon after
sweeping west from Attila’s death in 453 ce,
lands beyond the Volga his empire fell apart.
River in modern-day

western Russia.

Mounted warrior
This hanging from a Scythian tomb in
the Pazyryk Valley of Siberia shows a
horse rider with a bow case by his leg.
The short bow was a powerful weapon
for the nomadic tribes of the steppes,
and was used in warfare and hunting.



36 the ancient world CELTIC EUROPE 4,147 The number of hillforts so far identified as
built by the Celts in Britain and Ireland.

Celtic Europe CELTIC LIFE

The ancient Celts were a people that lived in tribes across ancient Celtic tribes were ruled by chieftains,
mainland Europe and the British Isles. Celtic civilization was at its kings, and queens. There were
height between the 6th and 1st centuries bce. different classes in Celtic society,
with most land owned by warrior
The word “Celt” comes from “keltoi”, the Greek name for a people who lived nobles and most people living as
across Europe. The Romans called the Celts “Galli” (meaning “barbarians”), or poor farmers. Others took on roles
Gauls, which led to areas they settled being called Gaul (France), Galicia (in Spain), as bards (poets and singers), priests,
and Galatia (Turkey). The Celts lived in hundreds of tribes, and did not see craftworkers, and merchants. The
themselves as a single people. Despite this, they shared common religious Celts also kept slaves, who had
beliefs and customs, and many were skilled artists, creating richly patterned been captured in warfare.
metalwork. Their languages, such as Welsh and Gaelic, are still spoken today
by people who see themselves as Celts. Celtic homes

CULTURES OF THE CELTS La Tène culture The typical Celtic home was a circular
thatched structure called a roundhouse,
Although the Celts were separate tribes, they Celtic metalwork from around 450 bce which contained a single large room. The
shared the same customs and styles of art. Over onwards moved on from the geometric main difference between rich and poor
time, these customs and styles changed, and new patterns of the Hallstatt culture to use Celts was the size of their roundhouse.
cultures emerged. All Celtic cultures were known flowing, curved lines. This new culture In western Europe, there were many
for their skill at bronze metalwork. is named after La Tène in Switzerland, hillforts – villages of roundhouses
where Celts threw many gold and surrounded by banks, ditches, and
Urnfield culture bronze items into a lake as offerings. stockades (walls made of sharpened logs).
The La Tène custom of leaving precious From the 3rd century bce, Celtic people in
The people of the metalwork in water was widespread. Europe began to build larger towns, which
Urnfield culture The “Battersea shield”, below, was the Romans called oppida. Influenced by
(c.1300–750 bce) were found in the River Thames in 1857. Roman building styles, many of these
the ancestors of the Celts, oppida were filled with rectangular
and lived in east-central Pottery urn houses rather than roundhouses.
Europe and northern This urn from Taranto in Italy
Italy. The culture was held the ashes of the dead. Inside the roundhouse
named for the funeral This roundhouse at Castell Henlyss in Wales
practices of its people – was excavated and reconstructed in the 1980s.
they cremated their dead
and put the ashes in urns. THE CELTS AND ROME
The ashes of warrior
rulers were buried with Much of what we know about the Celts
bronze weapons, armour, comes from the writings of the ancient
and ornaments. Romans, who fought them for centuries and
eventually conquered most of Celtic Europe.
Hallstatt culture The Romans first encountered the Celts in
around 390 bce, when a large number
The first true Celtic culture according to modern historians, of Celtic tribes crossed the Alps into
the Hallstatt culture is named after an ancient Celtic present-day northern Italy.
cemetery that was found in modern-day Austria. The
Hallstatt people grew rich by trading, particularly in the Gauls attack Rome
salt they mined. Known for its bronze weapons and
geometrical patterns, the culture spread across Europe, In 390 bce, one of the Gallic (Celtic) tribes in Italy,
from the River Loire in modern-day France to the River the Senones, inflicted a humiliating defeat on
Danube, in central Europe. The Hallstatt did not cremate Rome. After defeating the Romans in battle, the
their dead, but buried people with offerings for the gods. Senones captured and raided Rome itself. However,
according to legend, they could not take the central
Hallstatt necklace Capitoline Hill because a flock of geese, sacred to
Found in modern-day the Roman goddess Juno, raised the alarm. The
Romans paid the Senones in gold to leave the city.
Poland, this bronze
necklace’s linear ROMAN CARVING OF
patterning is JUNO’S SACRED GEESE
typical of Hallstatt
culture. It probably Shield cover
dates from the The Battersea shield is actually only a
cover – it would have been attached to
6th century bce. the front of a wooden shield. It is made
of bronze and decorated with red glass.

