US 252417 – Apply Geographic
principles in mapping a trade
route
Compiled by:
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This Module is suitable for training towards the FIATA Diploma, TETA, QCTO
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Learner Guide compiled by:
Mark Goodger
Edited date – May 2017.
# Page layout by Reginald Moyo
Copyright © 2017 edition. Date of revision: May 2017.
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LEARNER GUIDE
Apply Geographic Principles in mapping a Trade
Route
Unit Standard 252417
Level 3 Credits 5
OVERALL OBJECTIVES OF THIS MODULE
All learners must have access to a world wall map, a school atlas as well as an electronic world
map in digital format.
This Unit Standard is for persons in the field of freight forwarding who must orientate
themselves in order to read a map and understand time zones, hemispheres, continents,
countries, cities, oceans, borders, ports, trade routes.
The qualifying learner is capable of:
• Interpreting maps.
• Locating major geographical points.
• Demonstrating an understanding of socio-political and geographical aspects of the world.
• Mapping a trade route.
Table of Contents
INTRODUCTION5
1. INTERPRET MAPS ...........................................................................5
2. LOCATE MAJOR GEOGRAPHICAL POINTS ................................22
3. EXPLAIN THE IMPORTANCE OF GEOGRAPHICAL ASPECTS ON
INTERNATIONAL TRADE...............................................................92
4. EXPLAIN TRADE ROUTES ............................................................98
INTRODUCTION
Traditionally, geographers have been viewed the same way as cartographers and people who study
place names and numbers. Although many geographers are trained in toponymy and cartology, this
is not their main preoccupation. Geographers study the spatial and the temporal distribution of
phenomena, processes, and features as well as the interaction of humans and their environment.
Because space and place affect a variety of topics, such as economics, health, climate, plants and
animals; geography is highly interdisciplinary. The interdisciplinary nature of the geographical
approach depends on attentiveness to the relationship between physical and human phenomena
and its spatial patterns.
“ ...mere names of places...are not geography...know by heart a whole gazetteer full of them
would not, in itself, constitute anyone a geographer. Geography has higher aims than this: it seeks
to classify phenomena (alike of the natural and of the political world, in so far as it treats of the
latter), to compare, to generalize, to ascend from effects to causes, and, in doing so, to trace out the
laws of nature and to mark their influences upon man. This is 'a description of the world'—that is
Geography.
In a word Geography is a Science—a thing not of mere names but of argument and reason, of cause
and effect. ”
— William Hughes, 1863
“Just as all phenomena exist in time and thus have a history, they also exist in space and thus have a
Geography. ”
— United States National Research Council, 1997
Geography as a discipline can be split broadly into two main subsidiary fields: human geography and
physical geography. The former largely focuses on the built environment and how humans create,
view, manage, and influence space. The latter examines the natural environment, and how
organisms, climate, soil, water, and landforms produce and interact. The difference between these
approaches led to a third field, environmental geography, which combines the physical and the
human geography, and looks at the interactions between the environment and humans.
1. INTERPRET MAPS
1.1. The importance of ability to read maps is explained in the context of freight forwarding
(The importance refers to determining distances, time zones, climatic areas, constraints to
cargo movement and political entities.)
1.1.1. Why is it important for freight forwarders to be able read maps?
Maps are an essential key to the freight forwarder’s business. Walk into any freight
forwarder’s office and you will be sure to see at least one world map on the wall and at
least one Atlas on somebody’s bookshelf. So how do maps assist freight forwarders in
their jobs?
ADVANCED
Locality
wPreobhaabvelyftohuenmd oasptliamcepoorntaanmt RtahpiIntSgheaKnbowuMet kaAnmoawp: is that it tells us where a place is. Once
• The country, province and/ or administrative district in which it is to be found
• How far away from, or close it is to its nearest seaport or airport (if it is not of
itself a sea and/ or airport)
• The locality of the place relative to major features such as mountains, mountain
ranges, rivers or canals.
• How high that place is relative to sea level
• How far from that place it is to the equator, the tropics or the North or South
Pole (which tells us something about the climate there)
• The time zone in which it is situated (more about this later)
As we will see, each one of these pieces of information is vital when we need to move
cargo to or from the place which has been located.
Determining distances
If you think about it, a map is a scale drawing of the whole earth (world map), a
continent, a country, a province, city, town or maybe just a suburb. The smaller the area
covered by the map, the smaller the scale. Thus, a street map carried in a car may have
a scale of 1: 20 000 whilst a world map’s scale will be in the order of 1: 90 000 000.
What do these scales actually mean? It means that everyone unit of measurement on
that map equals so many of the same units of measurement on the world. Thus, if we
were looking at a world map with a scale of 1: 90 000 000, each centimetre on the map
will equal 90 000 000 centimetres (or 900 kilometres) on the actual earth’s surface.
This tells us that is that if a map has a scale we can (if we know how) use it to calculate
distances between points on the earth’s surface.
Much of the forwarder’s work revolves around making sure that goods are safely and
timeously moved from one point on the earth’s surface to another. Think about the
distance between two points on the earth’s surface. The longer the distance between
those two points, the more time will be needed to travel between them, the more fuel
will be needed and therefore the cost of moving goods between the two points will
increase as the distance between them increases (all other things being equal).
Forwarders need to be able to measure the distances between places so that they can
have an idea of the length of time it will take to move goods from one place to another
by the different modes of transport.
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From a forwarding point of view, it is also generally true to say that the further apart
two places are, the more complex the planning and execution of cargo movement
between those points will be.RISK MA
So, without maps and the ability to use them, forwarding is really not possible.
These days more and more use is being made of online maps and geographical
programmes such as Encarta. These are invaluable tools and it is well worth while
learning how to use them.
1.2. Various types of map are analysed in order to identify key geographic features
(Key geographic features may include but is not limited to mountains, rivers, seas, oceans,
continents, countries and lines of latitude and longitude)
We have said that maps are scale drawings. As they are drawings and not photographs we
need to use symbols to indicate information on them.
In a broad sense, we can say that maps are divided into two groups: those which show man
made features and information (political maps) and those that show information about
natural features (physical maps).
Political Maps
Political maps will therefore show the borders between countries, provinces and districts;
they will show the localities of cities, towns and villages and the localities of things like
airports, ports, hospitals, schools, churches and sporting venues; they will show man made
infrastructure such as canals, roads, railways, pipelines and powerlines.
Every one of these things is depicted on a map with symbols, for example different countries
will be shown in different colours and the borders between countries, provinces and districts
will be shown using lines of different strengths and colours.
For the freight forwarder, different countries generally mean different rules, cultures,
languages, laws, regulations, policies and procedures. Therefore, the more countries
through which cargo must be transported from origin to destination the more complex the
operation will be.
There are other types of political map which have different uses. Population density maps
show the relative densities of different populations; there are maps which show the
distribution of wealth amongst different populations, there are also maps showing the
predominant languages spoken in different areas, the predominant religions practised in
different areas, how levels of education and levels of literacy differ from area to area and so
on.
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Physical Maps
There are also a number oisftdhieffeorneenRsthkIoiSnwdKisnogfmMpahjyAosricfaelamtuarpe.sTshuechtyapsetwhehiscehaissamnodsot cimeapnosr,ttahnet
to the freight forwarder
relative heights of different areas and natural land features (called topographic features)
such as mountains and rivers.
Looking at a physical map one can see that, in general, areas of different height have
different colours. By convention, the lowest land areas are coloured in different shades of
green (from darker to lighter the higher one goes), which change to different shades of
brown (from lighter to darker as one goes higher) to purple (normally high mountains) to
white (i.e. high mountains which are permanently covered in snow). Lines on a map which
join places of equal height are called contour lines. The closer contour lines are to one
another on a map, the steeper the slope or gradient at that place. The further apart they
are, the shallower the gradient at that place.
This is illustrated in the contour map above. The contour lines on the above map are brown.
You will notice that every fourth contour line is bolder than the others. Following these
bolder contours, you will see that each is numbered and that those numbers run in
hundreds, meaning that each bold contour line is one hundred units (in this case most
probably feet) higher or lower than the next one. The fainter counter lines therefore
represent heights of 25 feet each.
In moving along the dotted line which goes from the Little river towards the top of Cady Hill
on the map there is a very steep slope or gradient from the river to the 800 contour line. If
we were to draw a straight line from where the dotted line intersects the 800 contour line
to the top of Cady Hill we would see that this slope or gradient is far less steep.
