Secondary Geography book-7

Dean Smart for Grade 7 2 Book Secondary Geography for Pakistan

T.V

An Introduction to Secondary Geography by Dean Smart Learning about Geography Studying geography offers the opportunities to: • develop an understanding of the physical geography of Earth, learning about the different continents and oceans, their environments, and threats to the biosphere. • know and understand the key features of our country, region, and the world more widely. • develop an understanding of human geography: population characteristics, human settlement, and economic activities. • understand the significance of environmental geography: the importance of protecting fauna and flora, natural resources and the climate, and how mankind’s interventions with each impacts on economics, human populations, and sustainability. • develop geographical skills: critical engagement and problem solving, using globes, maps, satellite, and aerial photographs; knowing about key technologies used by geographers in a variety of settings geographic information system (GIS), remote sensing, and global positioning systems (GPS). III

Chapter Page Chapter 1: Plains and Rivers • Inquire about the Earth’s processes and patterns and how landscapes have changed over time. (Types of plains features of the river) • Compare the geographical features of plains and rivers. • Compare urban and rural infrastructure to understand adaptation according to human needs. (People living near rivers and on plains) • Find out the differences in lifestyles of people living near rivers and on plains to appreciate and respect diversity. • Gather information using maps, globes, photographs, aerial photographs, satellite images, and graphs to inquire about geographical changes of a selected region or a landform. • Use a range of multiple sources like Google Maps, Google Earth, satellite images, photographs, diagrams, GPS, GIS, newspaper articles, thematic maps, and field trips to derive information of the physical, human, and environmental geography of Pakistan and of the world to develop and support conclusions. 1 Chapter 2: Water Resources and Management • Inquire why landforms are changing due to the natural processes of the earth. (Causes and consequences) • Explain similarities and differences between patterns of distribution and consumption of water resources of some selected geographical regions of the world. • Inquire why landforms are changing due to human activity. (Causes and consequences of pollution) • Analyse patterns of distribution and consumption of water resources of some selected geographical regions of the world. • Inquire why landforms are changing due to human activity (with respect to water). (Causes and consequences of pollution) • Analyse that scarcity of resources compels people to wisely use resources. • Suggest ways to utilize and conserve (water) resources. • Gather information using maps, globes, photographs, aerial photographs, satellite images, and graphs to inquire about geographical changes of a selected region or a landform. • Use a range of multiple sources like Google Maps, Google Earth, satellite images, photographs, diagrams, GPS, GIS, newspaper articles, thematic maps, and field trips to derive information of the physical, human, and environmental geography of Pakistan and of the world to develop and support conclusions. 11 Table of Contents IV 1

Chapter 3: Settlements and Land Use • Analyse patterns of distribution and consumption of resources of some selected geographical regions of the world. (Feasibility of human settlement) • Inquire and describe the interaction between physical and human geography in terms of types of settlements. • Explain that the economic progress of a region relies upon the advancement in infrastructure, transport, and use of science and technology. • Describe the effects of excess land use. (Causes and effects of population increase, excessive agriculture, and excessive urbanisation) • Gather information using maps, globes, photographs, aerial photographs, satellite images, and graphs to inquire about geographical changes of a selected region or a landform. • Use a range of multiple sources like Google Maps, satellite images, photographs, diagrams, GPS, GIS, newspaper articles, thematic maps, and field trips to derive information of physical, human, and environmental geography of Pakistan and of the world to develop and support conclusions. 23 Chapter 4: Agriculture • Analyse patterns of distribution and consumption of resources in Pakistan in terms of agriculture. • Inquire and describe the types of agriculture in Pakistan. • Understand (Explain) that the economic progress of a region relies upon the specialisation of resources through education, scientific research, and technology. (Modern methods of farming) • Understand (Deduce) that high revenues can be generated by exporting finished goods as per current demand. (Raw materials from farming and fishery to other countries) • Understand (Explain) the basic role of the global economic system and interdependence within the global economy. (Raw materials from farming and fishery to other countries) • Describe the effects of excess land use. (Effects of excessive agriculture) • Gather information using maps, globes, photographs, aerial photographs, satellite images, and graphs to inquire about geographical changes of a selected region or a landform. • Use a range of multiple sources like Google Maps, satellite images, photographs, diagrams, GPS, GIS, newspaper articles, thematic maps, and field trips to derive information of physical, human, and environmental geography of Pakistan and of the world to develop and support conclusions. 35 V

Chapter 5: Climate Change • Construct arguments (with sound evidence) to describe the interaction between physical and human geography. • Investigate how and why our climate is changing. (Global warming, greenhouse effect) • Inquire why landforms are changing due to human activity. (Causes and consequences of pollution) • Find ways to improve the quality of their own and global environment. • Gather information using maps, globes, photographs, aerial photographs, satellite images, and graphs to inquire about geographical changes of a selected region or a landform. • Use a range of multiple sources like Google Maps, satellite images, photographs, diagrams, GPS, GIS, newspaper articles, thematic maps, and field trips to derive information of the physical, human, and environmental geography of Pakistan and of the world to develop and support conclusions. 47 Chapter 6: Minerals and Power Resources • Analyse patterns of distribution and consumption of resources of some selected geographical regions of the world. (Minerals and Power) • Describe economic activities related to natural, capital, and human resources. • Understand (Explain) that the economic progress of a region relies upon the specialisation of resources through education, scientific research, and technology. • Understand (Deduce) that high revenues can be generated by exporting finished goods as per current demand. • Suggest ways to utilise resources and conserve them. (Minerals, fossil fuel, alternate sources of energy) • Gather information using maps, globes, photographs, aerial photographs, satellite images, and graphs to inquire about geographical changes of a selected region or a landform. • Use a range of multiple sources like Google Maps, satellite images, photographs, diagrams, GPS, GIS, newspaper articles, thematic maps, and field trips to derive information of the physical, human, and environmental geography of Pakistan and of the world to develop and support conclusions. 55 VI

01 Plains and Rivers Chapter Covered in the chapter: Knowledge • Identify the major sources of water on Earth and in Pakistan • Explain different types of precipitation • Describe the process of Water Cycle in maintaining water supply of the Earth • Identify different uses of sewage waste • Identify biogas as a source of energy • Identify various water purification methods before supplying it to cities and villages Skills • Use maps, GIS or Google Maps, Google Earth, to identify different types of plains and their features • Inquire about the working of a river system • Investigate reasons why the Arctic plain is known as barren plain • Investigate the living conditions in a Desert or the Arctic Tundra Plain • Gather, organise, and interpret data to analyse the impact of rivers on the biodiversity of the region • Exceeding use of vocabulary to describe physical, human, and environmental geography and economy related to them Plain: a flat expense of mainly treeless land with gentle changes in elevation Habitat: a place suited to an organism, and where it makes a home Biodiversity: a variety of organisms present in one area Delta: the point where a slow-moving river meets the ocean, sea, lake, etc. 1

1.1 Plains and their features What is a plain? In geography, a plain is a flat expanse of land, typically with few trees, and gentle changes in elevation. They form a large part of the Earth and are found as highland plains, forming wide valley bases, at the foot of mountains, and at coastal margins. There are three processes that create plains Mountains Plateau Plains Sea level 1. Structural Plains: are formed by the Earth’s tectonic forces where the continental shelf (coastal land) has lifted or sea floor has been depressed. 2. Erosional Plains: are worn-down by natural forces in the process called denudation. Wind creates pediplains, and running or frozen water creates peneplains. 3. Depositional Plains: are formed when soil and rock is deposited (dropped) by flowing water, winds, or glacial action creating a mostly flat landscape. • Abyssal (Sea and Ocean) plains are 5000 to 7000 metres below sea level and are very smooth due to deposition in the deep ocean. • Alluvial plains are alongside rivers or at the feet of mountains, Occasional flooding now, and frequent past, flooding has washed eroded soil creating smooth, rich sediment, and fertile alluvial soils. • Flood plains alongside rivers, streams, lakes and ponds are the flat land that floods when water levels rise beyond the height of banks on the water’s edge. The Huang He River in Sichuan, China, (sometimes called the Yellow River) has created an alluvial plain of 409,500 square kilometres with its yellowish sediment enriching the neighbouring land. Many of the river valley civilisations owe their existence to these last two processes Structural Plain Erosional Plain Depositional Plain Chapter 1: Plains and Rivers 2

Chapter 1: Plains and Rivers The Plains of Pakistan In Pakistan: 1. Structural plains are found along the coastal areas. 2. Depositional plains are present alongside the Indus river. 3. Erosional plains are seen in the Salt Range, Potohar, and the Balochistan. Plains Around the World One-third of the world’s surface area are plains, with examples on every continent. The climate strongly influences the nature of each plan and its ability to support biodiversity (a variety of plants and animals). Cold Plains In all-year long cold zones, below the permafrost line, the landscape is largely treeless and has patchy vegetation. This sort of landscape is called tundra, and supports some hardy shrubs, mosses, lichens and animals. Beyond the permafrost line in the Arctic is barren plain, which is called so due to its poor soil quality that ensures there is no vegetation. Very Dry, Hot Plains can be found in deserts such as North Africa’s Sahara Desert. Semi-Arid and Dry Plains are those which get relatively little rain for much of the year and generally support coarse grasslands with occasional shrubs and trees. The dominant vegetation is grasses, from low to 1.5 meter high. The Eurasian Steppes are wide, low-growing grasslands, which provided ideal conditions for the ancient trade route between Asia and Europe: ‘The Silk Road’ from 130bce. Temperate Plains are attractive for human development as farmland and settlements, for example in New Zealand the Canterbury and North Otago Plains support very productive agriculture. Wetter temperate plains can be home to large forests with a variety of trees and shrubs, for example in Mexico’s Tabasco Plain. Tropical grasslands or savannahs are warmer and wetter in the summer season, and colder in the winter, and can be found near the Equator in South America and Australia. The Deosai Plains of Pakistan sit at an average of just over 4000 metres above sea level. Permafrost: areas where the ground is frozen all year and has been like this for two or more years. Cold plains Semi arid plains Explore reasons why the Arctic plain is known as a barren plain. 3