The land the Romans called Gaul covered much of modern-day 75,000 The estimated number of Romans and 37
western Europe, including all of France, Luxembourg, and Belgium. Britons killed by Boudicca’s armies.

Celtic religion

Celts worshipped hundreds of gods. Different
groups had their own gods, but there was some
overlap – the Irish goddess Badb, for example,
may have been inspired by the Gallic goddess
Cathubodua. The Celts offered precious gifts to
their gods in rivers, lakes, and pools – places seen
as entrances to another world. Animals and people
were also killed in elaborate ways and offered as
sacrifices. In Britain and Gaul, sacrifices were
carried out by priests called druids. Druidism was
one of the few religions banned by the Romans.

God of the wild
The Gundestrup cauldron, a silver bowl found in
a Danish bog, may depict Cernunnos, the horned
nature god of the Celts. The bowl’s design is
influenced by a range of cultures.

Caesar conquers Gaul Gallic surrender Romans and Britons Warrior queen
Vercingetorix surrendered In 60 ce, Queen Boudicca
Between 58 and 51 bce, the Roman general to Caesar at Alesia. Caesar In 43 ce, an army of the Roman emperor Claudius of the Iceni tribe, aided
Julius Caesar conquered Gaul in a series of wars. then took him to Rome, invaded Britain, quickly conquering the southeast. by her daughters, led
Caesar also led two expeditions across the sea to where he paraded the By 84 ce, the Romans ruled most of Britain, despite a great uprising against
Britain in 55 and 54 bce. He told the story of his chained king in a resistance from Celtic leaders. Unlike the Gauls, who Roman rule. Her army
campaigns in his book The Gallic Wars, in which triumphal procession gave up speaking their own languages, many Britons destroyed three
he described Celtic society and customs. Caesar’s before executing him. continued to speak Celtic languages rather than Roman towns before
final victory over the Gallic people was the Latin. The Celtic way of life also continued in it was defeated.
capture of the oppidum Alesia in modern-day Scotland and Ireland, which were unconquered.
France, the stronghold of King Vercingetorix.

38 the ancient world THE PERSIAN EMPIRE 10,000 The number of warriors in the elite
Persian army known as the “Immortals”.

Treasury The Palace of Persepolis Cyrus the Great
Hall of 100
King Darius I began building his The empire was founded
Columns palace at Persepolis in around by King Cyrus of Persia
515 bce. It was completed 30 years (reigned 559–530 bce),
Gatehouse later by his son, Xerxes, who built who was later known as
a hall of 100 columns beside his Cyrus the Great. After
father’s huge audience hall. successfully rebelling
against his overlord,
Apadana Corner tower King Astyages of Media,
(audience hall) The four square towers Cyrus and his army
may have held guard went on to conquer the
rooms and stairs. Babylonian Empire and
Lydia in Asia Minor.

Main gate

The audience hall of Darius I

The most important part of the palace
was the Apadana, the audience hall
where Darius met visiting governors
and foreign ambassadors. Vast and
beautiful, the hall was designed to
display the king’s power and
to impress visitors.

East stairs “May Ahura Mazda Tribute bearers Persian guard
The east stairs were also Visitors from around the The royal guard was
protect me and my kingdom” empire brought tribute gifts for made up of 1,000
decorated with reliefs the king on New Year’s Day. Persian noblemen.
showing processions of Darius I, in an inscription at Persepolis
Persian officials
visiting subjects. Court officials were
distinguishable by the tall,
fluted hats that they wore.