If we were to draw a straight line between the top of Cady Hill and the letter “T” in Taber
Hill we would see that Lower Village lies in a valley with steep sides and a flat bottom (in
other words, a U-shaped valley).
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The physical map with its contour lines is the one which gives the freight forwarder a clear
picture of the complexity of moving goods between localities. For example, if goods need to
be moved between points where tRheIreSaKre hMighAmountains, steep gradients and major water
bodies (e.g. wide rivers, lakes and swamps) to cross, this is going to be a far more complex
operation than it would be were there a gentle gradient between the two points with no
major topographical features in between them.
The contour map above gives another good example. The grey and red lines on this map
represent national roads. If we look at the routes which the roads follow from Lower Village
to Stowe and from Lower Village to Blessed Sacrament we will see that, because the roads
do not cross many contour lines, the routes followed by those roads are relatively flat. A
vehicle moving along these routes would therefore not use much fuel. On the other hand
you can imagine that a vehicle moving in a straight line from Lower Village to the top of
either Cady Hill or Taber Hill would need much more fuel as a result of the steeper gradients
along these routes.
In addition to those maps showing topographical features there are number of different
types of physical map. To name a few there are vegetation maps, climate maps, geological
maps (which show rock types).
Relationships between Maps
Whilst each type of map (be it political or physical) shows a different type of information it
is important to appreciate that there are interrelationships between many of them. For
example, your sense tells you that there must be a relationship between climate type in an
area and the vegetation to be found there, and this relationship should show in the two
types of map which contain this information: the same holds with the relationship between
education levels and relative wealth and so on. What is very interesting in this context is to
look at relationships which common sense says should exist but where in fact this is not the
case. The best example is perhaps the relationship between a country’s natural wealth and
the wealth of its population. It seems that, in general, the more mineral wealth a country
has the poorer it will be, whilst the populations of those countries with little mineral
resources earn a great deal more income per head. By using the relevant maps compare for
instance the mineral wealth of Nigeria with its per capita Gross Domestic Product and do
the same exercise for Switzerland.
What does that tell you?
Information contained in political and physical maps is not necessarily mutually exclusive:
most political maps will show major physical features such as oceans, major rivers and
mountain ranges and it can be expected that a physical map may also show political
boundaries and the locations of major cities.
Symbols on Maps
So how does one know what all the symbols on a map mean?
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On every good map, there is a key. A map key is a list of words or phrases or colours - usually
within a box in the corner of the map that explains the symbols that that are found on the
map itself. A map key is also referRredItSoKas aM"leAgend."
In looking at various maps you have possibly asked yourself why it is that most maps have
horizontal and vertical lines (which on some maps are straight lines, others curved).
Lines of Longitude and Latitude: Time Zones
If you look closely at those lines you will notice that most of them are numbered and that
some of them have names (on the horizontal lines- Arctic Circle, Antarctic Circle, Tropic of
Cancer, Tropic of Capricorn, Equator; on the vertical lines International Date Line, Greenwich
Meridian or International Meridian). What are these lines for?
These lines are lines of longitude (vertical) and latitude (horizontal) and are the tools which
are used to locate different places on maps. They will be discussed and their use
demonstrated in the next section.
1.3. Localities of points on the earth`s surface are explained by means of latitude and longitude
A key geographical question throughout the human experience has been, "Where am I?" In
classical Greece and China, attempts were made to create logical grid systems of the world
to answer this question. The ancient Greek geographer Ptolemy created a grid system and
listed the coordinates for places throughout the known world in his book Geography. But it
wasn't until the middle ages that the latitude and longitude system was developed and
implemented. This system is written in degrees, using the symbol °
The latitude longitude coordinate system uses angular measurements to describe a position
on the surface of the earth. The system has been in use, with little change, since the
astronomer Ptolemy used them in his first world atlas in A.D. 150.
Mariners and aviators have been the primary users of latitude/longitude in the past. The
system is used on a worldwide basis and many different types of maps have lat/lon
markings.
Recently, the availability of inexpensive Global Positioning System (GPS) receivers has made
position information available to many more people than ever before. With that comes the
need to understand how coordinate systems work, and how to relate them to points on a
map.
Most GPS receivers are set to use lat/lon coordinates as their default factory setting. Thus,
most new GPS users start out using lat/lon coordinates.
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RISK MA
Lines of longitude appear curved in this projection, but are actually halves of great circles.
Lines of latitude appear horizontal in this projection, but are actually circular with different
radii. All locations with a “given” latitude is collectively referred to as a circle of latitude.
The equator divides the planet into a Northern Hemisphere and a Southern Hemisphere,
and has a latitude of 0°
Latitude
When looking at a map, latitude lines run horizontally. Latitude lines are also known as
parallels since they are parallel and are an equal distant from each other. Each degree of
latitude is approximately 111 km apart; there is a variation due to the fact that the earth is
not a perfect sphere but an oblate ellipsoid (slightly egg-shaped). To remember latitude,
imagine them as the horizontal rungs of a ladder ("ladder-tude"). Degrees latitude are
numbered from 0° to 90° north and south. Zero degrees is the equator, the imaginary line
which divides our planet into the northern and southern hemispheres. 90° north is the North
Pole and 90° south is the South Pole.
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The latitude angle (lambda- symboRl λI)S. K MA
Imagine the Earth was a transparent sphere (actually the
shape is slightly oval; because of the Earth's rotation, its
equator bulges out a little). Through the transparent Earth
(drawing above) we can see its equatorial plane, and its
middle the point is O, the centre of the Earth.
To specify the latitude of some point P on the surface, draw
the radius OP to that point. Then the elevation angle of that
point above the equator is its latitude λ--northern latitude
if north of the equator, southern (or negative) latitude if
south of it.
How can one define the angle between a line and a plane, you may well ask? After all, angles
are usually measured between two lines!
Good question. We must use the angle which completes it to 90 degrees, the one between
the given line and one perpendicular to the plane. Here that would be the angle (90°-λ)
between OP and the Earth's axis, known as the co-latitude of P.]
On a globe of the Earth, lines of latitude are circles of different size. The longest is the
equator, whose latitude is zero, while at the poles--at latitudes 90° north and 90° south (or
-90°) the circles shrink to a point.
Lines of latitude measure north-south position between the poles. The equator is defined
as 0 degrees, the North Pole is 90 degrees north, and the South Pole is 90 degrees south.
Lines of latitude are all parallel to each other, thus they are often referred to as parallels.
The memory rhyme I use to help remember that lines of latitude denote north-south
distance is:
"Tropical latitudes improve my attitude"
One degree of latitude is 60 nautical miles, 69 statute miles or 111 km.
One minute of latitude is 1 nautical mile, 1.15 statute miles, or 1.85 km.
Major circles of latitude on the earth’s surface
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RISK MA
Diagram showing the derivation of the major circles of latitude on the Earth.
The five major circles of latitude are, from north to south:
The Arctic Circle (66° 33′ 38″ N)
The Tropic of Cancer (23° 26′ 22″ N)
The Equator (0° latitude)
The Tropic of Capricorn (23° 26′ 22″ S)
The Antarctic Circle (66° 33′ 38″ S)
These circles of latitude (excluding the equator) mark the divisions between the five
principal geographical zones.
We will discuss these in more detail.
Equator
Map of the Earth showing the Equator in red
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The equator (sometimes referred to as "the Line") is the intersection of the Earth's surface
with the plane perpendicular to the Earth's axis of rotation and containing the Earth's centre
of mass. In more simple language,Rit isIaSnKimaMginAary line on the Earth's surface approximately
equidistant from the North Pole and South Pole that divides the Earth into a Northern
Hemisphere and a Southern Hemisphere.
Arctic and Antarctic Circles
Map of the world showing the Arctic Circle in red
Map of the world showing the Antarctic Circle in red
The Arctic Circle marks the southernmost latitude (in the Northern Hemisphere) at which
the sun can remain continuously above or below the horizon for 24 hours. Similarly, the
Antarctic Circle marks the northernmost latitude (in the Southern Hemisphere) at which the
sun can remain continuously above or below the horizon for 24 hours.
The latitude of these circles plus the Earth's axial tilt is equal 90°.