1.2 Contrasting plain habitats Chapter 1: Plains and Rivers Flood plains can be an important wetland habitat because the rich soils support a wide range of plants and creatures. Tropical Plains as a habitat in Africa Part of the tropical grassland of the Mara-Serengeti Plains is set aside as animal reserves, a major attraction for tourists. Tourism has become important to the economy of the region. Tanzania has created The Serengeti National Park, which connects to Kenya’s Masai-Mara Nature Reserve. The grassland provides grazing space for herbivores (plant eaters) including antelope, bison, and zebra, and a food-rich habitat for the local predators: hyenas, cheetahs, and lions. Drought is a threat to grasslands, and humancaused climate change has speeded up the frequency of extreme weather events. While nature can adapt over very long periods, plants and animals find rapid adjustment less easy. Some savannah trees and shrubs have bitter leaves to discourage grazing animals eating them, so giraffes have evolved with long necks to reach sweeter, higher leaves. Black Rhinos have developed pointed lips to better hold and tear-off leaves. So, nature keeps a balance. In very sudden harsh conditions, all of nature suffers and the food chain is disrupted. Native peoples also adapted to living in these semi-arid grassland conditions, but their traditional homelands have often been turned into farmland. Up to 1.5 million wildebeest, and hundreds of thousands of other animals take part in ‘The Great Migration.’ through Tanzania and Kenya annually, the second largest animal migration on the planet. Cheetahs can run in short bursts at up to 112kmph. Hyenas and wild dogs work in 10-40 animal packs and reach 70kmph. You don’t have to be that fast to out-run them… just faster than anyone you are with! Research the traditional way of life of the indigenous people of North American plains (the ‘American Indians’) and the Inuit of Alaska and Canada; and contrast these ways of life to nomadic Gujar tribe of Pakistan and Kochi tribe of Afghanistan who spend summer with animals in the cooler mountain sides and winter on the plains. Savannah Food chain Tertiary consumer Secondary/Tertiary consumers Primary consumers Producers 4

Chapter 1: Plains and Rivers The Indus Plain and its river basin in Sindh is important to both life in, and the economy of, Pakistan as the river and its tributaries irrigate the 518,000 square kilometres of surrounding fields making this the country’s major food producing area. It is one of the most densely populated areas of Pakistan. What are the threats to the plains? Human action is the greatest threat due to habitat destruction: - turning grasslands into farmland; building (roads, businesses, and homes); - diverting water and, closing of and reducing food sources and breeding grounds; disrupting the food chain by killing predators and eradicating other species; - enclosing land, over-farming, and exhausting the fertility of the soil. Some examples of the fauna in the Indus Plains: Lava plains are created when molten volcanic rock flows over a landscape and hardens as it settles. Often formed of basalt, the lava breaks down over millions of years to make a very dark soil. Research Desert Plain habitats such as the Thar Desert and Arctic Tundra habitats. Tributary: A smaller water course running to a larger one. The Indus has the Beas, Chenab, Jhelum, Ravi, and Sutlej as its tributaries. Invasive species take over a space and kill off the native species by dominating a space or through their feeding and other habits. Massive numbers of non-native cane toads now live in northern Australia, and large flocks of Parakeets fly in London. Mammals Antelope family: Blackbuck, Nilgai; Deer: Axis Deer, Hog Deer; Eurasian Otter; Horseshoe Bat; Humans; Indian Rhinoceros; Indus River Dolphin; Pangolin; Red Fox; Sheep and Goat Families: Punjab Urial, Sindh Ibex; Wild Boar. Amphibians and Fish Indus Valley Toad and Bullfrog; Black Pond Turtle; Gharial (Fish-eating crocodile); Fish: Carp, Catfish varieties, Chameleon Fish, Golden Mahseer Killifish, Mullet, Palla Fish, Pupfish, Swamp Eel. Reptiles Indian Star Tortoise; Snakes: Indian Cobra; Sindh Krait; Yellow Monitor; Russell’s Viper. Birds Alexandrine Parakeet; Barn Owl; Black Kite; Myna; Hoopoe; Indian Peafowl; Red-vented Bulbul; Rock Pigeon; Shelduck; Shikra; White-backed Vulture 5

1.3 River Systems Chapter 1: Plains and Rivers What is a river system? A river is a natural watercourse which either flows from its source towards a larger body of water (another river, lake, sea or ocean) or to its terminus (end) as it dries up into the ground. In our region, human settlement is a direct result of the Indus River Valley’s fertile land, which allowed the successful establishment of an early human civilisation: the Indus Valley Civilisation. Over a long period, water from the mountains had eroded soil, sediment, and rock, and the force of this passing through had deepened, widened and lengthened the extensive valley course. Depositional soils made the river plains rich farming land and early humans could farm this land much more easily than other, less productive land. Today 75% of Pakistan’s population lives along the banks of the Indus and its five largest urban centres depend on the river for water supplies for homes and businesses. The source is the starting point of the river. It could be a spring or a melting glacier, or just an area where a lot of rain collects. All rivers flow down towards sea level, even if they don’t reach the sea. The river is fed by the rain that falls in the area called its drainage basin. The point where two rivers join is called a confluence. The watershed is an imaginary line that separates one drainage basin from the next Land that gets flooded when the river overflows is called the flood plain The mouth of the river is where it flows into a lake, or the sea, or the ocean. The river gets wider as you go from source to mouth The river flows in a channel. Smaller rivers join the main river. They are called tributaries. The river system 6

Chapter 1: Plains and Rivers How do rivers change as they flow? Rivers have different characteristics along their length 1. Fast flowing sections: the upper stages of rivers with sources in high altitude land, initially have a rapid flow. The materials which they erode create steep V-shaped valleys in the land through which they pass. The Neelam Valley is an example of this process. 2. Slower sections: Further along the middle stages of these rivers slow and this allows bends or meanders and oxbow lakes might form, for example at the Shah Sadar Din area of the Punjab. The middle stage (or course) of a river is important because it has a high volume of water that helps transport the eroded material to the lower sections in the course of a river. 3. Terminal Sections of Rivers: Estuaries and Deltas: The lower stages run into flood plains. During high water levels the water breaches or is deposited on the flooded land. As the river reaches its mouth or delta, and the water joins the sea or ocean, the flow slows and more silt is deposited. In this aerial satellite image, the Indus Delta is shown, with banks of sediment forming at the river mouth. What is a delta? Where a river meets a sea or ocean it meets waves coming into shore and this slows the flow of water causing sediment to be dropped along the meeting point. Over time this creates layers of sediment and banks of debris. Where the water flows fastest it pushes through, and where it is slowest, or the weight of material blocks its progress, the sediment continues to build eventually raising above the water level. Storms and sudden larger flows can still clear the banks of sediment until they consolidate, for example with mangrove roots helping to bind them together. Areas of deposition Areas of erosion Erosion makes the neck narrower New, and straighter river course Cut off / abandoned meander or Oxbow lake During floods river takes shortest course through the neck Indus river Satellite image of indus river Satellite image of a Delta How many of Pakistan’s main rivers and tributaries can you name? 7

1.4 River Habitats Chapter 1: Plains and Rivers Why are rivers important in supporting biodiversity? Habitat depends on climate, and landscape. In this diagram a river has reached a ‘middle stage’ and drops through the landscape at a slowly falling gradient. The water flows less rapidly as a result, and while erosion will be taking place, it is not as dramatic as higher upstream. This gentle flow is less likely to cut a straight line into the landscape, and so meanders or bends. Slow-moving water shapes the habitat and suits particular types of animal and plant life that flourish in these conditions. There are over 25 native fish species in Pakistan’s rivers, as well as the critically endangered Indus River Dolphin. The species include: the Banded and Dwarf Gourami, Perch, Snakehead and Carp varieties, the Mahasher, and the Rohu. What do these images show in terms of river features and how rivers shape life in Pakistan? The river settlement of Balakot, Pakistan Gilgit River Floodplain Bedrock Alluvium Oxbow lake Meander Details of a river floodplain Rivers and the economy Rivers have a significant role in the economy of a region, primarily for being a key source of water, food, and hydroelectric power, and facilitate transportation. Land near rivers is very fertile, and can be use for agriculture, in addition to the rich biodiversity allows ample food supply in the form of crops, fish, etc. The Watercourses of Pakistan Life and agriculture in Pakistan depends on our freshwater lakes and rivers, including the glacial lakes formed after the last ice age. Glacial melt-water is an important feeder into the Indus. Where the Indus meets the sea, the water becomes saline (salty) and the delta fans into creeks and estuaries between mudbanks. 8

