LP1 Learner Guide

Appendix

Research tips: Analysing quantitative data
1. Save your document/s with your original data in a separate folder on your
computer. If you are working with paper documents, consider whether it is
necessary to make photocopies of your results so that the originals can be filed
away securely. Work off the copies, not the master documents. This is a good
thing to do with any of your research results;
2. Tabulate the information. For instance, add up the number of responses you
received for your survey and categorise them in an appropriate way by referring
to your research question (e.g. the number of yes and no answers for each
question; male and female responses or racial categories);
3. Work out what your tabulated answers are saying. For instance, convert some
of your sums into percentages. Say 30% of the respondents said X, while 25%
said Y. These are easier to internalise for those reading your report;
4. Try to be creative. Once you have tabulated and calculated your results, there
may be some interesting and unexpected interpretations of the data that can
be made;
5. Double-check all your calculations.

Research tips: Analysing qualitative data
1. Read through all the data, making notes of associations or ideas that occur to
you;
2. Organise the data into similar categories (e.g. responses to particular
questions; or categories of informants, such as government representatives,
members of the community or newspaper editors);
3. Attempt to identify patterns or associations and causal relationships in the
themes (e.g. responses from people in the same geographic area, from the
same income group or the media preferences of people who don’t have
electricity at home). Be creative and analytical;
4. If you have done quantitative research at the same time, try to match some of
your qualitative results to your quantitative results. Where are the links? How
do the results ‘speak to’ or explain each other? What conclusions can be
reached that are not obvious at first glance?

Be methodical. Think step by step, and explain your assumptions if you have to.
Remember, your research results might not tell you everything you want to know but
don’t be afraid to say what they do tell you. Be careful with your words, and be specific.

Remember to file your research results away in a safe place. You may want to refer to
them sometime in the future.

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Appendix

Report writing guidelines
A research report is done based on the brief / scope of the research undertaken.
Your brief should consider the style and format required for your final report.
The style of a report is generally described as:

• Informal - An informal report is one where the conventions of report structure
and language are not strictly followed. Often this is the case when:
o information is for a familiar audience, such as a report to fellow team
members
o the subject requires an informal approach, such as a review of staff
leave preferences
o the format for publishing the report requires informality, such as in a
trade newsletter

• Formal - There are conventions to follow in preparing and presenting a formal
report. A formal report:
o is presented in a logical format and usually includes a summary, body
and conclusion
o may include citations and references for source material
o is written in formal language which lends an element of dignity and
seriousness
o may contain recommendations directed to a specific person or body
o may include supporting information in an appendix

The style of the report is generally determined by the type of report being prepared
and the intended audience.
A report may be presented:

o as a memorandum
o as an inclusion in another document, such as an organisational newsletter
o as a stand-alone document
o online
o via individual or group presentation, often using technology
There are no rules about the length of a report, except that you should attempt to cover
the brief in the most efficient manner. Some of the best reports are the shortest, and
this includes formal reports. This is something to decide on early, as you do not want
to prepare a lot of information only to have it severely cut back later.
It is important to decide on the style and format early on, as these will influence the
way the report is prepared.

A report may be directed to a single person, a committee or a number of people or
organisations. Thinking about your readers in advance will help you decide on the
length, amount of detail, structure, style and format of your report, for example, a report
to a board of directors of a company will be written more formally than a report on the
activities of the team (to the manager of the department).

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Appendix

Present research findings professionally
It is important that the information is presented in a way that provides all relevant
information and makes it easy for people to make an informed decision.
What makes a good report? Some reports are easy to read and follow. Others just
seem to have ‘ignore me’ written all over them.
What are the things that encourage you to read and consider a report or ignore it?

Style and format of the report
The presentation, tone and level of formality of a report should suit the purpose and
the audience. It will also depend on the original brief and objectives, the nature of the
materials presented and the customs and conventions of your workplace
Consider some examples:

• a report on a survey of preferred venue for the office Christmas party may be
presented informally at a staff meeting

• a report on a proposal to set up a new office, or outsource the HR function is
complex and should be presented more formally, in writing, so that issues can
be read and considered carefully.