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Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn
RISK MA
Map of the World showing the Tropic of Cancer in red
Map of the World showing the Tropic of Capricorn
The Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn respectively mark the northernmost and
southernmost latitudes at which the sun may be seen directly overhead (at the June solstice
and December solstice respectively).
The latitude of the tropic circles (in Degrees North or South) is equal to the Earth's axial tilt.
Longitude
A line of longitude is also called a meridian, derived from the Latin, from meri, a variation of
"medius" which denotes "middle", and diem, meaning "day."
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The word once meant "noon", and times of the day before noon were known as "ante
meridian", while times after it were "post meridian." Today's abbreviations a.m. and p.m.
come from these terms, and the SRunISatKnooMn wAas said to be "passing meridian". All points
on the same line of longitude experienced noon (and any other hour) at the same time and
were therefore said to be on the same "meridian line", which became "meridian" for short.
Meridians therefore measure east-west position of points on the earth’s surface.
The memory rhyme I use to help remember that lines of longitude denote east-west
distance is:
"Lines of LONGitude are all just as LONG as one another."
With this saying in my mind, I picture all of the longitudinal meridians meeting at the poles,
each meridian the same length as the next.
Every meridian must cross the equator. Since the equator is a circle, we can divide it--like
any circle--into 360 degrees, and the longitude of a point is then the marked value of that
division where its meridian meets the equator.
What that value is depends of course on where we begin to count--on where zero longitude
is. For historical reasons, the meridian passing the old Royal Astronomical Observatory in
Greenwich, England, is the one chosen as zero longitude.
Located at the eastern edge of London, the British capital, the observatory is now a public
museum and a brass band stretching across its yard marks the "prime meridian." Tourists
often get photographed as they straddle it--one foot in the eastern hemisphere of the Earth,
the other in the western hemisphere.
If the Prime Meridian is assigned the value of 0 degrees, then meridians to the west of the
prime meridian are measured in degrees west and likewise those to the east of the prime
meridian are measured to by their number of degrees east, the degrees continue 180° east
and 180° west where they meet and form the International Date Line in the Pacific Ocean.
..
How Latitude and Longitude Work Together
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To precisely locate points on the earth's surface, degrees longitude and latitude have been
divided into minutes (') and seconds ("). There are 60 minutes in each degree. Each minute
is divided into 60 seconds. SecondRs cIaSn Kbe fMurthAer divided into tenths, hundredths, or even
thousandths. For example, the U.S. Capitol is located at 38°53'23"N, 77°00'27"W (38
degrees, 53 minutes, and 23 seconds north of the equator and 77 degrees, no minutes and
27 seconds west of the meridian passing through Greenwich, England).
Symbols for degrees, minutes and seconds:
° Degrees
' Minutes
" Seconds
The three common formats:
DDD° MM' SS.S" Degrees, Minutes and
Seconds
DDD° MM.MMM' Degrees and Decimal
Minutes
DDD.DDDDD° Decimal Degrees
Degrees, Minutes and Seconds
DDD° MM' SS.S"
32° 18' 23.1" N 122° 36' 52.5" W
This is the most common format used to mark maps. It's also the most cumbersome to work
with. It's a lot like telling time…
There are sixty seconds in a minute (60" = 1') and
There are sixty minutes in a degree (60' = 1°).
Keeping in mind a few easy conversions between seconds and decimal minutes will help
when working with maps that use degrees, minutes and seconds.
15 seconds is one quarter of a minute or 0.25 minutes
30 seconds is one half of a minute or 0.5 minutes
45 seconds is three quarters of a minute or 0.75 minutes
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Degrees and Decimal Minutes
DDD° MM.MMM' RISK MA
32° 18.385' N 122° 36.875' W
This is the format most commonly used when working with electronic navigation
equipment.
Decimal Degrees
DDD.DDDDD°
32.30642° N 122.61458° W
or +32.30642, -122.61458
This is the format you'll find most computer based mapping systems displaying. The
coordinates are stored internally in a floating-point data type, and no additional work is
required to print them as a floating point number.
Often the N-S and E-W designators are omitted. Positive values of latitude are north of the
equator, negative values to the south. Watch the sign on the longitude, most programs use
negative values for west longitude, but a few are opposite. This saves a lazy western
hemisphere programmer from having to type in a minus sign before most of their longitude
values.
About time--Local and Universal
Two important concepts, related to latitude and (especially) longitude are Local time (LT)
and Universal time (UT)
Local time is actually a measure of the position of the Sun relative to a locality. At 12 noon,
local time the Sun passes to the south and is furthest from the horizon (northern
hemisphere). Somewhere around 6 am it rises, and around 6 pm it sets. Local time is what
you and I use to regulate our lives locally, our work times, meals and sleep-times.
But suppose we wanted to time an astronomical event--e.g. the time when the 1987
supernova was first detected. For that we need a single agreed-on clock, marking time
world-wide, not tied to our locality. That is universal time (UT), which can be defined (with
some slight imprecision, no concern here) as the local time in Greenwich, England, at the
zero meridian.
Local Time (LT) and Time Zones
Longitudes are measured from zero to 180° east and 180° west (or -180°), and both 180-
degree longitudes share the same line, in the middle of the Pacific Ocean.
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As the Earth rotates around its axis, at any moment one line of longitude -"the noon
meridian"--faces the Sun, and at that moment, it will be noon everywhere on it. After 24-
hours the Earth has undergone a fuRll rIoStaKtionMwitAh respect to the Sun, and the same meridian
again faces noon. Thus, each hour the Earth rotates by 360/24 = 15 degrees.
When at your location the time is 12 noon, 15° to the east the time is 1 p.m., for that is the
meridian which faced the Sun an hour ago. On the other hand, 15° to the west the time is
11 a.m., for in an hour's time, that meridian will face the Sun and experience noon.
In the middle of the 19th century, each community across the US defined in this manner its
own local time, by which the Sun, on the average, reached the farthest point from the
horizon (for that day) at 12 o’clock. However, travellers crossing the US by train had to re-
adjust their watches at every city, and long-distance telegraph operators had to coordinate
their times. This confusion led railroad companies to adopt time zones, broad strips (about
15° wide) which observed the same local time, differing by 1 hour from neighbouring zones,
and the system was adopted by the nation as a whole.
The continental US has 4 main time zones--eastern, central, mountain and western, plus
several more for Alaska, the Aleut islands and Hawaii. Canadian provinces east of Maine
observe Atlantic time; you may find those zones outlined in your telephone book, on the
map giving area codes. Other countries of the world have their own time zones; only Saudi
Arabia uses local times, because of religious considerations.
In addition, the clock is generally shifted one hour forward between April and October. This
"daylight saving time" allow people to take advantage of earlier sunrises, without shifting
their working hours. By rising earlier and retiring sooner, you make better use of the sunlight
of the early morning, and you can enjoy sunlight one hour longer in late afternoon.
The Date Line and Universal Time (UT)
Suppose it is noon where you are and you proceed west--and suppose you could travel
instantly to wherever you wanted.
Fifteen degrees to the west the time is 11 a.m., 30 degrees to the west, 10 a.m., 45 degrees-
-9 a.m. and so on. Keeping this up, 180 degrees away one should reach midnight, and still
further west, it is the previous day. This way, by the time we have covered 360 degrees and
have come back to where we are, the time should be noon again--yesterday noon.
Hey--wait a minute! You cannot travel from today to the same time yesterday!
We got into trouble because longitude determines only the hour of the day--not the date,
which is determined separately.
To avoid the sort of problem encountered above, the international date line has been
established--most of it following the 180th meridian--where by common agreement,
whenever we cross it the date advances one day (going west) or goes back one day (going
east).
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That line passes the Bering Strait between Alaska and Siberia, which thus have different
dates, but for most of its course it runs in mid-ocean and does not inconvenience any local
time keeping. RISK MA
Astronomers, astronauts and people dealing with satellite data may need a time schedule
which is the same everywhere, not tied to a locality or time zone. The Greenwich meantime,
the astronomical time at Greenwich (averaged over the year) is generally used here. It is
sometimes called Universal Time (UT).
In your Atlas find a world map showing different time zones and use it to calculate what the
time is in different places when it is noon at your location.
1.4. Distances are calculated using the scale of a map
A map represents a portion of the earth's surface. Since an accurate map represents the
land, each map has a "scale" which indicates the relationship between a certain distance on
the map and the distance on the ground. The map scale is usually located in the legend box
of a map, which explains the symbols and provides other important information about the
map. A map scale can be printed in a variety of ways.