How can we decide on the right balance of environmental protection and commercial development to meet our population’s needs? The Indus Delta The Indus Delta’s rich sediment deposits have resulted in a series of mangrove forests to grow on the mud, sand, and salt flats, forming the seventh largest mangrove forest on Earth at 225,000 hectares of swamp and mangroves. Fish, amphibians, and birds take advantage of the slower current and nutrients in the water. As the swampy land gradually extended over time, humans occupied the ‘new’ coastal fringes and lived on and farmed the reclaimed areas. As a result, there have been gains and losses: people need shelter, work, and food, but population expansion and commercial pressures to provide food, jobs, and housing land has been placing diversity of plant and animal life at the Indus Delta under threat. The reduction in swampland and mangrove forests is accelerating coastal erosion and removes some of the protection against storm surges and the impact of tsunamis. Pakistan’s emergency planners have been suggesting for some time that mangrove swamps be restored and protected, and some progress has been made in starting to restore these habitats, although water pollution remains a problem. Getting the right balance between commercial development and environmental protection is hard. The Port of Karachi is a vital element of Pakistan’s infrastructure and economy, so commercial seaborne traffic must also be considerate in using, managing, and protecting the river and delta. Pakistan is home to the largest lake in South Asia: the Manchar Lake, at more than 260 km² of area, and to the 5th largest delta in the world! Indus River (or Singay Chu River) Facts Length: 3,180 km Source: Western Tibet (where it is known as the Singay Chu or Lion’s Mouth). Route: Passes through Jammu and Kashmir and Pakistan to the Arabian Sea Tributaries: Zanskar River, and the Panjnad Rivers which flows into further tributaries, the Chenab, Jhelum, Ravi, Beas, Sutlej, on the left bank; and rightbank tributaries the Shyok, Gilgit, Kabul, Kurram, and Gomal. Supports/Passes through: Punjab towards the Sindh province, passing temperate forests, plains, and more arid lands before reaching the river delta. Mud Mud Mud Mud A F G H A N I S T A N I N D I A IRAN C H I N A INDIAN ILLEGALLY OCCUPIED JAMMU & KASHMIR (DISPUTED TERRITORY - FINAL STATUS TO BE DECIDED IN LINE WITH RELEVANT UNSC RESOLUTIONS) R a n n o f K u t c h ARABIAN SEA Sir Creek Karakoram Pass 28°N 74°E 76°E 72°E 72°E 78°E 70°E 78°E 80°E 68°E 66°E 66°E 62°E 64°E 62°E of Greenwich 64°E 68°E 70°E 34°N 32°N 32°N 28°N 26°N 26°N 24°N 24°N 74°E 76°E 80°E 36°N 36°N 30°N 30°N 34°N 0 Scale 1: 7,500,000 50 100 150 200 250 km 0 50 100 150 miles ³ ³ ³ ³ ³ ³ ³ ³ ³ ³ ³ ³ ³ ³ ³ ³ ³ ³ ³ ³ ³ ³ ³ ³ ³ ³ ³ ³ ³ ³ ³ ³ ³ ³ ³ ³ ³ ³ ³ # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # Hub Kotri Guddu PP Islam Rasul Tanda Rawal Baran Gomal Bolan Sukkur Trimmu Khanki Jinnah Marala Mangla Warsak Darwat Hingol Mirani Panjnad Taunsa Balloki Chashma Tarbela Khanpur Gaj Nai Sidhnai Sabakzai Tank Zam Qadirabad Amandarra Sulaimanke Kurramgari Kurram Tangi Gomal Zam Khushdil Khan Diamer Bhasha Mithan Kot Barrage SINDH PUNJAB G I L G I T - B A L T I S T A N B A L O C H I S T A N P A K H T U N K H W A K H Y B E R Astola Island Churna Island TAJIKISTAN Swat Indus Indus Indus Sutlej Ra v i Indus Chenab J helum Dasht Hingol Hub Gomal Zhob Kabul Indus A J & * K Line of Control Working Boundary Link canals 1 Marala-Ravi 2 Bambanwala-Ravi-Bedian-Dipalpur 3 Balloki-Sulaimanke I 4 Balloki-Sulaimanke II 5 Qadira-Balloki 6 Rasul-Qadirabad 7 Trimmu-Sidhnai 8 Sidhnai-Mailsi-Bahawal 9 Mailsi-Bahawal 10 Chashma-Jhelum 11 Taunsa-Panjnad 31% 2% 20% 47% Others Tube Well Well Canal Irrigated Area by Source of Irrigation 2019 Data Source: Pakistan Economic Survey 2019-2020 ¯ Canal Barrage, Weir, or Headwork Irrigation Dam Small Dam Dam (Proposed or Under Construction) River Diversion Canal Karez Hill Torrent Flood Irrigation Tube Well Data not Available 68° 24° 68° 24° E. of GREENWICH. SIR CREEK k International Boundary along Eastern Bank of the Cree A R A B I A N S E A GULF OF CAMBAY G U L F O F K U T C H I N D I A E. of GREENWICH. 69° 23° 70° 71° 72° 69° 70° 71° 72° 22° 21° 23° 22° 21° JUNAGADH BANTVAMANAVADAR J U N A G A D H JUNAGADH & MANAVADAR The red dotted line represents approximately the line of control in Jammu & Kashmir. The State of Jammu & Kashmir and its accession is yet to be decided through a plebiscite under the relevant United Nations Security Council Resolutions. Actual boundary in the area where remark FRONTIER UNDEFINED appears, would ultimately be decided by the sovereign authorities concerned after the final settlement of Jammu & Kashmir dispute. *A J & K stands for Azad Jammu & Kashmir as defined in the AJK Interim Constitution Act, 1974. The irrigation map of Pakistan 9

Test Yourself Section 1: Quiz Questions 1. Define: A. Structural Plain. B. Erosional Plain C. Depositional Plain D. Flood Plain 2. Why have river-valley plains been so important to human life? 3. What is a river system made of? Explain its working referring to that of Pakistan. 4. What does a confluence of rivers mean? 5. Using online and physical sources, conduct research on the impact of rivers on the biodiversity of a region. 6. How is an oxbow lake formed? 7. Which river mammal is critically endangered in Pakistan’s main river? Section 2: Multiple Choice Questions 1. An alluvial plain is: A. Somewhere which has frequently flooded and now floods occasionally B. An area which is semi-permanently flooded C. An area frequently flooding each year 2. A flood plain is: A. The area just above flood water where the agricultural ground remains safe from the flood B. The area along the edge of a body of water where any overflow causes flooding and carries silts onto the surrounding land C. The land at the start of a river that is flooded in the rainy season? 3. A barren plain has: A. Wildlife and plants only in the summer? B. A Warm summer but cold climate and flora and fauna adapted to that habitat C. No wildlife or plants? 4. Deep sea plains are very flat, and are called: A. Abysmal Plains B. Abyssal Plains C. Asymmetric Plains 5. Pakistan’s Indus river-Plain is: A. Remote and under-populated B. Heavily populated C. Populated only around the Great Lake and Swamp Network? 6. Where a river begins this is known in geography as the: A. Source B. Mouth C. Delta 7. Where the Indus River meets the sea, there are: A. Engineered mudbacks, tundra islands and freshwater pools B. Conservation team created salt beds, Mangrove plantations, and fisheries C. Natural mangrove forests, salt flats and mudbanks 8. A meander in a river is a: A. Bending stretch B. Section of river comprised of rapids/a steeply falling level. C. A slow but deep pool after the rapids 9. Roughly what percentage of Pakistan’s people live relatively close to the Indus? A. 28% B. 57% C. 75% 10

02 Water Resources and Management Chapter Covered in the chapter: Knowledge • Identify the major sources of water on Earth and in Pakistan • Explain different types of precipitation • Describe the process of Water Cycle in maintaining water • supply of the Earth • Identify different uses of sewage waste • Identify biogas as a source of energy • Identify various water purification methods before supplying it to cities and villages Skills • Draw and label the water cycle • Evaluate the reasons for low groundwater in Pakistan • Devise ways to solve the shortage of water in Pakistan • Evaluate ways of using wastewater • Analyse methods of sewage treatment • Organise information about water purification methods into flow charts • Analyse the reasons for the scarcity of drinking water in cities • Enhanced use of vocabulary to describe physical, human, and environmental geography and economy related to them • Explore ways to turn sewage into a useful gas. • Conduct, record and draw conclusions from an investigation about the water purification method. Desalination: the process of removing salts, minerals, or contaminants from seawater Ground water: water found beneath the Earth’s surface, in cracks and spaces in soil, sand, and rock Hydrology: the study of water in the atmosphere, on, and under the ground Surface runoff: flow of water on the land’s surface 11

2.1 The Importance of Water Chapter 2: Water Resources and Management Water is vital to all life on Earth, and around 71% of our planet is covered with water. This has led some geographers to call Earth ’The Blue Planet.’ Although most of our world is water, a considerable amount of this water is in the world’s seas and oceans and is therefore saline (salty) and not drinkable or useable for watering crops without desalination (salt removal). In terms of weight, the human body is at least 60% water, and unless we are suitably hydrated (have enough water in us) most of our body functions do not work properly. If we have no clean water we cannot clean ourselves or our homes, we cannot cook, and we cannot give our animals a drink. As the global population has increased, the demand for clean water has also risen, but there is only a fixed amount of fresh water available for use. Although clean water is fundamental to support life, a lot of the world’s population does not have access to enough safe water. Scientists are concerned that this will get worse as climate change speeds up. There are lots of inequalities in access to water. When we talk about water that is fit for human use the term French term ‘eau potable’ (drinkable water) is sometimes used to identify it as consumable, because a lot of the water in the environment is not clean enough to drink (is non-potable). Access to clean water Oxfam, the global development charity reports that worldwide there are 2.2 billion people without clean water at home. The charity, WaterAid, say this is 1 in 10 of the global population, or 771 million people without water. Oxfam also reports that there are 2.3 billion people without basic toilet facilities, and that over 800 children under the age of five die each day from diarrhoea caused by drinking dirty water. Most water in the open isn’t safe to drink. Animal droppings, things in the air and germs contaminate it, and sometimes water-carried diseases like cholera can be present. People cannot just be told to move. Filtering water isn’t easy, and boiling all the water you need isn’t practical, fuel is expensive or hard to get in some place! Why don’t people just move closer to clean water, or boil it? Planet Earth Without clean water even washing your hands can be high risk! Schistosomiasis is a water-carried disease found in 78 countries. If people come into contact with water from untreated sewage that contains parasitic worms, the tiny worms can enter the body by tunnelling in through the skin. 12