Persepolis is a Greek name; 330 bce The year of the murder of Darius III, 39
it means “city of the Persians”. the last ruler of the Persian Empire.

AHURA MAZDA Rise of the Persian Empire MACE DON IA E Black Sea Caspian Sea
THR AC
Persian religion Cyrus the Great’s son, Cambyses II
(reigned 529–522 bce), conquered LY D I AIONIA
Persian kings claimed to rule on behalf of Egypt, and under Darius I (reigned
the supreme god, Ahura Mazda (“Wise Lord”). 522–486 bce), the Persian empire LY C I A MEDIA
He was seen as the protector of the king and expanded into northwest India SeMa editerranean Babylon
the empire, and was represented in art as a and Europe. It was Darius who
man rising from a winged disc. The ancient organized the empire into Jerusalem Persepolis
Persian religion is called Zoroastrianism. satrapies. He also founded a EGYPT
new capital, Persepolis. This
map shows the Persian Empire Red Sea Key
in c.500 bce, during the reign
of Darius I. The Persian Empire, c.500 BCE Arabian

Sea

Bull carvings The Persian Empire
The pillars were topped with
carvings of double-headed Lasting from the 6th to the 4th centuries bce, the Persian Empire
bulls. The bull’s strength was was the world’s first superpower. At its height, it spanned three
associated with kingship. continents, stretching from Egypt to northwest India.

Pillars The empire was divided into 20 satrapies (provinces). Each had a satrap
The 72 columns, each (governor), usually a Persian noble appointed by the empire’s Great King.
20 m (65.5 ft) high, The provinces paid tribute (gifts such as gold, ivory, or slaves) to the
supported the wooden king, provided soldiers for his armies, and were harshly punished if they
beams of the roof. rebelled. Otherwise, they could manage their own affairs and, unusually
for an ancient empire, the peoples living in the provinces were allowed
to keep their native languages, customs, and religions.

Timeline The Greco-Persian Wars

Darius ruled over many Greek cities.
In 499 bce, they rebelled against his
rule, helped by western Greeks from
Athens and Eretria. After crushing the
rebellion, Darius vowed to conquer
Greece itself.

492 bce Darius’s first invasion of Greece
A Persian army led by Darius’s son-in-law,
Mardonius, crossed into Europe. The Persians
conquered Thrace and the kingdom of Macedonia,
which lay to the north of Greece.

490 bce Battle of Marathon
Darius sent another army by
sea to invade Greece. The A PERSIAN (LEFT)
Persians captured many FIGHTS A GREEK
Greek islands and sacked
Eretria, but were decisively
defeated by an Athenian
army at Marathon.

Royal scene 479–448 bce 480–479 bce Xerxes’ second invasion
A relief on the north Darius’s son Xerxes I also tried to conquer
stairs (later moved to the Greece. The Persians defeated the Greeks at
treasury) showed Darius I Thermopylae and sacked Athens, but were
in his inner court. beaten at sea at Salamis and on land at Plataea.

Wall of tribute bearers Peace of Callias
Carved reliefs showed the peoples An alliance of Greek seafaring cities, led by
of the empire, in their national Athens, set out to free the eastern Greeks from
dress, bringing gifts. When tribute Persian rule. After Greek victories in Thrace and
bearers approached the hall, they Ionia, the war finally ended in a peace treaty.
passed images of themselves.