A ratio or representative fraction (RF) indicates how many units on the earth's surface is
equal to one unit on the map. It can be expressed as 1/100,000 or 1:100,000. In this example,
one centimetre on the map equals 100,000 centimetres (1 kilometre) on the earth. It also
means that one inch on the map is equal to 100,000 inches on the land (8,333 feet, 4 inches
or about 1.6 miles). Or even 1 paperclip on the map is equal to 100,000 paperclips on the
ground. Other common RFs include 1:63,360 (1 inch to 1 mile) and 1:1,000,000 (1 cm to 10
km).
A word statement gives a written description of map distance, such as "One centimetre
equals one kilometer" or "One centimetre equals ten kilometres." Obviously, the first map
would show much more detail than the second because one centimetre on the first map
covers a much smaller area then on the second map.
The first two methods of indicating map distance would be ineffective if the map is
reproduced by a method such as photocopying and the size of the map is modified. If this
occurs, and one attempts to measure a centimetre on the modified map, it's not the same
as a centimetre on the original map.
In order to avoid this, a graphic scale bar can be used, which a visual representation of the
distances is shown on a map. A line or block is divided up into equal sections which are
numbered to show what distance that length is representing.
A simple graphic scale bar
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There are many different forms of scale bar which vary from a straightforward, simple one
as shown above, to more detailed bars with smaller divisions, allowing for more precise
measuring. Many scale bars showRboItSh KmetMric aAnd imperial units, so are helpful to a wider
user group.
When this form of scale representation is shown on a map, it can be reduced or enlarged
and its meaning and usefulness will stay the same. This is a simple, easy-to-use method
which makes it easy to visualise and estimate distances on the map. However, depending
on the number and size of divisions on the scale bar, it can be difficult to measure exact
distances, particularly on small-scale maps.
Maps are often known as large scale or small scale. A large-scale map refers to one which
shows greater detail because the representative fraction (e.g. 1/25,000) is a larger fraction
than a small scale map which would have an RF of 1/250,000 to 1/7,500,000. Large scale
maps will have a RF of 1:50,000 or greater (i.e. 1:10,000).
Those between 1:50,000 to 1:250,000 are maps with an intermediate scale. Maps of the
world which fit on two A4 size pages are very small scale, about 1 to 100 million.
1.5. Approximate heights of points on the earth`s surface ais determined using maps
Physical maps are a two-dimensional representation of Earth’s three-dimensional surface
and are a basic tool for many forwarding functions. Although physical maps are two
dimensional, they indicate what the shape of the surface is like using contours. The heights
of Earth’s surface features are compared to the average height of the oceans (called sea
level) around the globe. The height above sea level is referred to as elevation. Lines of equal
elevation are called contours (as discussed previously). Important to note is that contours
never cross. Contours can be used to ascertain physical characteristics such as:
• height – e.g. of mountains or ocean depth and
• slope – e.g. of hills, river valleys and ocean gradients.
The intensity (and shape) of slope can easily be determined by observing:
• how the contours converge and – i.e. the closeness of the lines and the angles of
convergence, and
• how many contours converge at any point on the map.
On 1: 50 000 physical maps the contours will have set height intervals separating the
contours. When dealing with terrestrial areas the heights are indicated as heights above sea
level. The heights are indicated along the contours so that differences in height can be
calculated by subtracting the greatest height (first point – e.g. beacon on the top of a koppie
or hill) from the smallest (last point – e.g. bottom of a river bed).
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Therefore, one can easily determine, by quick observations on a map, where a slope will be
steeper as the number of contours converging increases at closer distances.
Use the contour map below to caRlcuIlaSteKtheMdifAferences in height between the top of Cady
Hill and the following:
1. Blessed Sacrament
2. Stowe
3. Lower Village
2. LOCATE MAJOR GEOGRAPHICAL POINTS
2.1. The major continents of geographical locations are identified on a world map.
(Major continents include North America, South America, Africa, Australasia, Asia,
Antarctica and Europe)
In the following sections, we are going to become familiar with the world. Starting with the
locations of the world’s continents, we will look at the locations of oceans, seas, waterways
and then the ocean and airports of the world.
At this point it is as well to emphasise that we are not just going to look at locations.
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For every location, we find there will be brief notes with which you need to become familiar
if the information at which you are looking is to have any meaning for you as a freight
forwarder. RISK MA
The Major Continents
A short discussion on the identification of continents
A continent is one of several large landmasses on Earth. They are generally identified by
convention rather than any strict criteria, with seven regions commonly regarded as
continents – they are (from largest in size to smallest): Asia, Africa, North America, South
America, Antarctica, Europe, and Australasia.
Area and population
Comparison of area and population
Continent Area Approx. Percent of Density
(km²) populatio total People
n populatio per
Afro- 84,360, 2002 n square
Eurasia 000 kilomet
Eurasia 5,710,000 85% re
53,990, ,000
Asia 000 71% 56.4
4,510,000
Africa 43,810, ,000 60% 83.5
Americas 000
3,800,000 14% 86.7
30,370, ,000 14%
000 29.3
922,011,0
42,330, 00 20.9
890,000,0
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000 00
North 2040,049R0,ISK M05A105,000,0 8% 21.0
America
South 17,840, 371,000,0 6% 20.8
America 000 00
Antarctica 13,720, 1,000 0.00002% 0.000
000 07
Europe 10,180, 710,000,0 11% 69.7
000 00
Oceania 8,500,0 30,000,00 0.5% 3.5
00 0
Australia 7,600,0 21,000,00 0.3% 2.8
mainland 00 0
The total land area of all continents is 148,647,000 km², or approximately 29% of earth's
surface (510,065,600 km2).
We will locate and discuss each continent in turn.
Asia
Location of Asia
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RISK MA
Composite satellite image of Asia
Asia is the world's largest and most populous continent. It covers 8.6% of the Earth's total
surface area (or 29.9% of its land area) and, with over 4 billion people, it contains more than
60% of the world's current human population.
Chiefly in the eastern and northern hemispheres, Asia is traditionally defined as part of the
landmass of Eurasia—with the western portion of the latter occupied by Europe—lying east
of the Suez Canal, east of the Ural Mountains, and south of the Caucasus Mountains and the
Caspian and Black Seas. It is bounded on the east by the Pacific Ocean, on the south by the
Indian Ocean, and on the north by the Arctic Ocean.
Given its size and diversity, Asia—with cultures dating back to classical antiquity—is more a
cultural concept incorporating a number of regions and peoples than a homogeneous
physical entity.
Africa
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Location of Africa
RISK MA
Physical map of Africa
Africa is the world's second-largest and second most-populous continent, after Asia. At
about 30.2 million km² (11.7 million sq mi) including adjacent islands, it covers 6% of the
Earth's total surface area and 20.4% of the total land area.
With about 922 million people (as of 2005) in 61 territories, it accounts for about 14.2% of
the world's human population. The continent is surrounded by the Mediterranean Sea to
the north, the Suez Canal and the Red Sea to the northeast, the Indian Ocean to the
southeast, and the Atlantic Ocean to the west. There are 53 countries, including Madagascar
and various island groups, associated with the continent.
Africa, particularly central eastern Africa, is widely regarded within the scientific community
to be the origin of humans and the Hominidae tree (great apes).
Africa straddles the equator and encompasses numerous climate areas; it is the only
continent to stretch from the northern temperate to southern temperate zones. Because of
the lack of natural regular precipitation and irrigation as well as glaciers or mountain aquifer
systems, there is no natural moderating effect on the climate except near the coasts
North America
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RISK MA
Location of North America
A satellite composite image of North America.
North America is the northern continent of the Americas, situated in the Earth's northern
hemisphere and almost totally in the western hemisphere. It is bordered on the north by
the Arctic Ocean, on the east by the North Atlantic Ocean, on the southeast by the Caribbean
Sea, and on the south and west by the North Pacific Ocean; South America lies to the
southeast.
North America covers an area of about 24,709,000 square kilometers (9,540,000 square
miles), about 4.8% of the planet's surface or about 16.5% of its land area. As of July 2008,
its population was estimated at nearly 529 million people. It is the third-largest continent in
area, following Asia and Africa, and the fourth in population after Asia, Africa, and Europe.