Chapter 2: Water Resources and Management Pakistan suffers from a serious lack of water in the drier areas, and over-abstraction* and pollution along parts of the river system. As the population continues to rise, and much of it is in densely packed cities and towns, and climate becomes hotter there is a serious problem developing around water supply for agriculture, human use, and industry. The availability of water varies, so some people have a locational advantage or disadvantage because of where they are in the world. Surplus or shortage? What shapes water availability and consumption? Over-Abstraction*: where more water is being taken from an aquifer than is entering the system as rain or water soaking into the land. This lowers the water level. (*note the spelling—abstraction, not extraction!) a. Some places get more rain than others due to climate and topography differences. h. The population in some countries is large, so demand for water is high, and water can be in short supply if it is a hot-dry country. b. Countries with an economy that is based on agriculture face high demand for water for crops or livestock unless care has been taken to have varieties suitable for the local climate. Some manufacturing industries need a lot of water, e.g. cotton textiles. i. In more economically developed countries (MDCs) people will have more disposable income (money to spend) and might have washing machines or dishwashers, which consume lots of water. c. In some places water is expensive and ordinary people cannot afford to have lots if it is sold via piped supply and a water meter, or via bottles. The one-use plastic bottles are also a problem. j. Planners predict climate change might have such a big impact on water supply that millions of people in hotter countries will find life unsustainable and will be forced into migration. d. Heavy industry (for example making vehicles) or extractive industries (mining, for example,) can use a lot of water. k. Irrigation can increase crop yields by up to 400% but it uses a lot of water. Some cash crops are exported so don’t always feed locals. e. Where neighbouring countries are in a drier region there can be conflict around access to, or control of, water. Disputes around access to a watercourse, heavy use, or diversions to the water can be common between farmers. l. Less economically developed countries (LDCs) are frequently still developing infrastructure for water supply such as bore holes, and dirty water treatment plants, especially in rural areas. f. Some locations face a greater demand for water in particular seasons, for example economies with high levels of tourism which means there is a higher population at particular points of the year m. Rock geology impacts on how fast water passes through the ground. Permeable rocks usually mean a fast drain-off after rain, and low river levels, while impermeable rocks mean more surface water and slower drainage. g. Large countries with varied topography might be able to pipe water from one place to another (Water transfer), although distance but cost might be a problem, n. Populations are tightly packed together in some places, creating problems around clean water supply, and dirty water disposal or treatment. 13

2.2 Water as a feature of the environment The Water Cycle Water in the environment moves in a natural cycle from the air to the ground or bodies water (the seas, rivers, etc.) as precipitation (rain, sleet, snow), condensation (vapour turning to liquid), evaporation (liquid turning to vapour), and transpiration (plants giving off water vapour through their leaves). Insolation (solar energy) partly powers the water cycle: the constant movement of water around the lithosphere— the crust of the Earth that we live on, and the troposphere— the inner layer of the Earth’s atmosphere. Light warms the oceans, lakes, rivers, and landscape and causes evaporation, hence, water moves from being a liquid to a gas and rises. Transpiration in plants also creates vapour which evaporates. Evaporation increases the level of humidity in the atmosphere, i.e. the amount of water vapour in the air. As the water vapour rises, it cools. This process is called condensation. After reaching the dew point, it returns from being a gas to being a liquid and forms very tiny droplets. These collect around tiny specks of dust floating in the atmosphere, forming clouds. Once the droplets are too heavy to float they will fall as precipitation in form of rain, hail, or snow, depending on the air temperature. Some of the water is absorbed by the ground and is available as ground water, while some falls into, or reaches rivers and lakes through surface run-off. You can see condensation occurring if you pour a glass of water and add ice. Water vapour in the air will condense on the outside of the glass to form droplets. Humidity in Pakistan- a varied picture The average annual relative humidity nationally is 37.9% with the monthly relative humidity ranging from 20% in May to 58% in August. However, levels vary greatly: Karachi has an average of 70% and can reach over 80%. Jacobabad, in Sindh, is known for its record-breaking temperature of 52 degrees Celsius, though its highest humidity level is around 38%. Main sources of water The main sources of water refer to bodies of water such as ground water, springs, reservoirs, lakes, rivers, and streams, which provide water to public drinking water supplies. In Pakistan, the main source of water is the River Indus and its tributaries. The water supply is supported by the man-made structures like dams and barrages which make the river water more available. When water vapour in the atmosphere condenses near the ground, it creates mist or fog. When it forms in the air around tiny particles it forms a cloud. Chapter 2: Water Resources and Management Evaporation Transpiration Precipitation Condensation The water cycle 14

Chapter 2: Water Resources and Management Describing Water Features In Chapter 1 we saw how the beginning of a river is described as its source or origin, and how longer rivers have upper, middle, and lower river course features. The land surrounding a river, or bodies of water like ponds and lakes, which feeds them water from rain or other falling precipitation (sleet, snow, hail) or ground water (laying on the surface) is called a watershed or drainage area. Pakistan’s Indus Basin Irrigation System is the largest artificial groundwater recharge system in the world, where water moves downward from surface water to groundwater. Recharge is how water enters an aquifer. Water can also: - bubble up as a spring from underground, perhaps trickling away as surface water, or forming a pool or stream, or be drawn from the ground from wells which draw from the water table: the level of water in the ground below our feet. - be found in ponds, lakes, and reservoirs - be described as runoff, passing over the land’s surface if it is saturated (soaked to the point where it cannot absorb any further water), and flowing downhill or pooling if blocked by landscape features The water features Groundwater recharge system 15

Chapter 2: Water Resources and Management 2.3 Precipitation as an environmental feature Why is precipitation important? For the water cycle to keep bringing fresh water to the land, water must condense into the atmosphere, so it can fall and be redistributed across the seas and land. Any salinity (saltiness) in sea water is left behind as the vapour evaporates, so precipitation is always fresh water. Without evaporation and precipitation there would be no water on much of the land and millions of plant and animal species would dehydrate and die. Types of Precipitation Rain: Liquid drops of water Sleet: Partway between liquid and frozen states Snow: Frozen water in a crystalline state (below −40°C) Hail: Frozen water droplets The temperature and amount of precipitation influences the type of plants and animals found in an environment. As we know, tropical rainforests stay warm all year and are the habitat of many animals and plant. These forests experience rain for most or all of the year without a dry season. The opposite happens in deserts where a lack of rain all year creates an arid environment. Plants and animals have adapted to both over thousands of years. In dry places some animals burrow underground to find stable, cool temperatures, and plants often have long roots to absorb water from deep underground in order to survive. Humans also adapt to the environment depending on how much water is available and grow crops that will survive and do well. In Pakistan, farmers grow varied crops such as wheat, rice, sugarcane, and cotton, depending on their local climate. The water used to irrigate their fields comes from precipitation, either directly from rainfall or indirectly through river water or tube wells providing ground water. Not adapting to the climate can be a disaster. Early settlers in the American West (1840sce) tried European farming methods and crops, and had crop failure as the seeds, livestock, and methods did not suit the climate. Later they used seed and cattle more suited to European dry grasslands, which did better! Forests receive a lot of rainfall, deserts receive very little rainfall Forest Desert 16

Chapter 2: Water Resources and Management Knowing and thinking about climate and weather patterns is therefore very important as getting things wrong can be very costly or even threaten food supply. In the same way all countries and their populations depend on maintaining a good quality clean water supply. Specialist consultant advisors and experts advise national or local government or businesses about water security (uninterrupted supply). Securing a constant water supply is not only essential for drinking water, hygiene, and agricultural uses, but is also needed for the production of raw materials and in industries such as chemicals, textiles, and brick production. Scientific data over an extended period is needed to make reliable predictions and recommendations. Today, computer modelling provides very sophisticated predictions of weather over the short and long term, and satellite images help forecasters identify trends and consider risks. Sophisticated representations of data can also help humans reflect on the meaning of the data, for example, an isohyet (say it Eye-sew-high-et) is a map showing rain level using lines or contours to connect places with equal rainfall. Rainfall Patterns in Pakistan Pakistan experiences convectional rainfall in the Upper Indus Plain, when water vapours rise to upper levels of atmosphere in dry and hot weather and form rain clouds by the process of condensation. In the hilly areas of Margalla and Himalayas in the north hill stations such as Murre, Ayubia, Nathia Gali, get regular relief rainfall. This term refers to more frequent rain caused by increasingly steep land height, and clouds shedding rain on high land. In some mountain regions this rain supports dense forests. During the winter season, Pakistan receives its rainfall from the Western Depression: the winds or cyclones that begin in the Mediterranean Sea. Usually 50% of Pakistan is arid, 40% semi-arid and 10% area of the country is humid. The monsoon season brings nearly 60% of the country’s annual rain to Punjab and Sindh, and the mountainous north in Balochistan from October to March. Rainfall is measured with a simple instrument called a rain gauge, which measures rain levels in millimetres. Today electronic gauges are also used. Some weather stations send in data automatically and wirelessly. Precise figures are really helpful: for example dry deserts usually have less than 10 mm of rainfall per year, and tropical rainforests up to 4000 mm. A rain gauge The formation of rain On a blank paper, draw and label the water cycle. 17