Alexander the Great A Greek hero Statue of a god The Hellenistic 40 the ancient world THE HELLENISTIC WORLD
Greek coins of Alexander On top of the lighthouse world
In 336 bce, at the age of just 20, showed him wearing the stood a statue of one of the
Alexander became king of Macedon, lion skin of Heracles, a Greek gods. It may have In the 4th century bce, the conquests of
an ancient kingdom bordering the hero of Greek mythology. Alexander the Great of Macedon began a new
city-states of Greece. After uniting been Zeus, ruler of the period of ancient history. The Hellenistic Age
Greece under his rule, Alexander led gods; Poseidon, god of the (from “Hellene”, meaning Greek) saw Greek
a vast army into Asia. In an unbroken sea; or Helios, the sun god. culture spread south as far as Egypt and east
series of victories, he conquered the to what is now modern-day Afghanistan.
Persian Empire and then invaded India. Signalling mirror
Alexander’s empire was the largest the During the daytime, In new Hellenistic cities, such as Alexandria in Egypt,
world had seen, yet it quickly fell apart people adopted Greek dress, and worshipped Greek
on his death in 323 bce. a polished bronze gods such as Zeus and Poseidon, though sometimes
mirror reflected they gave them different names. Ancient Greek
Alexander’s empire Key the light of the became the common language of the eastern
Sun’s rays to Mediterranean and the Middle East. The influence
Alexander’s lasting legacy was the Alexander’s empire signal to ships. of Greek art spread even further, with sculptors from
foundation of more than 30 new cities, Dependent regions the Indian subcontinent taking inspiration from Greek
which he established with Greeks and Alexander’s route Fire chamber artistic forms in their depictions of the human body.
Macedonians. He called 20 of them City founded by Alexander At dusk, a large fire
Alexandria, after himself. The biggest Significant battles Cylindrical section
was Alexandria in Egypt, a great port was lit to signal to Inside this top portion of
city on the Mediterranean coast. ships, and was kept the lighthouse, which was
burning all through probably 21 m (69 ft) high,
Pella Black Sea Caspian Sea Samarkand a system of pulleys and ropes
Bactra the night. raised fuel up to the fire.
334 Gordium
Meshed 327
Athens Sardis 333 331
Nineveh Pasargadae
Mediterranean Sea Issus Ecbatana 326
332 Gwadar Sangela
Tyre Damascus
Alexandria Gaza Babylon Pattala

Siwa 332 Susa
Memphis

Red Octagonal section
The middle section of the
Sea 0 500 1,000 km Arabian lighthouse is believed to
0 250 500 miles Sea have been octagonal (eight-
sided), and may have been
30 m (98 ft) high. people lived in Alexandria

Ptolemaic Egypt Merman Guiding light c.500,000 during the 1st century ce.
On each corner of The lighthouse was the only
After Alexander’s death, his leading the square section
generals broke up his empire into that formed the base one of the Seven Wonders
separate kingdoms. Alexander’s friend of the tower stood of the Ancient World to
Ptolemy seized Egypt, where he made a statue of the god
himself pharaoh. He was the first in a Triton, messenger of provide a practical benefit
dynasty of Macedonian rulers, all called the sea, who had a for people. Its light burned
Ptolemy, while their queens were named human upper body
Berenice or Cleopatra. On coins used and a fish’s tail. for centuries, saving the
throughout the kingdom, the Ptolemies lives of countless seafarers
were depicted in a Greek artistic style,
while on temple walls they appeared by guiding them safely to
as traditional Egyptian pharaohs. the harbour of Alexandria.

Cleopatra VII “The first city
The last effective ruler
of Ptolemaic Egypt was of the civilized world”
Cleopatra VII. After her
death, the Roman Empire Diodorus of Sicily on Alexandria,
took control of Egypt. Bibliotheca historica, 1st century bce

The Pharos of Alexandria Square section
The base of the tower is thought to
In the 3rd century bce, the Greek have been 61 m (200 ft) high. It would
rulers of Egypt built a great lighthouse have contained storerooms, sleeping
on Pharos, a small island beside quarters, and even an observatory.
Alexandria’s harbour. The lighthouse
stood for more than 1,500 years. It
was so famous that at the time of the
Roman Empire the word “pharos” was
used to mean lighthouse or beacon.

Defending the tower Beast of burden Protective base Causeway The lighthouse of Alexandria is estimated
Soldiers were garrisoned at The inside of the lighthouse was filled A base that rose 6 m (20 ft) Supplies were delivered to the to have been at least 110 m (360 ft) high.
above the island protected the lighthouse by a causeway that
the base of the lighthouse with ramps to allow animals to pull lighthouse from sea storms. connected the island to Alexandria.
to protect it from attack. carts of fuel to the top for the fire.