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South America
RISK MA
Location of South America
Composite satellite image of South America
South America is the southern continent of the Americas, situated entirely in the Western
Hemisphere and mostly in the Southern Hemisphere, with a relatively small portion in the
Northern Hemisphere. It is bordered on the west by the Pacific Ocean and on the north and
east by the Atlantic Ocean; North America and the Caribbean Sea lie to the northwest.
South America was named in 1507 by cartographers Martin Waldseemüller and Matthias
Ringmann after Amerigo Vespucci, who was the first European to suggest that the Americas
were not the East Indies, but a New World unknown to Europeans.
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South America has an area of 17,840,000 square kilometers (6,890,000 sq mi), or almost
3.5% of the Earth's surface. As of 2005, its population was estimated at more than
371,090,000. South America ranksRfoIuSrthKinMareAa (after Asia, Africa, and North America) and
fifth in population (after Asia, Africa, Europe, and North America).
Antarctica
Location of Antarctica
Composite satellite image of Antarctica
Antarctica, Earth's southernmost continent, overlying the South Pole. It is situated in the
southern hemisphere, almost entirely south of the Antarctic Circle, and is surrounded by the
Southern Ocean.
At 14.4 million km² (5.4 million sq mi), it is the fifth-largest continent in area after Asia,
Africa, North America, and South America. About 98% of Antarctica is covered by ice, which
averages at least 1.6 kilometres (1.0 mi) in thickness.
On average, Antarctica is the coldest, driest and windiest continent, and has the highest
average elevation of all the continents. Since there is little precipitation, except at the
coasts, the interior of the continent is technically the largest desert in the world.
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There are no permanent human residents. Only cold-adapted plants and animals survive
there, including penguins, seals, mosses, lichen, and many types of algae.
The name Antarctica is the romaRnizIeSd KversMionAof the Greek compound word ανταρκτική
(antarktikí), feminine of ανταρκτικός (antarktikos), meaning "opposite to the north".
Although myths and speculation about a Terra Australis ("Southern Land") date back to
antiquity, the first confirmed sighting of the continent is commonly accepted to have
occurred in 1820 by the Russian expedition of Mikhail Lazarev and Fabian Gottlieb von
Bellingshausen. However, the continent remained largely neglected for the rest of the 19th
century because of its hostile environment, lack of resources, and isolation. The first formal
use of the name "Antarctica" as a continental name in the 1890s is attributed to the Scottish
cartographer John George Bartholomew. Antarctica is considered a desert, with annual
precipitation of only 8 inches along the coast and far less inland.
The Antarctic Treaty was signed in 1959 by twelve countries; to date, forty-six countries
have signed the treaty. The treaty prohibits military activities and mineral mining, supports
scientific research, and protects the continent's ecozone. Ongoing experiments are
conducted by more than 4,000 scientists of many nationalities and with different research
interests
Europe
Location of Europe
Europe is, conventionally, one of the world's seven continents. Comprising the westernmost
peninsula of Eurasia, Europe is generally divided from Asia to its east by the water divide of
the Ural Mountains, the Ural River, the Caspian Sea, and by the Caucasus Mountains to the
southeast. Europe is washed upon to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the west by the
Atlantic Ocean, to the south by the Mediterranean Sea, and to the southeast by the Black
Sea and the waterways connecting it to the Mediterranean.
Yet, the borders for Europe—a concept dating back to classical antiquity—are somewhat
arbitrary, as the term continent can refer to a cultural and political distinction or a
physiographic one.
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Europe is the world's second-smallest continent by surface area, covering about
10,180,000 square kilometres (3,930,000 sq mi) or 2% of the Earth's surface and about 6.8%
of its land area. Of Europe's approRximISatKely 5M0 sAtates, Russia is the largest by both area and
population, while the Vatican City is the smallest. Europe is the third most populous
continent after Asia and Africa, with a population of 731,000,000 or about 11% of the
world's population; however, according to the United Nations, Europe's share will fall to 7%
in 2050, numbering 653,000,000.
Europe is the birthplace of Western culture. European nations played a predominant role in
global affairs from the 16th century onwards, especially after the beginning of Colonialism.
By the 17th and 18th centuries, European nations controlled most of Africa, the Americas,
and large portions of Asia. World War I and World War II led to a decline in European
dominance in world affairs as the United States and Soviet Union took prominence. The Cold
War between those two superpowers divided Europe along the Iron Curtain. European
integration led to the formation of the Council of Europe and the European Union in
Western Europe, both of which have been expanding eastward since the fall of the Soviet
Union in 1991.
The countries of Europe
Name of country/ Area Population Population density Capital
territory with flag (km²) (1 July 2002 (per km²)
est.)
Åland (Finland) 1,552 26,008 16.8 Mariehamn
Albania 28,748 3,600,523 125.2 Tirana
Andorra 468 68,403 146.2 Andorra la Vella
Austria 83,858 8,169,929 97.4 Vienna
Armenia 29,800 3,229,900 101 Yerevan
Azerbaijan 86,600 8,621,000 97 Baku
Belarus 207,600 10,335,382 49.8 Minsk
Belgium 30,510 10,274,595 336.8 Brussels
Bosnia and 51,129 4,448,500 77.5 Sarajevo
Herzegovina
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Bulgaria 110,910 7,621,337 68.7 Sofia
Croatia Zagreb
56,542 RI4S,4K37,M460A 77.7 Nicosia
Prague
Cyprus 9,251 788,457 85 Copenhagen
Tallinn
Czech Republic 78,866 10,256,760 130.1
Tórshavn
Denmark 43,094 5,368,854 124.6
Helsinki
Estonia 45,226 1,415,681 31.3 Paris
Tbilisi
Faroe Islands 1,399 46,011 32.9 Berlin
(Denmark) Gibraltar
Athens
Finland 336,593 5,157,537 15.3 St. Peter Port
Budapest
France 547,030 59,765,983 109.3 Reykjavík
Dublin
Georgia 69,700 4,661,473 64 Douglas
Rome
Germany 357,021 83,251,851 233.2 Saint Helier
Astana
Gibraltar (UK) 5.9 27,714 4,697.3
Greece 131,940 10,645,343 80.7
Guernsey 78 64,587 828.0
Hungary 93,030 10,075,034 108.3
Iceland 103,000 307,261 2.7
Ireland 70,280 4,234,925 60.3
Isle of Man 572 73,873 129.1
Italy 301,230 58,751,711 191.6
Jersey 116 89,775 773.9
Kazakhstan 2,724,900 15,217,711 5.6
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Kosovo 10,887 2,126,708 220 Pristina
Latvia Riga
64,589 RI2S,3K66,M515A 36.6 Vaduz
Vilnius
Liechtenstein 160 32,842 205.3 Luxembourg
Skopje
Lithuania 65,200 3,601,138 55.2 Valletta
Chişinău
Luxembourg 2,586 448,569 173.5 Monaco
Podgorica
Macedonia 25,333 2,054,800 81.1 Amsterdam
Oslo
Malta 316 397,499 1,257.9 Warsaw
Lisbon
Moldova 33,843 4,434,547 131.0 Bucharest
Moscow
Monaco 1.95 31,987 16,403.6 San Marino
Montenegro 13,812 616,258 44.6 Belgrade
Netherlands 41,526 16,318,199 393.0 Bratislava
Ljubljana
Norway 324,220 4,525,116 14.0 Madrid
Poland 312,685 38,625,478 123.5
Portugal 91,568 10,409,995 110.1
Romania 238,391 21,698,181 91.0
Russia 17,075,400 142,200,000 26.8
San Marino 61 27,730 454.6
Serbia (including 88,361 9,663,742 109.4
Kosovo)
Slovakia 48,845 5,422,366 111.0
Slovenia 20,273 1,932,917 95.3
Spain 504,851 45,061,274 89.3
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Svalbard and Jan
Mayen Islands 62,049 2,868 0.046 Longyearbyen
RISK MA
(Norway) Stockholm
Bern
Sweden 449,964 9,090,113 19.7 Ankara
Kiev
Switzerland 41,290 7,507,000 176.8 London
Vatican City
Turkey 783,562 70,586,256 93
Ukraine 603,700 48,396,470 80.2
United Kingdom 244,820 61,100,835 244.2
Vatican City 0.44 900 2,045.5
Total 10,180,000 731,000,000 70
Australasia
Location of Australia/ Australasia
Australia is typically regarded as the smallest of the seven continents. There is no universally
accepted definition of the word "continent." The lay definition is "One of the main
continuous bodies of land on the earth's surface." (Oxford English Dictionary). By that
definition, the continent of Australia includes only the Australian mainland, and not nearby
islands such as Tasmania or New Guinea. From the perspective of geology or physical
geography, however, a "continent" may be understood to include the continental shelf (the
submerged adjacent area) and the islands on the shelf, which are taken to be structurally
part of the continent. By that definition Tasmania, New Guinea and other nearby islands are
part of the Australian continent, since they sit on the same continental shelf. These islands
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are separated by seas overlying the continental shelf — the Arafura Sea and Torres Strait
between Australia and New Guinea, and Bass Strait between mainland Australia and
Tasmania. RISK MA
When sea levels were lower during the Pleistocene ice age, including the last glacial
maximum about 18,000 BC, the lands formed a single, continuous landmass. During the past
ten thousand years, rising sea levels overflowed the lowlands and separated the continent
into today's low-lying semi-arid mainland and the two mountainous islands of New Guinea
and Tasmania.