Chapter 2: Water Resources and Management 2.4 Linking Climate and Rainfall in Pakistan Mud Mud Mud Mud 28°N 74°E 76°E 72°E 72°E 78°E 70°E 78°E 80°E 68°E 66°E 66°E 62°E 64°E 62°E of Greenwich 64°E 68°E 70°E 34°N 32°N 32°N 28°N 26°N 26°N 24°N 24°N 74°E 76°E 80°E 36°N 36°N 30°N 30°N 34°N Sukkur Dir Rohri PP Chhor Badin Kakul Drosh Bannu Gupis Bunji Astore Sibbi Pasni Kalat Kotli Murree Multan Jhelum Cherat Gilgit Turbat Quetta Jiwani Ormara Padidan Larkana Sialkot Khanpur Chitral Balakot Chillas Panjgur Khuzdar Barkhan Peshawar Nokkundi Lasbela Dalbadin Nawabshah Jacobabad Hyderabad Moenjodaro Lahore(AP) Faisalabad Bahawalpur Parachinar Zhob (PBO) Karachi(AP) Bahawalnagar Saidu Sharif Skardu (PBO) Islamabad(AP) Dera Ismail Khan Muzafarabad A J & * K Line of Control Working Boundary Garhi Duppatta Srinagar A F G H A N I S TA N I N D I A IRAN C H I N A B A L O C H I S T A N SINDH PUNJAB G I L G I T - B A L T I S T A N K H Y B E R P A K H T U N K H W A INDIAN ILLEGALLY OCCUPIED JAMMU & KASHMIR (DISPUTED TERRITORY - FINAL STATUS TO BE DECIDED IN LINE WITH RELEVANT UNSC RESOLUTIONS) R a n n o f K u t c h ARABIAN SEA Sir Creek Astola Island Churna Island TAJIKISTAN Indus Indus Chenab Hub Ravi Jhelum Sutlej Zhob Swat Gomal Dasht Kabul Hingol Indus Indus Karakoram Pass Arid Climatic Regions Semi-Arid Humid Highland Hot Summer, Mild Winter Warm Summer, Mild Winter Hot Summer, Mild Winter Hot Summer, Mild Winter Warm Summer, Cool Winter Warm Summer, Cool Winter Warm to Cold Summer, Cool to Cold Winter Warm Summer, Cool Winter 0 Scale 1: 10,000,000 0 100 200 300 km 100 200 miles Climatic Stations Working Boundary Coastline International Boundary Line of Control Isoline Province Boundary Legend Airport Pilot Balloon Observatory (AP) (PBO) River Data Not Available ¯ The red dotted line represents approximately the line of control in Jammu & Kashmir. The State of Jammu & Kashmir and its accession is yet to be decided through a plebiscite under the relevant United Nations Security Council Resolutions. Actual boundary in the area where remark FRONTIER UNDEFINED appears, would ultimately be decided by the sovereign authorities concerned after the final settlement of Jammu & Kashmir dispute. *A J & K stands for Azad Jammu & Kashmir as defined in the AJK Interim Constitution Act, 1974. 68° 24° 68° 24° E. of GREENWICH. SIR CREEK k International Boundary along Eastern Bank of the Cree A R A B I A N S E A GULF OF CAMBAY G U L F O F K U T C H I N D I A E. of GREENWICH. 69° 23° 70° 71° 72° 69° 70° 71° 72° 22° 21° 23° 22° 21° JUNAGADH BANTVAMANAVADAR J U N A G A D H JUNAGADH & MANAVADAR Mud Mud Mud Mud 28°N 74°E 76°E 72°E 72°E 78°E 70°E 78°E 80°E 68°E 66°E 66°E 62°E 64°E 62°E of Greenwich 64°E 68°E 70°E 34°N 32°N 32°N 28°N 26°N 26°N 24°N 24°N 74°E 76°E 80°E 36°N 36°N 30°N 30°N 34°N Sukkur Dir Rohri PP Chhor Badin Kakul Drosh Bannu Gupis Bunji Astore Sibbi Pasni Kalat Kotli Murree Multan Jhelum Cherat Gilgit Turbat Quetta Jiwani Ormara Padidan Larkana Sialkot Khanpur Chitral Balakot Chillas Panjgur Khuzdar Barkhan Peshawar Nokkundi Lasbela Dalbadin Nawabshah Jacobabad Hyderabad Moenjodaro Lahore(AP) Faisalabad Bahawalpur Parachinar Zhob (PBO) Karachi(AP) Bahawalnagar Saidu Sharif Skardu (PBO) Islamabad(AP) Dera Ismail Khan Muzafarabad A J & * K Line of Control Working Boundary Garhi Duppatta Srinagar A F G H A N I S TA N I N D I A IRAN C H I N A B A L O C H I S T A N SINDH PUNJAB G I L G I T - B A L T I S T A N K H Y B E R P A K H T U N K H W A INDIAN ILLEGALLY OCCUPIED JAMMU & KASHMIR (DISPUTED TERRITORY - FINAL STATUS TO BE DECIDED IN LINE WITH RELEVANT UNSC RESOLUTIONS) R a n n o f K u t c h ARABIAN SEA Sir Creek Astola Island Churna Island TAJIKISTAN Indus Indus Chenab Hub Ravi Jhelum Sutlej Zhob Swat Gomal Dasht Kabul Hingol Indus Indus Karakoram Pass Arid Climatic Regions Semi-Arid Humid Highland Hot Summer, Mild Winter Warm Summer, Mild Winter Hot Summer, Mild Winter Hot Summer, Mild Winter Warm Summer, Cool Winter Warm Summer, Cool Winter Warm to Cold Summer, Cool to Cold Winter Warm Summer, Cool Winter 0 Scale 1: 10,000,000 0 100 200 300 km 100 200 miles Climatic Stations Working Boundary Coastline International Boundary Line of Control Isoline Province Boundary Legend Airport Pilot Balloon Observatory (AP) (PBO) River Data Not Available ¯ The red dotted line represents approximately the line of control in Jammu & Kashmir. The State of Jammu & Kashmir and its accession is yet to be decided through a plebiscite under the relevant United Nations Security Council Resolutions. Actual boundary in the area where remark FRONTIER UNDEFINED appears, would ultimately be decided by the sovereign authorities concerned after the final settlement of Jammu & Kashmir dispute. *A J & K stands for Azad Jammu & Kashmir as defined in the AJK Interim Constitution Act, 1974. 68° 24° 68° 24° E. of GREENWICH. SIR CREEK k International Boundary along Eastern Bank of the Cree A R A B I A N S E A GULF OF CAMBAY G U L F O F K U T C H I N D I A E. of GREENWICH. 69° 23° 70° 71° 72° 69° 70° 71° 72° 22° 21° 23° 22° 21° JUNAGADH BANTVA MANAVADAR J U N A G A D H JUNAGADH & MANAVADAR Mud Mud Mud Mud 28°N 74°E 76°E 72°E 72°E 78°E 70°E 78°E 80°E 68°E 66°E 66°E 62°E 64°E 62°E of Greenwich 64°E 68°E 70°E 34°N 32°N 32°N 28°N 26°N 26°N 24°N 24°N 74°E 76°E 80°E 36°N 36°N 30°N 30°N 34°N Sukkur Dir Rohri PP Chhor Badin Kakul Drosh Bannu Gupis Bunji Astore Sibbi Pasni Kalat Kotli Murree Multan Jhelum Cherat Gilgit Turbat Quetta Jiwani Ormara Padidan Larkana Sialkot Khanpur Chitral Balakot Chillas Panjgur Khuzdar Barkhan Peshawar Nokkundi Lasbela Dalbadin Nawabshah Jacobabad Hyderabad Moenjodaro Lahore(AP) Faisalabad Bahawalpur Parachinar Zhob (PBO) Karachi(AP) Bahawalnagar Saidu Sharif Skardu (PBO) Islamabad(AP) Dera Ismail Khan Muzafarabad A J & * K Line of Control Working Boundary Garhi Duppatta Srinagar A F G H A N I S TA N I N D I A IRAN C H I N A B A L O C H I S T A N SINDH PUNJAB G I L G I T - B A L T I S T A N K H Y B E R P A K H T U N K H W A INDIAN ILLEGALLY OCCUPIED JAMMU & KASHMIR (DISPUTED TERRITORY - FINAL STATUS TO BE DECIDED IN LINE WITH RELEVANT UNSC RESOLUTIONS) R a n n o f K u t c h ARABIAN SEA Sir Creek Astola Island Churna Island TAJIKISTAN Indus Indus Chenab Hub Ravi Jhelum Sutlej Zhob Swat Gomal Dasht Kabul Hingol Indus Indus Karakoram Pass Arid Climatic Regions Semi-Arid Humid Highland Hot Summer, Mild Winter Warm Summer, Mild Winter Hot Summer, Mild Winter Hot Summer, Mild Winter Warm Summer, Cool Winter Warm Summer, Cool Winter Warm to Cold Summer, Cool to Cold Winter Warm Summer, Cool Winter 0 Scale 1: 10,000,000 0 100 200 300 km 100 200 miles Climatic Stations Working Boundary Coastline International Boundary Line of Control Isoline Province Boundary Legend Airport Pilot Balloon Observatory (AP) (PBO) River Data Not Available ¯ The red dotted line represents approximately the line of control in Jammu & Kashmir. The State of Jammu & Kashmir and its accession is yet to be decided through a plebiscite under the relevant United Nations Security Council Resolutions. Actual boundary in the area where remark FRONTIER UNDEFINED appears, would ultimately be decided by the sovereign authorities concerned after the final settlement of Jammu & Kashmir dispute. *A J & K stands for Azad Jammu & Kashmir as defined in the AJK Interim Constitution Act, 1974. 68° 24° 68° 24° E. of GREENWICH. SIR CREEK k International Boundary along Eastern Bank of the Cree A R A B I A N S E A GULF OF CAMBAY G U L F O F K U T C H I N D I A E. of GREENWICH. 69° 23° 70° 71° 72° 69° 70° 71° 72° 22° 21° 23° 22° 21° JUNAGADH BANTVAMANAVADAR J U N A G A D H JUNAGADH & MANAVADAR Map of climate regions of Pakistan 18