Ancient wonders The Hanging Gardens The Colossus of Rhodes
of Babylon Erected in 280 bce, this
The Pharos of Alexandria This tiered garden, 33-m- (108-ft-) high
was one of the Seven praised as a feat of bronze statue of the sun
Wonders of the World, a engineering, may not god, Helios, towered
list of spectacular sights have existed in reality. over Rhodes harbour.
and monuments compiled
by Greek travel writers The Great Pyramid The Temple of The Statue of Zeus The Mausoleum at 41
in the 2nd century bce. of Giza Artemis at Ephesus at Olympia Halicarnassus
All of the seven wonders Built for Pharaoh Khufu This ancient temple Around 435 bce, the This massive tomb was
were located within the in 2589–2566 bce, the burned down twice Greek sculptor Phidias built for King Mausolus
borders of the Hellenistic Great Pyramid is the before being rebuilt created this 13-m- of Caria in the Persian
world of Greece, Egypt, only wonder that still in 324 bce, and was (43-ft-) high gold and Empire in c. 350 bce.
and West Asia. survives to this day. twice the size of any ivory statue of the
other Greek temple. king of the gods.

Ancient India

In South Asia, one of the world’s
first great civilizations, the Indus,
flourished from around 2800 bce.
More than 2,000 years later, the
Mauryans, followed centuries later
by the Guptas, carved out their
own empires in the region.

The people of the Indus Valley, now in
modern-day Pakistan, built the world’s
first planned cities, with sophisticated
water supplies and drainage systems.
But by 1800 bce, the Indus civilization
had declined, possibly due to flooding
or war. It was not until the Mauryan
Empire arose in around 321 bce that
the majority of India became united
for the first time. After the fall of the
Mauryans, the Gupta Empire emerged in
the 4th century ce, and began a golden
age of Indian art and science. Ancient
India was also the birthplace of what
are now two of the world’s major
religions – Hinduism and Buddhism.

c.2500 bce c.1500 bce
The people of the After the fall of the Indus,
Indus Valley began a people known as the
to trade with the Indo-Aryans migrated from
central Asia into India. They
Sumerians of spoke Sanskrit, and this
Mesopotamia in language began to spread all
the Middle East. over the region. Sanskrit
hymns, called Vedas, are
321–303 bce the earliest Hindu texts.
Inspired by Alexander
the Great’s invasion of 268–232 bce
India in 326–325 bce, After expanding the
Chandragupta Maurya Mauryan Empire,
Ashoka the Great, the
conquered northern third emperor, gave up
India, founding the warfare. He converted
Mauryan Empire. to Buddhism and sent
missionaries to spread
320–330 ce the religion to Sri Lanka
Chandragupta I and central Asia.
conquered northwest
India, founding the 380–415 ce
Gupta Empire. Though Chandragupta II ruled the
the Guptas were Gupta Empire. He was a
Hindus, they also patron of the arts and
promoted Buddhism. sciences, and astronomers
and mathematicians of the
Gupta Empire were
the most advanced
in the world at the time.

Gateway to the Great Stupa at Sanchi
Ashoka the Great built many stupas – sacred
mounds holding relics of the Buddha and other

Buddhist teachers. The stupas at Sanchi in
central India were improved upon by later
rulers. This carved gateway to the Great Stupa at
Sanchi was constructed in the 1st century bce.



44 the ancient world CHINA’S FIRST EMPEROR c.70,000 workers built the
emperor’s tomb.

Weapons
The warriors originally
carried a mixture of long-
reach thrusting weapons,
swords, and bows.

Clay figures
The statues were
crafted from clay
that was found close
to the burial site.

Baked statues
Once assembled, the clay
figures were baked in a kiln
to harden them into shape.