Geologically, the continent extends to the edge of the continental shelf, so the now-
separate lands can still be considered a continent. Due to the spread of flora and fauna
across the single Pleistocene landmass, the separate lands have a related biota.
New Zealand is not on the same continental shelf and so is not part of the continent of
Australia but is part of the submerged continent Zealandia and the wider region known as
Oceania or Australasia.
2.2. The major oceans, seas and waterways are located on a world map
(Major oceans, seas and waterways may include but are not limited to Atlantic Ocean, Pacific
Ocean, Indian Ocean, Southern Ocean and Arctic Ocean.)
(Major seas may include but are not limited to North Sea, Mediterranean Sea, Bay of Biscay,
Arabian Sea, Red Sea, Arabian Gulf, Bay of Bengal, Sea of Japan, East China Sea, South China
Sea, Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Sea.)
(Major waterways may include but are not limited to Mississippi River, Panama Canal, St
Lawrence Seaway, English Channel, Mainz River, Bering Straits, Strait of Gibraltar, Suez
Canal, Mozambique Channel, Strait of Malacca and Bass Strait.)
Why do we need to know where major oceans, seas and waterways are located?
A major aspect of freight forwarding consists of facilitating the transport of international
goods by surface in general and by water in particular.
This being the case it becomes important for us to be able to locate these bodies of water
since we will in our freight forwarding careers be routing cargo between different points on
the earth’s surface via oceans, seas and waterways.
Before we start looking for these features, though, let us quickly try to distinguish between
them.
An ocean (from Greek Ωκεανός, Okeanos (Oceanus)) is a major body of saline water, and a
principal component of the hydrosphere.
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Approximately 71% of the Earth's surface (an area of some 361 million square kilometers) is
covered by ocean, a continuous body of water that is customarily divided into several
principal oceans and smaller seaRs. tIhSeKwoMrld A(global) ocean is divided into a number of
principal areas. Five oceanic divisions are usually recognized: Pacific, Atlantic, Indian, Arctic,
and Southern; the last two listed are sometimes consolidated into the first three.
It is difficult to define what a sea is in absolute terms. In one sense, it is a large body of water
which is completely landlocked (Aral Sea, Caspian Sea, Sea of Galilee) or partially (Black Sea,
Mediterranean Sea). In another meaning it is a specific area to be found within (Sargasso
Sea) or on the edge of (Arabian Sea, Sea of Japan, South China Sea) oceans. In the case of
landlocked bodies of water there is no clear distinction between lakes and seas. For
example, any of the US/ Canadian Great Lakes are many times the size of the Aral Sea but
they are still referred to as lakes.
A god definition of a waterway would be “a strait, river, canal, or other navigable channel
used as a means of travel or transport”. A strait can be said to be a narrow channel of the
sea joining two larger bodies of water.
A river is a large natural stream of water (larger than a creek) which flows from a single
source or a series of sources to either an ocean or sea or, less commonly, an inland sea or
swamp (example: the Okavango Delta). Canals are artificial channels for water.
There are two types of canals: water conveyance canals, which are used for the conveyance
and delivery of water, and waterways, which are navigable transportation canals used for
passage of goods and people, often connected to existing lakes, rivers, or oceans. On this
course, we are mainly concerned with the latter type of canal.
We will now locate the world’s major oceans, seas and waterways whilst learning a little
about each.
Oceans
Atlantic Ocean
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RISK MA
Location of the Atlantic Ocean (North and South) not including Arctic and Antarctic regions.
The Atlantic Ocean is the second-largest of the world's oceanic divisions; with a total area
of about 106.4 million square kilometres (41.1 million square miles). It covers approximately
one-fifth of the Earth's surface. The first part of its name refers to the Atlas of Greek
mythology, making the Atlantic the "Sea of Atlas". Another name historically used was the
ancient term Ethiopic Ocean, derived from Ethiopia, whose name was sometimes used as a
synonym for all of Africa and thus for the ocean. Before Europeans discovered other oceans,
the term "ocean" itself was to them synonymous with the waters beyond Western Europe
that we now know as the Atlantic and which the Greeks had believed to be a gigantic river
encircling the world.
The Atlantic Ocean occupies an elongated, S-shaped basin extending longitudinally between
the Americas to the west, and Eurasia and Africa to the east. A component of the all-
encompassing World Ocean, it is connected in the north to the Arctic Ocean (which is
sometimes considered a sea of the Atlantic), to the Pacific Ocean in the southwest, the
Indian Ocean in the southeast, and the Southern Ocean in the south.
(Alternatively, in lieu of it connecting to the Southern Ocean, the Atlantic may be reckoned
to extend southward to Antarctica.) The equator subdivides it into the North Atlantic Ocean
and South Atlantic Ocean but for physical purposes the division is moved slightly counter-
clockwise to a line roughly from the Bolama region, Guinea-Bissau to Rio Grande do Norte
state, Brazil to include the Gulf of Guinea with the South and the north coast of South
America with the North.
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Pacific Ocean
RISK MA
The Pacific Ocean, not including Arctic and Antarctic regions.
The Pacific Ocean encompasses almost a third of the Earth's surface, having an area of 179.7
million square kilometres (69.4 million sq mi and 161 million cubic mi) —significantly larger
than Earth's entire landmass, with room for another Africa to spare. Extending
approximately 15,500 kilometres (9,600 mi) from the Bering Sea in the Arctic to the icy
margins of Antarctica's Ross Sea in the south (although the Antarctic regions of the Pacific
are sometimes described as part of the circumpolar Southern Ocean), the Pacific reaches its
greatest east-west width at about 5°N latitude, where it stretches approximately
19,800 kilometres (12,300 mi) from Indonesia to the coast of Colombia and Peru - halfway
across the world, and more than five times the diameter of the Moon. The western limit of
the ocean is often placed at the Strait of Malacca. The lowest point on earth—the Mariana
Trench—lies 10,911 metres (35,797 ft) below sea level. Its average depth is 4,280 metres
(14,000 ft).
The Pacific contains about 25,000 islands (more than the total number in the rest of the
world's oceans combined), the majority of which are found south of the equator. Including
partially submerged islands, the figure is substantially higher.
The Pacific Ocean is currently shrinking from plate tectonics, while the Atlantic Ocean is
increasing in size, by roughly 2-3 cm/yr on 3 sides, roughly averaging 0.5 sq km a year.
Along the Pacific Ocean's irregular western margins lie many seas, the largest of which are
the Celebes Sea, Coral Sea, East China Sea, Philippine Sea, Sea of Japan, South China Sea,
Sulu Sea, Tasman Sea, and Yellow Sea.
The Strait of Malacca joins the Pacific and the Indian Oceans on the west, and Drake Passage
and the Straits of Magellan link the Pacific with the Atlantic Ocean on the east. To the north,
the Bering Strait connects the Pacific with the Arctic Ocean.
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As the Pacific straddles the ± 180° meridian, the West Pacific (or western Pacific, near Asia)
is in the Eastern Hemisphere, while the East Pacific (or eastern Pacific, near the Americas) is
in the Western Hemisphere. RISK MA
For most of Magellan's voyage from the Strait of Magellan to the Philippines, the explorer
indeed found the ocean peaceful. However, the Pacific is not always peaceful. Many tropical
cyclones (typhoons, the equivalent of Atlantic hurricanes), batter the islands of the Pacific.