Chapter 2: Water Resources and Management Find out more about rainfall patterns in Pakistan. Look at isohyets and rainfall data in Oxford School Atlas of Pakistan and online to help you think about things a consultant might need to advise a client on the reliability and nature of water supply in a particular region in Pakistan. Mud Mud Mud Mud 28°N 74°E 76°E 72°E 72°E 78°E 70°E 78°E 80°E 68°E 66°E 66°E 62°E 64°E 62°E of Greenwich 64°E 68°E 70°E 34°N 32°N 32°N 28°N 26°N 26°N 24°N 24°N 74°E 76°E 80°E 36°N 36°N 30°N 30°N 34°N Sukkur Dir Rohri PP Chhor Badin Kakul Drosh Bannu Gupis Bunji Astore Sibbi Pasni Kalat Kotli Murree Multan Jhelum Cherat Gilgit Turbat Quetta Jiwani Ormara Padidan Larkana Sialkot Khanpur Chitral Balakot Chillas Panjgur Khuzdar Barkhan Peshawar Nokkundi Lasbela Dalbadin Nawabshah Jacobabad Hyderabad Moenjodaro Lahore(AP) Faisalabad Bahawalpur Parachinar Zhob (PBO) Karachi(AP) Bahawalnagar Saidu Sharif Skardu (PBO) Islamabad(AP) Dera Ismail Khan Muzafarabad Garhi Duppatta Srinagar A F G H A N I S T A N I N D I A IRAN C H I N A B A L O C H I S T A N SINDH PUNJAB G I L G I T - B A L T I S T A N K H Y B E R P A K H T U N K H W A ARABIAN SEA INDIAN ILLEGALLY OCCUPIED JAMMU & KASHMIR (DISPUTED TERRITORY - FINAL STATUS TO BE DECIDED IN LINE WITH RELEVANT UNSC RESOLUTIONS) R a n n o f K u t c h A J & * K Line of Control Working Boundary 125 mm 125 mm 125 mm 125 mm 250 mm 125 mm 250 mm 250 mm 250 mm 500 mm 500 mm 750 mm 750 mm 750 mm 1000 mm 1000 mm 1250 mm 1250 mm 1000 mm 750 mm 750 mm Indus 500 mm 500 mm 250 mm250 mm 250 mm 250 mm Annual Rainfall inches mm 1250 1000 750 500 250 125 49 39 29 19 10 5 Astola Island Churna Island TAJIKISTAN Indus Chenab Hub Ravi Jhelum Sutlej Zhob Swat Gomal Dasht Kabul Hingol Indus Indus Karakoram Pass Sir Creek 0 Scale 1: 10,000,000 0 100 200 300 km 100 200 miles Climatic Stations Working Boundary Coastline International Boundary Line of Control Isoline Province Boundary Legend Airport Pilot Balloon Observatory (AP) (PBO) River Data Not Available ¯ 68° 24° 68° 24° E. of GREENWICH. SIR CREEK k International Boundary along Eastern Bank of the Cree A R A B I A N S E A GULF OF CAMBAY G U L F O F K U T C H I N D I A E. of GREENWICH. 69° 23° 70° 71° 72° 69° 70° 71° 72° 22° 21° 23° 22° 21° JUNAGADH BANTVAMANAVADAR J U N A G A D H JUNAGADH & MANAVADAR The red dotted line represents approximately the line of control in Jammu & Kashmir. The State of Jammu & Kashmir and its accession is yet to be decided through a plebiscite under the relevant United Nations Security Council Resolutions. Actual boundary in the area where remark FRONTIER UNDEFINED appears, would ultimately be decided by the sovereign authorities concerned after the final settlement of Jammu & Kashmir dispute. *A J & K stands for Azad Jammu & Kashmir as defined in the AJK Interim Constitution Act, 1974. Mud Mud Mud Mud 28°N 74°E 76°E 72°E 72°E 78°E 70°E 78°E 80°E 68°E 66°E 66°E 62°E 64°E 62°E of Greenwich 64°E 68°E 70°E 34°N 32°N 32°N 28°N 26°N 26°N 24°N 24°N 74°E 76°E 80°E 36°N 36°N 30°N 30°N 34°N Sukkur Dir Rohri PP Chhor Badin Kakul Drosh Bannu Gupis Bunji Astore Sibbi Pasni Kalat Kotli Murree Multan Jhelum Cherat Gilgit Turbat Quetta Jiwani Ormara Padidan Larkana Sialkot Khanpur Chitral Balakot Chillas Panjgur Khuzdar Barkhan Peshawar Nokkundi Lasbela Dalbadin Nawabshah Jacobabad Hyderabad Moenjodaro Lahore(AP) Faisalabad Bahawalpur Parachinar Zhob (PBO) Karachi(AP) Bahawalnagar Saidu Sharif Skardu (PBO) Islamabad(AP) Dera Ismail Khan Muzafarabad Garhi Duppatta Srinagar A F G H A N I S T A N I N D I A IRAN C H I N A B A L O C H I S T A N SINDH PUNJAB G I L G I T - B A L T I S T A N K H Y B E R P A K H T U N K H W A ARABIAN SEA INDIAN ILLEGALLY OCCUPIED JAMMU & KASHMIR (DISPUTED TERRITORY - FINAL STATUS TO BE DECIDED IN LINE WITH RELEVANT UNSC RESOLUTIONS) R a n n o f K u t c h A J & * K Line of Control Working Boundary 125 mm 125 mm 125 mm 125 mm 250 mm 125 mm 250 mm 250 mm 250 mm 500 mm 500 mm 750 mm 750 mm 750 mm 1000 mm 1000 mm 1250 mm 1250 mm 1000 mm 750 mm 750 mm Indus 500 mm 500 mm 250 mm250 mm 250 mm 250 mm Annual Rainfall inches mm 1250 1000 750 500 250 125 49 39 29 19 10 5 Astola Island Churna Island TAJIKISTAN Indus Chenab Hub Ravi Jhelum Sutlej Zhob Swat Gomal Dasht Kabul Hingol Indus Indus Karakoram Pass Sir Creek 0 Scale 1: 10,000,000 0 100 200 300 km 100 200 miles Climatic Stations Working Boundary Coastline International Boundary Line of Control Isoline Province Boundary Legend Airport Pilot Balloon Observatory (AP) (PBO) River Data Not Available ¯ 68° 24° 68° 24° E. of GREENWICH. SIR CREEK k International Boundary along Eastern Bank of the Cree A R A B I A N S E A GULF OF CAMBAY G U L F O F K U T C H I N D I A E. of GREENWICH. 69° 23° 70° 71° 72° 69° 70° 71° 72° 22° 21° 23° 22° 21° JUNAGADH BANTVA MANAVADAR J U N A G A D H JUNAGADH & MANAVADAR The red dotted line represents approximately the line of control in Jammu & Kashmir. The State of Jammu & Kashmir and its accession is yet to be decided through a plebiscite under the relevant United Nations Security Council Resolutions. Actual boundary in the area where remark FRONTIER UNDEFINED appears, would ultimately be decided by the sovereign authorities concerned after the final settlement of Jammu & Kashmir dispute. *A J & K stands for Azad Jammu & Kashmir as defined in the AJK Interim Constitution Act, 1974. Mud Mud Mud Mud 28°N 74°E 76°E 72°E 72°E 78°E 70°E 78°E 80°E 68°E 66°E 66°E 62°E 64°E 62°E of Greenwich 64°E 68°E 70°E 34°N 32°N 32°N 28°N 26°N 26°N 24°N 24°N 74°E 76°E 80°E 36°N 36°N 30°N 30°N 34°N Sukkur Dir Rohri PP Chhor Badin Kakul Drosh Bannu Gupis Bunji Astore Sibbi Pasni Kalat Kotli Murree Multan Jhelum Cherat Gilgit Turbat Quetta Jiwani Ormara Padidan Larkana Sialkot Khanpur Chitral Balakot Chillas Panjgur Khuzdar Barkhan Peshawar Nokkundi Lasbela Dalbadin Nawabshah Jacobabad Hyderabad Moenjodaro Lahore(AP) Faisalabad Bahawalpur Parachinar Zhob (PBO) Karachi(AP) Bahawalnagar Saidu Sharif Skardu (PBO) Islamabad(AP) Dera Ismail Khan Muzafarabad Garhi Duppatta Srinagar A F G H A N I S T A N I N D I A IRAN C H I N A B A L O C H I S T A N SINDH PUNJAB G I L G I T - B A L T I S T A N K H Y B E R P A K H T U N K H W A ARABIAN SEA INDIAN ILLEGALLY OCCUPIED JAMMU & KASHMIR (DISPUTED TERRITORY - FINAL STATUS TO BE DECIDED IN LINE WITH RELEVANT UNSC RESOLUTIONS) R a n n o f K u t c h A J & * K Line of Control Working Boundary 125 mm 125 mm 125 mm 125 mm 250 mm 125 mm 250 mm 250 mm 250 mm 500 mm 500 mm 750 mm 750 mm 750 mm 1000 mm 1000 mm 1250 mm 1250 mm 1000 mm 750 mm 750 mm Indus 500 mm 500 mm 250 mm250 mm 250 mm 250 mm Annual Rainfall inches mm 1250 1000 750 500 250 125 49 39 29 19 10 5 Astola Island Churna Island TAJIKISTAN Indus Chenab Hub Ravi Jhelum Sutlej Zhob Swat Gomal Dasht Kabul Hingol Indus Indus Karakoram Pass Sir Creek 0 Scale 1: 10,000,000 0 100 200 300 km 100 200 miles Climatic Stations Working Boundary Coastline International Boundary Line of Control Isoline Province Boundary Legend Airport Pilot Balloon Observatory (AP) (PBO) River Data Not Available ¯ 68° 24° 68° 24° E. of GREENWICH. SIR CREEK k International Boundary along Eastern Bank of the Cree A R A B I A N S E A GULF OF CAMBAY G U L F O F K U T C H I N D I A E. of GREENWICH. 69° 23° 70° 71° 72° 69° 70° 71° 72° 22° 21° 23° 22° 21° JUNAGADH BANTVAMANAVADAR J U N A G A D H JUNAGADH & MANAVADAR The red dotted line represents approximately the line of control in Jammu & Kashmir. The State of Jammu & Kashmir and its accession is yet to be decided through a plebiscite under the relevant United Nations Security Council Resolutions. Actual boundary in the area where remark FRONTIER UNDEFINED appears, would ultimately be decided by the sovereign authorities concerned after the final settlement of Jammu & Kashmir dispute. *A J & K stands for Azad Jammu & Kashmir as defined in the AJK Interim Constitution Act, 1974. Annual rainfall map of Pakistan 19