Your research findings may be presented in:

• print-based format - Print-based reports can vary widely and include a full,
formal report, short or condensed document, outline of findings presented in a
memorandum, a discussion paper, an article in a newsletter, or a list of
recommendations

• electronically - Your report may be made by email, entry on your organisation’s
website or on a disk

• by personal presentation - You may be required to make a personal
presentation of your findings to a workgroup or committee; or

• by a combination of these methods.

Structure
Have you ever tried to find information on a poorly structured web site? You might
spend a few minutes trying to work it out, but most likely you’ll give up and look
somewhere else. Have you ever listened to a speaker reporting information without
being quite sure where their line of thought was going? Probably you lost interest and
started thinking about other things. The same applies to a written report. If material is
not clearly and logically presented, it’s unlikely you’ll read it at all.
Begin by planning the structure30 of your report. Consider the most logical way to
present your information. What are the key elements? What headings will you use?
Use this checklist for evaluating the structure of your report:

• Does the content flow logically?

• Is the writing clear, succinct and focused?

• Do the design, layout and illustrations support the meaning?

30 Adapted from the Style Manual for Authors, Editors and Publishers, 6th edn, 2002, John Wiley & Sons, Australia,
p. 47

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Appendix

• Is the content easy for readers to scan?
• Are the topics of most interest to the readers suitably emphasised by the

structure and layout?
• Has the information been signposted effectively through clear headings, cross-

referencing or hyperlinks?
• Are the key points and conclusions suitably emphasised?

Parts of a report
Whether you are writing a short report in memorandum format, preparing your report
for a verbal presentation at a meeting or constructing a formal printed report, it is likely
to contain three main parts:

• summary
• body
• conclusion
A formal report may also contain a table of contents, index, appendices and
bibliography.
There are no absolute rules about the parts and their order in a report, but there are
conventions. The following is a logical order for a formal report:
1. Front cover
2. Title page
3. Foreword or covering letter
4. Contents
5. Summary
6. Body of the report: introduction, discussion, conclusion
7. Appendices·
8. Bibliography
9. Index

Citing other sources
If you use ideas or materials that belong to others, you should always acknowledge or
cite the original source in your report. There are conventions for doing this.
The two most commonly used systems are:

• the author–date system (Harvard) - With the author–date system the name of
the author(s) and the year of publication are mentioned in the text, and the full
details are included in the list of references at the back of the report

• the footnote (Oxford) system - With the footnote system a superscript number
is included in the text, with the details given as a footnote at the bottom of the
page or at the end of the section or chapter

Of these, the author–date system is generally used in business reports.

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Appendix

Examples: Acknowledging types of material according to the author–date system

someone else's idea Baker's theory of staff development says that people should
be allowed to express themselves through dance at work
directly quoted material (Baker 1999). The Baker details are listed in the reference
section at the back of the report.
a book in the reference list
a journal article in the If you quote someone directly, you need to put the quote in
reference list quotation marks, as in this example: As Baker (1999) says,
a table or graph 'Kaftans worn at work encourage creativity'. If there is a lot of
material taken from the text, this can be made into a separate paragraph, usually
internet indented or in a different font. Parentheses are not required.
The reference is placed at the end, for example (Baker 1999)
and full details included in the reference list.

The author–date system will look like this for a book
reference: Baker, B. 1999, Creative Dance in the Work
Environment, Platypus Press, Sydney

The author–date system will look like this for a journal
reference: Baker, B. 1999, 'Productivity and Dance', Human
Relations Journal, vol. 2, no. 3, pp. 4–6

Directly under the table or diagram, you put (Source: Baker
1999) and list the details in the reference section

In the text, you include the author's name or the name of the
organisation: South African Qualifications Authority (2011) and
in the reference list, it appears like this: South African
Qualifications Authority 2011, 'Key national indicators', SAQA
website, www.saqa.org.za (accessed 31 May 2011)

Using technology
Modern technology can help you to prepare your report and present it professionally.
Word-processing software has many features that are useful in the preparation of
reports. It is a good idea to spend some time or undertake some training to enable you
to take full advantage of some of the advanced features available. These include:

• the preparation of data and statistics
• design and layout, including templates
• preparation of graphs, charts and diagrams
• insertion of pictures and graphics
• indexing and table of contents
• tables
• checking of spelling, grammar and readability
• referencing and footnotes
Technology can also assist with:
• making presentations using overhead or digital projectors and presentation

software such as MS PowerPoint
• scanning material
• printing and copying

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Appendix

• transmission
• navigation (for reports presented electronically)

Principles of good writing

To be read, understood and accepted, your report should have clear and consistent
writing. Here are some of the basic principles31 to follow.