Shang and Zhou Black lacquer
After firing, the statues
The Qin unified China, but they were not its first were covered with lacquer,
rulers. The Shang Dynasty (c.1600–1046 bce) a varnish that formed a
of northern China developed the first base layer before painting.
Chinese writing. The Zhou (1046–256 bce)
conquered the Shang, and during their Painted figures
rule Chinese writing became closer to The final stage of building
the script in use today. each soldier was to paint

Zhou bronze it in bright colours.
The Zhou crafted beautiful bronze
vessels for use in ceremonial rituals. China’s
first emperor
The Warring States period
In the 3rd century bce, the state of Qin was one of seven
At the beginning of the Warring States period warring kingdoms in the region known today as China.
(475–221 bce), China was divided into many By 221 bce Qin, had conquered the neighbouring kingdoms
small kingdoms, which were constantly at and ruled over a unified state. The king of Qin took the
war. By the 3rd century bce, only seven title Shi Huangdi – First Emperor.
states remained. Between 230 and 221 bce,
the western state of Qin conquered each Qin Shi Huangdi compelled everyone in China to adopt the same writing
of the other kingdoms in turn. system and coins, and he standardized units of weight and measurement
across the empire. He forced labourers to build networks of roads and
0 250 500 km canals throughout China, and a great wall to protect the northern border
0 100 200 miles against invasion. Yet his rule was so harsh and unpopular that the
Qin Dynasty lasted just four years after his death in 210 bce.
ZHAO YAN
QI
Xianyang WEI Yellow Sea
QIN HAN CHU

Key

Qin state in about 260
State borders in about 260
Expansion of Qin state
Extent of Qin Empire in 221

c.40,000 bronze weapons were buried 670 terracotta statues of horses 45
with the Terracotta Army. were buried with the army.

The Terracotta Army Bronze spearhead
Wooden spears
Qin Shi Huangdi was buried in a massive were tipped with
tomb. Pits were dug nearby, and more a bronze blade.
than 7,000 life-size statues of warriors
Long-reach weapon were buried inside. The statues were made Official
The ge was made from of terracotta, a form of pottery, but many One small pit of statues
a bronze dagger-shaped of the statues carried real weapons. The buried with the emperor
blade mounted on a warriors were buried with the emperor did not contain soldiers,
wooden pole. to protect him in the afterlife. but a group of officials
from the emperor’s court.
Bun
Ordinary soldiers
wore their hair tied
up in a bun pointing

to the right.

Headwear
The shape of an
officer’s headgear
showed their rank.

Armour
Ancient Chinese armour
was made from pieces of
leather sewn together.

There were eight
different basic
head moulds.

Arms, hands,
and armour

were moulded
separately.

Swords The bottom of
Swords had bronze blades, the gowns were
but were covered in a hand-built with
coating to prevent rust.
strips of clay.
“Brandishing his long whip, the
The legs and
First Emperor base were the

drove the world before him” first parts to
be modelled.
Jia Yi, The Faults of Qin, c.170 bce
Modelling the figures
The figures were made in sections,
using moulds for the heads and
limbs. Artists then hand-shaped
the noses, mouths, eyes, and facial
hair. Each warrior’s face was
different, and they may even have
been portraits of real people.

46 the ancient world HAN CHINA 57,671,400 The population of China recorded
in the Han census of 2 ce.

Han China EMPEROR GAOZU

After the death of China’s first emperor in 210 bce, In the early 3rd century bce,
rebel leader Liu Bang overthrew the Qin Dynasty and the Chinese rebelled against
established the Han Dynasty in 202 bce. The Han ruled the hated Qin Dynasty. Liu
China for more than 400 years, and established many Bang, who came from a
of the traditions and values of Chinese culture. peasant family, became a rebel
leader and raised an army to
The Han emperors promoted Confucianism, a philosophy take the Qin capital Xianyang.
teaching that everyone had a place in society. They also Liu Bang took control of China
improved the Chinese government and created the Taichu and renamed himself Emperor
(traditional Chinese) calendar that is still in use today. The Han Gaozu. He built a new capital at
established new overland trade routes called the Silk Road to Chang’an, simplified Chinese
link China with the eastern provinces of the Roman Empire. government, and employed
Confucian scholars.

INVENTIONS Earthquake detector
In 132 ce, Han scholar Zhang Heng created
During the Han Dynasty, the Chinese an egg-shaped copper container that
invented paper, a seismometer (an detected vibrations from the Earth. A ball
instrument for detecting earthquakes), would drop from one of the dragons’ heads
the wheelbarrow, and the magnetic
compass, among other things. China’s into one of the frogs’ mouths, which
metalworkers were the most skilled in the would tell the Han in which direction
world at the time. They built furnaces so the earthquake had happened.
hot that they could melt iron into liquid,
which they then poured into moulds to
make a range of weapons and tools.