Chapter 2: Water Resources and Management 2.5 Managing Water Resources What problems does Pakistan face with water supply and quality? As a mainly hot-dry country with a large population, and an increasingly intensive agricultural and growing industrial sector, Pakistan faces problems with water supply and quality. This is partly due to over-abstraction, degradation, and human consumption. In Pakistan government and external agencies, and conservation and environmental groups, are concerned about pollution, falling water levels, and waste water disposal. A range of projects are trying to increase awareness about the importance of water care and conservation, while the government works to develop water supply and treatment infrastructure to address water security. Poor water quality due to industrial pollution and acid rain Pakistan faces problems with agricultural chemicals and industrial waste spilling into the rivers and water table. Acid rain (Acid Deposition) is precipitation which has been turned into a very mild acid, of below pH 5.6, by chemical pollutants. This damages plant and animal life, soil, and water over time. For example since the 1950s Punjab has experienced acid rain caused by sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides released into the air by local coal plants. Burning firewood and lowquality coal for cooking in homes also creates acid rain, but given the cost of other fuels and low incomes, it is very difficult to stop this practice. What are the potential solutions in managing water resources? River level control and hydro-electric power generation Although a significant number of river damming projects have been developed holding back the river water has challenges as well as benefits. Reducing a river flow and changing its natural levels has an impact on the ecosystem and wildlife, for example. One benefit of some dam projects is the use water turbines to generate hydroelectric power (HEP), a carbon-neutral green energy gain. However, the investment required is high: Pakistan’s Water and Power Development Authority (WAPDA) has said currently 7320 megawatts (MW) of hydro electricity generation capacity is in operation, but 60,000 MW of hydropower could be generated if more turbines were commissioned. Securing clean water supply Increased water consumption compared to limited supply, especially in high population density areas is a problem. Water Transfer Pipelines are possible, but expensive. Less costly, but not cheap is the development of desalination plants to process sea water into drinking water, or to be suitable for some other uses to conserve purer water. Desalination can produce water which can taste brackish (slightly salty and not very pleasant) after some time, as desalinated water does not store well for long. Water Pollution 20 Desalination plant

Chapter 2: Water Resources and Management Encouraging water conservation Changing habits is hard but is the cheapest and most sustainable approach to all sorts of conservation. Rain water harvesting (collection), and ‘grey water’ use, both provide a supply of uncontaminated but non-potable (non-drinkable) water. Grey water has already been used for another purpose but is not contaminated. Either source can be used instead of treated drinking water, for example for flushing toilets. Equipment producers and consumers must also be encouraged to reduce consumption, for example designing household and industrial machines that use smaller quantities of water, and investing in greener technology. There is growing concern about waste and micro-plastic particles in all of the water around the world. Manufacturers and the public must reduce or end using ‘single use’ plastic containers and must recycle more. In urban areas water meters can be installed to charge people for their actual clean water use. This raises awareness of consumption and changes habits. At a national level, water companies need to be encouraged to conserve water by fixing leaking pipes faster and running public awareness campaigns around conservation and pollution control. Dealing with Waste Water Sewage needs filtration and treatment to be safe. In Pakistan this involves using chlorine to kill the Escherichia coli (E. coli) bacterium in human sewage. Large centres gradually process this waste to prevent ground water, river, and drinking water contamination. Modern technology means that some of the gases produced at the sewage treatment plans and rubbish tips can be used as bio-gas, (gas from animal waste) giving a burnable energy source. Karachi has been experimenting with buses that use the gas given off by cow pats as fuel, for example. Which of these approaches might, in your view, make the most difference to water conservation and quality? What are each’s advantages and disadvantages? • Installing collection systems to capture water from ground runoff. • Preventing pollution of groundwater by people and industry. • Preventing over-abstraction. • Reducing use of nitrates (chemicals to boost crop yields) and drugs in farming. • Cleaning up and reducing the impact of extractive industries like mining and quarrying. Garbage Sewage treatment plant Sewage water can be used for irrigation, aquaculture, and even to fake groundwater recharge. Sewage water has also got many industrial uses such as washing, cooling, etc. 21 Find out more about water use in Pakistan Why do you think there is a scarcity of water in cities?

Test Yourself Section 1: Quiz Questions 1. Define these terms: A. Hydrology. B. Eau Potable C. Evaporation D. Condensation E. Precipitation F. Transpiration 2. What is convectional and relief rainfall? 3. Explore the reasons for low groundwater levels in Pakistan. 4. Explain what acid rain is, and why it is an environmental problem? 5. Design flowcharts describing different water purification methods. 6. Explore and analyse methods of sewage treatment. 7. List and evaluate different ways of using wastewater. 8. What ways can help solve the problem of water shortage in Pakistan? Section 2: Multiple Choice Questions 1. What does the term non-potable water mean? A. Not fit for drinking B. Not suitable for cooking and washing-up C. Not boiled 2. Schistosomiasis is a disease from contaminated water which involves: A. Mosquitoes B. Parasitic wasps C. Parasitic worms 3. LEDC means: A. Lower environmental development category B. Less economically developed country C. Lessened environmental degradation control 4. The water cycle is: A. A process in which water circulates through the environment B. A way of generating hydro-electric power C.Green transport for river areas 5. Precipitation can include: A. Rain, fog, wind. B. Sleet, snow, wind C. Sleet, snow, rain 6. Saturation is: A. The process of water soaking through sand to and aquifer B. So much water soaking into the ground that no more can soak in C. Heavy rain during a cyclone 7. The Western Depression is: A. A rainfall pattern experienced in Pakistan as a result of cyclone season B. A type of river basin in the western part of Sindh C. An atmospheric situation which impacts on barometric pressure at sea 8. Grey water is water which has been used previously and is: A. Heavily contaminated B. Uncontaminated C. Partially contaminated 22

Settlement: A settlement is a site of human habitation. Hunter-gatherers: are people whose survival is based on foraging: hunting local animals and gathering berries, plants, and fruit that are ripe enough to eat 03 Settlements and Land Use Chapter Covered in the chapter: Knowledge • Classify different types of settlements. • Identify the functions of a settlement • Describe how towns are different from cities • Explain the conditions that are suitable for a settlement • Compare two major types of settlements • Identify the major types of settlements in Pakistan • Identify the advantages and disadvantages that people of rural settlements face • Identify the advantages and disadvantages that people of urban settlements face • Describe the difference between conurbations and megapolis Skills • Use maps, GIS or Google Maps to identify different types of settlements of the world. • Gather, organise, and interpret data to investigate the different patterns of settlements and their impact on the lifestyle of people living in them • Investigate how the pattern of the settlement determines the lifestyle of the people living in it • Inquire how commercial land use is different from residential land use • Reflect on why few cities in Pakistan are growing bigger every year • Predict that there will be no land left on Earth if settlements will keep growing at the current pace • Exceeding use of vocabulary to describe physical, human, and environmental geography and economy related to them • Use maps to identify International Date Line • Find the time zone of a major city in each continent on a map. 23

Chapter 3: Settlements and Land Use 3.1 Early settlements and Land Use How and why did settlements develop? Early humans were nomadic. They moved around to places where food was available at different times of the year. They survived by eating what was available, gathering fruit, and berries, hunting wild animals, and trapping or catching fish in rivers. Over a long period of time humans learnt to make tools. Later they discovered that instead of going from one place to another in search of food they could plant the seeds of fruits or other plants and grow them in chosen places. They also learnt that with care, herd animals such as goats, cows, and sheep, and flocks of chickens, could be kept and slaughtered for food at any time. This is also known as Agricultural Revolution or Neolithic (New Stone Age) Revolution. This was when people stopped moving from one place to another, made settlements and started structured land use. People chose spaces for crops and other places for keeping animals, settling in communities as they formed settlements. These settlements became small farms, then villages, and later towns and cities. As early civilisations developed–and farmers became more efficient, specialised occupations also developed due to increased and varied skill levels and types. Some people could become warriors,while others became labourers or weavers and tailors, painters and furniture makers, goldsmiths or musicians. Gradually some people could develop specialised roles and produced things to trade. Bartering or swapping things was later replaced by coins for trading because people were willing to trust tokens to represent wealth. Although living in a settlement is usual in our times, not all people chose to settle in one place. Even today, there are a few groups of people who live like their ancestors as hunter-gatherers, usually in remote jungle areas or regions distant from modern civilisation. There are small groups in vast countries like Australia or in the sparsely populated parts of the other continents, that still follow this ancient and traditional lifestyle. Though this way of life is declining across the world, there still are some tribespeople that migrate with their animals between summer and winter, maintaining centuries old traditions while sometimes also adopting modern clothing and technology. Prehistoric cave art Research hunter-gatherers and nomadic peoples to find out where in the modern world such people still exist. What modern technologies do some of these people use? Which groups still follow very basic, technology free lifestyles? 24