The lands around the Pacific rim are full of volcanoes and often affected by earthquakes.
Tsunamis, caused by underwater earthquakes, have devastated many islands and destroyed
entire towns.
Indian Ocean
The Indian Ocean, not including the Antarctic region
The Indian Ocean is the third largest of the world's oceanic divisions, covering about 20% of
the water on the Earth's surface. It is bounded on the north by Asia (including the Indian
subcontinent, after which it is named); on the west by Africa; on the east by Indochina, the
Sunda Islands, and Australia; and on the south by the Southern Ocean (or, traditionally, by
Antarctica). One component of the all-encompassing World Ocean, the Indian Ocean is
delineated from the Atlantic Ocean by the 20° east meridian running south from Cape
Agulhas, and from the Pacific by the 147° east meridian. The northernmost extent of the
Indian Ocean is approximately 30° north in the Persian Gulf and, thus, has asymmetric ocean
circulation. This ocean is nearly 10,000 kilometres (6,200 mi) wide at the southern tips of
Africa and Australia; its area is 73,556,000 square kilometres (28,400,000 mi²), including the
Red Sea and the Persian Gulf.
The ocean's volume is estimated to be 292,131,000 cubic kilometres (70,086,000 mi³). Small
islands dot the continental rims. Island nations within the ocean are Madagascar (formerly
Malagasy Republic), the world's fourth largest island; Comoros; Seychelles; Maldives;
Mauritius; and Sri Lanka.
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Indonesia borders it on the east. The ocean's importance as a transit route between Asia
and Africa has made it a scene of conflict. Because of its size, however, no nation had
successfully dominated most of it RuntIilSthKe eMarlyA1800s when the United Kingdom controlled
much of the surrounding land. After the decline of the British Empire, the ocean has since
been dominated by India and Australia.
Southern Ocean
The Southern Ocean, also known as the Great Southern Ocean, the Antarctic Ocean and
the South Polar Ocean, comprises the southernmost waters of the World Ocean south of
60° S latitude. The International Hydrographic Organization has designated the Southern
Ocean as an oceanic division encircling Antarctica. Geographers disagree on the Southern
Ocean's northern boundary or even its existence (see below), sometimes considering the
waters part of the South Pacific, South Atlantic, and Indian Oceans instead.
Some scientists consider the Antarctic Convergence, an ocean zone which fluctuates
seasonally, as separating the Southern Ocean from other oceans, rather than 60° S. This
ocean zone forms from the convergence of two circumpolar currents, one easterly flowing
and one westerly flowing.
The International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) regards the Southern Ocean as the
fourth-largest of the five principal oceanic divisions and the latest-defined one. The IHO
promulgated the decision on its existence in 2000, though many mariners have long
regarded the term as traditional. The Southern Ocean appeared in the IHO's Limits of Oceans
and Seas second edition (1937), disappeared from the third edition (1957), and re-surfaced
in the fourth edition formally adopted due to a number of unresolved disputes, including
the lodgement of a reservation by Australia. This change reflects the importance placed by
oceanographers on ocean currents.
The Southern Ocean
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Arctic Ocean RISK MA
The Arctic Ocean
The Arctic Ocean, located in the Northern Hemisphere and mostly in the Arctic North Polar
region, is the smallest and shallowest of the world's five major oceanic divisions. The
International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) recognizes it as an ocean, although some
oceanographers call it the Arctic Mediterranean Sea or simply the Arctic Sea, classifying it as
one of the mediterranean seas of the Atlantic Ocean. Alternatively, the Arctic Ocean can be
seen as the northernmost lobe of the all-encompassing World Ocean.
Almost completely surrounded by Eurasia and North America, the Arctic Ocean is largely
covered by sea ice throughout the year. The Arctic Ocean's temperature and salinity vary
seasonally as the ice cover melts and freezes; its salinity is the lowest on average of the five
major oceans, due to low evaporation, heavy freshwater inflow from rivers and streams,
and limited connection and outflow to surrounding oceanic waters with higher salinities.
The summer shrinking of the ice has been quoted at 50%. The National Snow and Ice Data
Centre (NSIDC) use satellite data to provide a daily record of Arctic sea ice cover and the
rate of melting compared to an average period and specific past years.
Seas
North Sea
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RISK MA
Location of the North Sea
The North Sea is situated on the European continental shelf. The Dover Strait and the English
Channel in the south and the Norwegian Sea in the north connect it to the Atlantic Ocean.
It is more than 970 kilometres (600 mi) long and 560 kilometres (350 mi) wide, with an area
of around 570,000 square kilometres (220,000 sq mi). A large part of the European drainage
basin empties into the North Sea including water from the Baltic Sea.
Much of the sea's coastal features are the result of glacial movements. Deep fjords and
sheer cliffs mark the Norwegian and parts of the Scottish coastline, whereas the southern
coasts consist of sandy beaches and mudflats. These flatter areas are particularly susceptible
to flooding, especially as a result of storm tides. Elaborate systems of dikes have been
constructed to protect coastal areas.
The development of European civilisation has been heavily affected by the maritime traffic
on the North Sea. The Romans and the Vikings sought to extend their territory across the
sea. The Hanseatic League, the Netherlands, and finally the British sought to dominate
commerce on the North Sea and through it to access the markets and resources of the
world.
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Commercial enterprises, growing populations, and limited resources gave the nations on the
North Sea the desire to control or access it for their own commercial, military, and colonial
ends. RISK MA
In recent decades, its importance has shifted from the military and geopolitical to the purely
economic. Traditional activities, such as fishing and shipping, have continued to grow and
resources such as fossil fuels and wind energy have been discovered or developed.
Mediterranean Sea
Map of the Mediterranean Sea
The Mediterranean is a sea of the Atlantic Ocean surrounded by the Mediterranean region
and almost completely enclosed by land: on the north by Europe, on the south by Africa,
and on the east by Asia. The name Mediterranean means: "in the middle of the land".
It covers an approximate area of 2.5 million km² (965,000 sq mi), but its connection to the
Atlantic (the Strait of Gibraltar) is only 14 km (9 mi) wide. In oceanography, it is sometimes
called the Eurafrican Mediterranean Sea or the European Mediterranean Sea to distinguish
it from mediterranean seas elsewhere.
It was an important route for merchants and travelers of ancient times, allowing for trade
and cultural exchange between emergent peoples of the region — the Mesopotamian,
Egyptian, Phoenician, Carthaginian, Greek, Levantine, Roman and Moorish cultures.
The history of the Mediterranean region is crucial to understanding the origins and
development of many modern societies. "For the three quarters of the globe, the
Mediterranean Sea is similarly the uniting element and the centre of World History."
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Bay of Biscay
The Bay of Biscay issoautghultfootfhteheSRpNaoInrSitshhKAbtolMardnetAirc, Oancdeatnh.eItnloiertshaelronngcotahset western coast of
France from Brest of Spain west to
Punta de Estaca de Bares, and is named for the Spanish province of Biscay.
Location of the Bay of Biscay
Parts of the continental shelf extend far into the bay, resulting in fairly shallow water in
many areas and thus in the rough seas for which the region is known. The Bay of Biscay is
home to some of the Atlantic Ocean's fiercest weather. Large storms occur in the bay,
especially during the winter months. Up until recent years it was a regular occurrence for
merchant vessels to founder in Biscay storms, and many lives were lost. Improved ships and
weather prediction have reduced the toll of the storms.
Arabian Sea
The Arabian Sea is a region of the Indian Ocean bounded on the east by India, on the north
by Pakistan and Iran, on the west by Arabian Peninsula, on the south, approximately, by a
line between Cape Guardafui, the north-east point of Somalia, Socotra, Kanyakumari (Cape
Comorin) in India, and the western coast of Sri Lanka.
Location of the Arabian Sea
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Red Sea
TtohethReeodcSeeaanisisainsatlht ewsaoteurthintlehtroouf RgthheIthISnedKBiaanbMOecleAMananbdeetwbeseonunAdfraicnadatnhdeAGsuial.f The connection
of Aden. In the
north are the Sinai Peninsula, the Gulf of Aqaba, and the Gulf of Suez (leading to the Suez
Canal).