Paper Wheelbarrow
In around 105 ce, court official Cai Han wheelbarrows had a single
Lun made the first paper using central wheel that supported the
bark, bamboo fibres, and water. whole weight of the load. The Han
This was cheaper to produce than called wheelbarrows “wooden oxen”.
sheets of bamboo or silk.

Magnetic compass
The first magnetic compass
was a metal spoon, balanced
on a plate, that always
pointed south.

2,400 km (1,500 miles) – the length of the Grand Canal built 6,400 km (4,000 miles) – the approximate total 47
by Han Emperor Yang between the years 605 and 611. length of the Silk Road from China to Europe.

TRADE AFTER THE HAN

Chinese craftworkers made beautiful In the 2nd century ce, disastrous floods, a plague of
silk, pottery, and metalwork. These locusts, and famine devastated China, and desperate
goods were traded across Asia along the peasants rebelled against the Han. Emperors sent
Silk Road. The art of making silk from armies to end the rebellions, but the army generals
silkworm cocoons was a closely guarded changed sides and instead became local warlords.
Chinese secret. Rich Romans loved silk, Han rule began to break down and, in 220 ce, the
but they had no idea how it was made. last emperor, Xian, gave up the throne.

Bronze art The Three Kingdoms
The Han made many works
of art from bronze. Han emperors From 220 to 280 ce, China was
often filled their tombs with divided into three kingdoms,
bronze sculptures and ornaments. Shu in the west, Wei in the
north, and Wu in the east. The
Silk ruler of each kingdom claimed
Han noblewoman to be the emperor of China,
Lady Dai was buried and they were constantly at
in a tomb with an war with one another. Wei was
intricately painted the most powerful kingdom,
and conquered Shu in 263 ce.
silk banner.

Wu founder
The kingdom of Wu was
founded by Emperor Dadi, who
ruled from 222 to 252 ce.

Calligraphy Jin Dynasty
Under the Jin, calligraphy
flourished. Wang Xizhi was In 265 ce, a Wei general
the greatest Jin calligrapher. seized power and was
proclaimed emperor of the Jin
Dynasty. He conquered the
eastern Wu kingdom in 280 ce
and briefly reunited most of
China. The Jin Dynasty was
invaded by neighbouring
kingdoms and fell in 316 ce.

HAN GOVERNMENT Southern and
Northern dynasties
In the early years of the Han Dynasty, Chinese government officials were
appointed on recommendations from nobles and senior officials. But in In 386 ce, northern China was
165 bce, Emperor Wen introduced a new system in which applicants had reunited under the Northern Wei
to pass examinations in order to be appointed, allowing more people to Dynasty. Meanwhile, the southern
work in government than ever before. However, only the children of region of modern-day China was
wealthy families could afford to be educated and sit the exam. ruled by a series of dynasties.
A new religion, Buddhism,
Confucian scholars introduced by merchants and
missionaries from Central Asia,
The Han emperors followed the spread widely across China.
principles set down by Confucius, a
Chinese philosopher of the 5th and NORTHERN WEI
6th centuries bce. Confucius believed BUDDHIST SCULPTURE
that people should treat those above
their rank with respect and those Sui Dynasty The Grand Canal
below their rank with fairness. The Emperor Yang’s Grand Canal, linking
relationship between ruler and subject In 588 ce, China was China’s two great rivers, remains
was considered the most important in reunited by Emperor the world’s longest canal today.
Han society, and many emperors Wen, who established
employed Confucian scholars at their the short-lived Sui
courts. In 124 bce, Emperor Wu Dynasty. The second
established the Imperial University, and last Sui ruler,
which trained scholar officials in Emperor Yang, ruled
Confucian texts. from 614 to 618 ce.
He forced 5 million
Scholars at the imperial court people to build a canal
Han emperors invited leading scholars linking the Yellow and
to serve as advisers at their courts. Yangtze rivers.
Here, the Han emperor Xian is shown
with a group of scholars, who are
translating classical texts.