• Use clear language - Use the sort of words you would use in conversation,
rather than trying to impress with long or unfamiliar words. Use plain English
and avoid jargon. Use a level of speech and language that is accessible to your
readers. This includes the use of gender-neutral language. Avoid overuse of
clichés, similes and worn out phrases that have lost their meaning and might
only serve to irritate the reader.

• Be concise - Avoid lengthy, drawn-out discussion. Make your points
thoroughly, but aim to be concise and focused. Bullets and dot points can help
to emphasise and simplify information.

• Be objective - Present the information objectively. Your conclusions should
arise logically from the information presented, and be based on the facts and
evidence you have collected, rather than your own opinion or what you would
like to happen.

• Present the information in the most suitable way - A graph, diagram or
illustration can sometimes be the best way to present information; for example,
staffing trends or sales figures over a number of years might be compared more
easily if presented in a table or graph.

• Revise and rewrite - Read through your report. Think about how you can
improve what you have written.

o Have you made your points clearly?

o Have you used a variety of short and long sentences to help make your
writing more readable?

o Have you checked the spelling, grammar and punctuation?

• Be specific about what you want the reader to do - Be clear about the status
of the report and what you expect from the reader. Is it a final report with
recommendations for consideration and decision? Is it a draft for comment?

Make your writing clear and readable
Here are some useful tips to remember for clear writing:

• Use simple words in preference to unusual words.
• Use active voice rather than passive voice.
• Avoid unnecessary words.
• Avoid using words of three or more syllables, if possible.
• Use simple sentence construction.
• Keep paragraphs to readable chunks.

31 Adapted from Strunk and White, The Elements of Style (1979) McMillan, NY

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Appendix

Use a readability index. A fog index is a useful system for measuring the readability
of your work. Here’s how to calculate a fog index:

1. Select a passage containing six consecutive sentences.
2. Count the number of words in the passage (ignoring such words as ‘a’, ‘an’,

‘and’ and ‘the’). Score one point for each word.
3. Count the number of words in the passage with three or more syllables

(ignoring proper nouns). Score one point for each of these.
4. Divide your total points by six (the number of sentences in the paragraph).
The result is a fog index of your average sentence length.

Evaluate the readability from the resulting score:
over 40 – almost unreadable
30 – hard to read and probably boring
20 – readable
10 – extremely readable.

If you are using Microsoft Word, you can assess the readability of your work using the
Flesch Reading Ease score. After you have used the spelling and grammar checker,
you can also see statistics on the number of words used in paragraphs, sentences in
paragraphs, characters in words, passive sentences and rating for ease of reading.
Use the Help facility to learn more about this.
In trying to simplify your writing, be sure that your message is still clear and easily
understood.

Spelling and punctuation
A well-prepared report will have correct and consistent spelling and punctuation.

• Use a style guide / template - Often there are choices to be made about
spelling and punctuation. If an organisation has a preferred way of doing things,
this is called a ‘house style’. It may also cover such things as capitalisation,
abbreviations, document layout and fonts to be used.
The organisation’s style guide / template may also specify standard references,
such as a preferred dictionary.

• Check your spelling - A good dictionary is an essential resource, and should
be on the desk of anyone who writes as part of their work. There are many
useful online dictionaries, including specialty dictionaries for specific areas of
study or work.
There are also many online resources available to help improve your spelling
and punctuation.
Your word processing software will have a facility to enable you to check your
spelling and grammar. Check that it is set for ‘English UK or South Africa’. You
are probably aware of the limitations of the computer spellchecker. It can only
pick up words that are misspelt, not check whether a word is in the correct
context. It is a useful tool, but won’t eliminate the need for you to read and
check your work thoroughly.

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Appendix

Edit and revise

Editing is an extensive process where the whole document is read and considered.
Heading levels, accuracy and consistency, spelling, grammar and punctuation, general
structure and layout are checked.

Proofreading is the process of checking the final copy for any errors that were missed
at the early writing and editing stages.

Here is a sample editing checklist. You may find it useful to adapt this list to suit your
own workplace, depending on the type of reports and written material you prepare.