Occupying a part of the Great Rift Valley, the Red Sea has a surface area of about 438,000
km² (169,100 square miles). It is roughly 2250 km (1398 mi) long and, at its widest point at
355 km (220.6 miles) wide. It has a maximum depth of 2211 m (7254 ft) in the central median
trench and an average depth of 490 m (1,608 feet), but there are also extensive shallow
shelves, noted for their marine life and corals. The sea is the habitat of over 1,000
invertebrate species and 200 soft and hard corals and is the world's northernmost tropical
sea.
Piracy Attacks in the Gulf of Aden
The Gulf of Aden is bordered by the Arabian Sea, the Red Sea, Yemen and Somali. Towards
the latter part of 2008 this area became notorious for pirate attacks on shipping.
This in turn has resulted in various ship owners and operators taking steps to avoid transiting
this area (see article at the end of the course called ”Necessity” is the mother of invention -
A knowledge of geography and maps solves the Somali pirate problem for a Norwegian
company.
Persian Gulf (Arabian Gulf)
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RISK MA
Location of the Persian Gulf. The Gulf of Oman leads to the Arabian Sea.
The Persian Gulf, in the Southwest Asian region, is an extension of the Indian Ocean located
between Iran and the Arabian Peninsula. Historically and commonly known as the Persian
Gulf, this body of water is sometimes controversially referred to as the Arabian Gulf by
certain Arab countries or simply The Gulf, although neither of the latter two terms is
recognized internationally.
The Persian Gulf was a focus of the 1980-88 Iraq-Iran War, in which each side attacked the
other's oil tankers. In 1991, the gulf gave its name to the U.S.-led ejection of Iraqi forces
from Kuwait, called the Persian Gulf War or the Gulf War even though most of the action
took place on land.
The Persian Gulf is rich with good fishing grounds, extensive coral reefs, and abundant pearl
oysters, but its ecology has come under pressure from industrialisation, and in particular,
repeated petroleum spillages during recent wars.
The Persian Gulf and its coastal areas are the world's largest single source of crude oil and
related industries dominate the region. Al-Safaniya, the world's largest offshore oilfield, is
located in the Persian Gulf. Large gas finds have also been made with Qatar and Iran sharing
a giant field across the territorial median line (North Field in the Qatari sector; South Pars
Field in the Iranian sector). Using this gas, Qatar has built up a substantial liquefied natural
gas (LNG) and petrochemical industry.
The oil-rich countries (excluding Iraq) that have a coastline on the Persian Gulf are referred
to as the Persian Gulf States.
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Iraq's egress to the gulf is narrow and easily blockaded consisting of the marshy river delta
of the Shatt al-Arab, which carries the waters of the Euphrates and the Tigris Rivers, where
the left (East) bank is held by Iran.RISK MA
Bay of Bengal
The Bay of Bengal (Purba Samudra) is a bay that forms the northeastern part of the Indian
Ocean. It resembles a triangle in shape, and is bordered by India and Sri Lanka to the West,
Bangladesh and the Indian state of West Bengal to the North (where the name comes from),
and Myanmar, southern part of Thailand and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands to the East.
Its southern boundary extends as an imaginary line from Dondra Head at the southern end
of Sri Lanka to the northern tip of Sumatra.
The Bay of Bengal occupies an area of 2,172,000 km². A number of large rivers – Ganges,
Brahmaputra, Padma, Meghna, Jamuna, Ayeyarwady, Godavari, Mahanadi, Krishna and
Kaveri – flow into the Bay of Bengal. Among the important ports are Cuddalore, Chennai,
Kakinada, Tuticorin, Machilipatnam, Vishakapatnam, Paradip, Kolkata, Chittagong and
Yangon.
Map of the Bay of Bengal
Sea of Japan
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RISK MA
Map of the Sea of Japan
The Sea of Japan is a marginal sea of the western Pacific Ocean, bordered by Japan, Korea,
North Korea and Russia. It is referred to in North Korea as the Korea East Sea and in South
Korea as the East Sea. Like the Mediterranean Sea, it has almost no tides due to its nearly
complete enclosure. The Sea of Japan is bound by the Russian mainland and Sakhalin island
to the north, the Korean Peninsula to the west, and the Japanese islands of Hokkaidō,
Honshū, and Kyūshū to the east.
It is connected to other seas by five shallow straits: the Strait of Tartary between the Asian
mainland and Sakhalin; La Perouse Strait between the islands of Sakhalin and Hokkaidō; the
Tsugaru Strait between the islands of Hokkaidō and Honshū; the Kanmon Straits between
the islands of Honshū and Kyūshū; and the Korea Strait between the Korean Peninsula and
the island of Kyūshū. The Korea Strait is composed of the Western Channel and the Tsushima
Strait, on either side of Tsushima Island.
East China Sea
The East China Sea is a marginal sea east of China. It is a part of the Pacific Ocean and covers
an area of 1,249,000 km². In China, the sea is called the East Sea. In South Korea, the sea is
sometimes called South Sea, but this is more often used to denote only the area near South
Korea's southern coast.
The East China Sea is bounded on the East by the Kyūshū and Ryukyu Islands, on the South
by Taiwan, and on the West by mainland China. It is connected with the South China Sea by
the Taiwan Strait and with the Sea of Japan by the Korea Strait; it opens in the North to the
Yellow Sea.
Territories with borders on the sea (clockwise from north) include: South Korea, Japan,
Taiwan, and Mainland China. The Yangtze River (Chang Jiang) is the largest river flowing into
the East China Sea
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RISK MA
Map of the East China Sea
South China Sea
Map showing the Sea of Japan, East China Sea and South China Sea
The South China Sea is a marginal sea
South of China,
• west of the Philippines,
• north west of Sabah (Malaysia), Sarawak (Malaysia) and Brunei,
• north of Indonesia,
• north west of the Malay Peninsula (Malaysia) and Singapore,
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• east of Vietnam.
It is a part o3f,5t0h0e,0P0a0cifkimc O².cIetaisno, ennecRoofmIthpSeaKslasringMgesatnAseaarebaofdroiems aSfitnegratphoerfeivteo the Strait of Taiwan
of around oceans. The minute
South China Sea Islands, collectively an archipelago, number in the hundreds. The sea and
its mostly uninhabited islands are subject to several competing claims of sovereignty by
neighboring nations. These competing claims are also reflected in the variety of names used
for the islands and the sea.
Gulf of Mexico
The Gulf of Mexico (Spanish: Golfo de México) is the ninth largest body of water in the world.
Considered a smaller part of the Atlantic Ocean, it is an ocean basin largely surrounded by
the North American continent and the island of Cuba. It is bounded on the northeast, north
and northwest by the Gulf Coast of the United States, on the southwest and south by
Mexico, and on the southeast by Cuba. The shape of its basin is roughly oval and
approximately 810 nautical miles (1,500 km) wide and filled with sedimentary rocks and
debris.
It is part of the Atlantic Ocean through the Florida Straits between the U.S. and Cuba, and
with the Caribbean Sea (with which it forms the American Mediterranean Sea) via the
Yucatan Channel between Mexico and Cuba. Tidal ranges are extremely small due to the
narrow connection with the ocean. The gulf basin is approximately 615,000 mi² (1.6 million
km²). Almost half of the basin is shallow intertidal waters. At its deepest it is 14,383 ft (4,384
m) at the Sigsbee Deep, an irregular trough more than 300 nautical miles (550 km) long. It
was probably formed approximately 300 million years ago as a result of the seafloor sinking.
There is evidence that the Chicxulub Crater was formed when a large meteorite hit the earth
65 million years ago which may have led to the Cretaceous–Tertiary extinction event (which
included the extinction of the dinosaurs).
The continental shelf is quite wide at most points along the coast, most notably at the
Florida and Yucatán Peninsulas. The shelf is exploited for its oil by means of offshore drilling
rigs, most of which are situated in the western gulf and in the Bay of Campeche. Another
important commercial activity is fishing; major catches include red snapper, amberjack,
tilefish, swordfish, and various grouper, as well as shrimp and crabs. Oysters are also
harvested on a large scale from many of the bays and sounds. Other important industries
along the coast include shipping, petrochemical processing and storage, military use, paper
manufacture, and tourism.
The gulf's warm water temperature can feed powerful Atlantic hurricanes causing extensive
human death and other destruction as happened with Hurricane Katrina in 2005.
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