48 the ancient world ANCIENT ROME The Roman language, called Latin, formed the
basis for many modern European languages.

Ancient Rome EARLY ROME

From its beginnings as a group of settlements on the According to legend, Rome
banks of the River Tiber in Italy in the 8th century bce, was founded by Romulus and
Rome grew to become an empire that spanned much of Remus, half-human sons of
Europe and the lands around the Mediterranean Sea. the god Mars. Archaeologists
suggest that the first settlement,
At its peak, the Roman Empire stretched from the western located at a ford on the River
coast of Spain to modern-day Syria, and from the north of Tiber, dated to around the 8th
England to the banks of the Red Sea, incorporating up to a century bce. Early Rome was
quarter of the world’s population. Known for its military and especially influenced by the
engineering brilliance, the influence of Roman civilization is Etruscan people, who spread
still felt to this day, with its law, art, literature, architecture, to northern Italy from Lydia
and politics still shaping much of the world around us. (in modern-day Turkey). The
Etruscans brought knowledge
of sewage systems, art, the Etruscan tomb painting
toga, and chariot racing to The Etruscans were known for their
Rome. The city was even ruled beautiful wall art, as well as statues
by Etruscan kings until the made of bronze and terracotta.
founding of the Republic.

THE ROMAN REPUBLIC Julius Caesar The murder of Caesar
On 15 March (known as the “Ides of
According to early Roman historians, the Roman After winning support as a brilliant general in the March” in the Roman calendar), Caesar
Republic was founded in around 509 bce, when the Roman army, Julius Caesar won power in Rome was stabbed to death by a group
last Roman king, Tarquin the Proud, was overthrown. after defeating his political rival, Pompey, in a of Senators called the “Liberators”.
The monarchy was replaced with a system of elected civil war. He became the most powerful man in
officials (magistrates), led by two consuls, who worked Rome, but was murdered in 44 bce by a group of
alongside a council of nobles called the Senate. senators who feared he would make himself king.

Roman engineering

The Romans were skilled and innovative engineers. Rome’s
armies were able to cover huge distances using a network of
roads so well-built that some are still in use today. The Romans
built aqueducts to carry water to towns and cities, and they
constructed bridges over rivers. They also designed effective
mills, pumps, siege engines, dams, and even underfloor heating.

Roads Aqueducts
Roman roads were made up Romans built colossal
of five layers, and designed aqueducts to take water
to last. Parts of some Roman from lakes to public baths,
roads still survive today. fountains, houses, and mills.

Timeline 753 bce c.509 bce 264–146 bce 73–71 bce 58–50 bce 27 bce

Ancient Rome Founding of Rome becomes Carthaginian Spartacus revolts Julius Caesar in Rome becomes
Rome a republic Wars Romans relied upon slave labour, Gaul and Britain an empire
In its history, Rome Little is known of After its last king The North African but between 135 and 71 bce, the Between 58 and After Caesar’s
experienced three the early history was overthrown, city of Carthage, in Republic had three major slave 50 bce, Julius murder in 44 bce,
different forms of Rome. According Rome adopted a modern-day Tunisia, rebellions. The last was led by Caesar conquered his great-nephew,
of government: to legend, Rome new form of was the greatest Spartacus, a gladiator-general. the Celtic tribes of Octavian, hunted
monarchy, republic, was founded by government, the rival of the Roman ancient Gaul, adding down the assassins
and empire. Under twin brothers republic, which Republic. Between most of modern-day and defeated them.
each, its influence Romulus and Remus. was governed by 264 and 146 bce, France and Belgium He fought his rivals
gradually grew. During an argument, magistrates and Rome and Carthage to the Roman to become the first
Romulus murdered consuls. The Roman fought three wars. Republic. He also emperor of Rome.
his brother and he Republic lasted until Rome ultimately invaded Britain in He took the title
became the first the beginning of destroyed Carthage, 55 and 54 bce, but Augustus, which
king, giving the the Roman Empire burning the city to with little success. means “majestic”.
city his name. in 27 ce. the ground.