Check the report for each of the following points and then tick when you are satisfied
that each point has been covered:

Report item Tick
The brief has been covered
Unnecessary parts have been deleted
Information flows between sentences, paragraphs and sections
Extra information has been included as appendices
There are no contradictory statements
The summary and recommendations reflect the content
Headings are in a logical hierarchy
Key elements are highlighted
Spelling is correct and consistent
Punctuation is correct and consistent
Abbreviations and acronyms are consistent and adhere to ‘house style’
Tables, diagrams and illustrations are numbered
Figures and calculations are correct
References are cited
Paging is correct
Table of contents is accurate
Preliminary pages (cover, executive summary, table of contents) are included
End pages (references, appendices and index) are included
The report has been proofread

It can be difficult to check your own written work, especially if the task of preparing and

writing has been extensive. You may be too ‘involved’ to view the writing objectively
and so familiar with the contents that you may miss many errors. Try to have someone

else check over your finished report. Ask someone who has a good eye for detail to
look at it for you. If you have to proofread the document yourself, it’s a good idea to
leave it for a few days so you can approach it with a fresh eye.

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Appendix

Distributing your report
Your report is finished. You have made sure that it has a style and format suitable for
the purpose and the audience. You’ve ensured that it has a standard structure and is
logical and consistent in the flow of information. You have followed the principles of
clear writing. You have used relevant technology to help you prepare and construct it.
You have edited, revised and proofread – using the editor’s checklist as a guide.
The next step is to distribute your report to the relevant parties. This will depend upon
the requirements of the person or group who commissioned your research. You may
be required to:

• provide a personal presentation to a committee
• make copies available to all staff or to specified people
• provide the report to your manager
• prepare a summary of your findings for publishing in a newsletter or on a

website.

Seeking feedback
Readers of your report will need to understand what action, if any, they are expected
to take and whether they are required to provide feedback or comments.
Sometimes this will be clear. A report may be prepared for a committee on a particular
issue and will make recommendations on a course of action. Members of the
committee might be required to read it and make a decision on the proposals
presented.
Sometimes a report will seek feedback from readers. This is often the case with a ‘draft’
or ‘interim’ report. This should be clearly stated.
If you expect feedback on your report, it is important that you read or listen to
comments and give them serious consideration. You will need to decide whether to
take the comments or suggestions on board, and be able to justify your decision to the
person who made the suggestions.

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References

References and Further Reading

• John W. Creswell. Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed
Methods Approaches. SAGE Publications, Inc; 2nd edition (July 2002)

• Matthew B. Miles. Qualitative Data Analysis: An Expanded Sourcebook. Sage
Publications (CA); (January 1994)

• Peter R. Monge. Reasoning with Statistics: How to Read Quantitative
Research; Wadsworth Publishing (October 2000)

• Zemke, Ron and Thomas Kramlinger. Figuring Things Out: A Trainer's Guide
to Needs and Task Analysis. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Publishing
Company, 1982.

• www.broward.k12.fl.us/it/strategicplan/pdf/SuggestedStepsOverview.pdf
• www.businessballs.com
• www.exemplas.com/Organisation-Development/Organisational-Needs-

Analysis/
• www.mindtools.com – force-field analysis
• www.montana.edu/teachlearn/Papers/teachingstrategies.html
• https://www.snapsurveys.com/blog/what-is-the-difference-between-

qualitative-research-and-quantitative-research/
• http://www.fao.org/docrep/W3241E/w3241e08.htm#TopOfPage
• http://apps.who.int/medicinedocs/en/d/Js6169e/7.3.html
• http://apps.who.int/medicinedocs/en/d/Js6169e/7.6.html#Js6169e.7.6
• https://www.business.qld.gov.au/starting-business/planning/market-customer-

research/basics/process
• https://www.business.qld.gov.au/starting-business/planning/market-customer-

research/basics/process
• http://library.ucsc.edu/help/research/evaluate-the-quality-and-credibility-of-

your-sources
• http://www.iptv.org/exploremore/PDFs/PresentanArgument.pdf
• https://www.skillsyouneed.com/present/presentation-tips.html
• https://www.business.qld.gov.au/running-business/growing-business/trend-

analysis/analysing-trends
• https://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/report-writing.html

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