Chapter 3: Settlements and Land Use As human populations developed a range of skills, settlements, and communities, they also started to create different patterns of land use. Some space was set aside for homes or farms, some for agriculture. Towns developed walls for defence, and the idea of land ownership developed. For thousands of years, people with particular skills worked at home in what was called the domestic system. Apart from things like farm work, being a servant or a soldier, it was normal to work from a home workshop as a craftsperson. The idea of factories is only very recent, not yet even 300 years old! What are the characteristics of a civilisation? 1. Larger settlements are able to form; towns and cities grow. 2. Specialised trades and crafts develop beyond farming. 3. The civilisation can produce more than it needs to survive. 4. A ruling group and a merchant group develop and have more wealth than the workers and farmers. 5. The civilisation has organised government and administrators, laws courts, and rules for social conduct and public works. 6. Civilisations can also develop some of these things: • Spoken and perhaps a written language; • Trade networks; • Religion(s) and large scale places of worship; • Support for cultural activities, art, music, or science; • and warfare! Civilisations vary of course, not all languages have a written form or a religion that no one else shares. Sadly it has been common for civilisations to develop rivalries with neighbours and see them as ‘not like us…’ instead of recognising differences as interesting and possibly enriching for a society. Studying settlements is important to understand human and physical geography, as well as history. Which civilisations in the right-hand panel have you heard of? What might make it difficult for us to know more about some of these people? The paved street in Mohenjo-Daro 25 Early Civilisations Sumeria c. 5000–1750bce Tigris-Euphrates valley Indus Valley c. 5000–1500bce Afghanistan, Pakistan and India Egyptians c. 3100–332bce Assyria-Mesopotamia 2500–609bce Middle East Minoans c. 2000–1450bce Crete and around Aegean Sea Mycenae c.1900–1100bce Greece and around Aegean Sea Chinese 2000bce–100bce Olmecs c.1200–500bce Mesoamerica Ancient Greeks 1000–338bce Urartus c.900–590bce Armenia and Eastern Turkey Chavin 900–200bce Peru Romans 754bce–476ce Europe–North Africa Sassanid 224–651ce Iran

3.2 The nature of settlements Geographers classify settlements according to: 1. Population Size – The number of people living in that area. 2. Landscape Setting – Villages on the coast, in mountains, on plateaus and plains, in valleys, forests, and deserts, for example. 3. Layout and Shape – Special terms are used to describe how close together, or how far apart they for smaller settlements: · Dispersed settlements are spread out, perhaps with small fields in-between. The village centre is often the mosque or an economic or cultural feature such as a market. · Compact (or compacted or nucleated) settlements quite close together. In Pakistan examples of these settlements have often developed along river valleys and in fertile plains. Communities in small settlements can be closely knit and share common occupations. · Ribbon settlements or ribbon/linear developments are formed by houses on either side of a road, and there is not much development further away from the road. 4. Functions and Occupations – Sometimes smaller settlements are especially built to serve an economic function, for example based on agriculture and farming, mining, serving a particular industry like a nuclear power station or military base away from larger settlements. What do you think is likely to makes a settlement grow, stagnate, and decline? How might people decide which land to use for animals, which for crops and which for homes? Conurbation City Town Village Hamlet Nucleated Linear Dispersed Isolated dwelling Urban: town or city, Mainly built upon Suburb: edge districts of a town or city, shortened from suburban Rural: Mostly countryside Chapter 3: Settlements and Land Use The major types of settlements include rural, urban, dispersed, and compact settlements. Urban settlements are the most populated and use the most resources and services. 26

Chapter 3: Settlements and Land Use Where on the map above would be the best location for a new village? What would be the advantages and disadvantages of your chosen site? Which of these things do you think would be most important in deciding how to use land? What influences how land is used and where settlements are located? Factors that influence the growth of settlements include: Where would you build? Topography: flat lands with fertile soil encourage the construction of buildings and agricultural practices. Climate: extreme climatic regions discourage settlements due to the harsh living conditions. Moreover areas at a risk of flooding, hurricanes, etc., pose direct risks to human settlements. Food supply: areas of abundant food supplies typically have great population densities. The food supply refers to ready production and easy availability of food resources. Water: from ancient times, settlements develop in areas close to a water source Defense: people tend to settle in places that protect them from external threats and enemies. Hilly and mountainous areas offer a physical protection due to the harsh terrain. Building Material: ready availability of building resources encourages construction activity, and in extension, settlements Leadership/Government religious and political conditions effect settlements. 27

3.3 City, town, or village? People tend to live in places that best suit their needs. People can live in cities which are urban centres with a higher population density, where people have a greater access to infrastructural facilities and services. Towns are like mini-cities since they also have a specific boundary, and usually have a local government. However, the population density of towns is lower than that of cities. A village is a small rural settlement, with a community that is usually dependent on agriculture. What attracts people to towns, cities, and megacities? People move for all sorts of reasons, but usually towns and cities draw people from villages towards them like a magnet, offering facilities such as better infrastructure, jobs, or services, all advertising a higher standard of living. Similarly, people also get encouraged to relocate due to push factors, which are problems they face in their current place of living. What are Push and Pull factors? Geographers sometimes talk about push-pull factors, with the things which force something to happen for less good or negative reasons described as ‘Push’ Factors; and the positive or good reasons for something happening called ‘Pull’ Factors. Push Factors making someone move home might include: Lack of resources; hunger; poverty; unemployment; economic stagnation; poor medical facilities; religious or political persecution; running away from trouble; natural diseases or disasters; difficulties; distress, etc. Pull Factors could include better employment opportunities, higher income or improved working facilities, higher living standards, educational opportunities, improved health facilities, etc. Standard of living is the level of comfort, wealth, and material resources required to sustain a certain way of life. Infrastructure includes the key facilities and systems needed for a complex society to operate. Infrastructure Might include these things… and others Roads Ports Energy Airports Railways Education Healthcare Utilities Social Chapter 3: Settlements and Land Use 28

Chapter 3: Settlements and Land Use How do people choose where to live? When individuals choose where to live, employment and family needs are usually most important, along with how much money they have! Only millionaires have a complete choice about where they live or if they have more than one home! Differences in settlements in Pakistan As you can see in the images A to F, there are many different kinds of settlements present across Pakistan. This is primarily because the topographical structure of Pakistan is very diverse, featuring a coast in the south, and some of the highest peaks in the world in the north of the country. First discuss: What facilities might be found in a village, a small town, and a big city? (A table like this one here might help) Then discuss: Why are there differences in the infrastructure? How do the differences in facilities impact on the lifestyle of the people? How would you expect the economy to be different in villages, towns, or cities? How will land use be likely to be different? Facilities you might find in a… Village Town City Settlement: valley Settlement: village Settlement: town A. B. C. Settlement: industrialised city Settlement: desert Settlement: coastline D. E. F. 29 How does the settlement determine the lifestyle of the people living in it?

3.4 The challenges faced by towns, cities, and megacities For most of the past, towns could be quite small, and even cities were not always very large because the world’s population was much, much smaller than it is today. Even modern towns can face lots of problems because of the size of the population and therefore the amount of land they cover. There were some large cities in the ancient world, in the first century bce, for example, Rome had over a million residents, but as the Roman Empire declined, the population reduced. Baghdad grew to a similar size for several hundred years from the eighth century CE. In modern times, some cities have become so large they can be described as megacities, which are settlements with population of over ten million people. Where are the mega cities? Official population figures are more reliable in some countries than others, but best estimates suggest there are currently more than thirty megacities around the world. Rank City Population (millions) Rank City Population (millions) 1 Tokyo-Yokohama 38.1 11 Dhaka 18.2 2 Delhi 26.4 12 Karachi 17.1 3 Shanghai 24.5 13 Buenos Ares 15.3 4 Mumbai 21.4 14 Kolkata 15 5 Sao Paulo 21.3 15 Tehran 15 6 Beijing 21.2 16 Istanbul 14.4 7 Mexico City 21.2 17 Chongqing 13.7 8 Osaka 20.3 18 Lagos 13.7 9 Cairo 19.1 19 Manila 13.1 10 New York 18.6 29 Guangzhou 13 Experts at the United Nations predict that there will be 41 megacities by 2030. Chapter 3: Settlements and Land Use Cosmopolitan city If settlements continue to grow at the rate in which they are at the moment, do you think there will soon be no land left on Earth? 30 On a blank world map, mark some major cities in each continent. Identify the international date line, and the time zone of each city.

Chapter 3: Settlements and Land Use What are the challenges for large population centres? Any large town, city needs a very large quantity of resources to meet the basic needs of the people—but also to deal with the results of so many people living close together. A megacity has these needs to meet on a huge level. What are the solutions to these challenges? One solution to these problems could be to develop more sustainable settlements, which are not so huge that the needs of the people cannot be met and everyone has a fair standard of living. This is very difficult because not all regions can provide commercial, agricultural and residential land, while also operating without having to bring in things from elsewhere. The standard of living in each region relies on infrastructure, transport, and use of science and technology to keep an economy healthy. However, to keep the people and environment healthy, a balance is necessary between environmental, economic and human needs or there will be no land left on Earth that has not been built upon or impacted on by human actions and resource use. A large population centre needs to provide for: Basic Needs: Water, food, housing supply and quality, resources like raw materials. Economic Needs: Employment, and people with the rights skills and qualifications Infrastructure Needs: Adequate numbers and quality of schools, colleges and universities, medical facilities, roads and railways, public transport network, energy supply (electricity, gas, solar) Physical pollution: Domestic waste, medical waste, human waste, sewerage, dirty water. Air Pollution: Power station, home, vehicle and factory emissions, and fumes The Problems that can develop: Rising food price Housing crisis and overcrowding Slum development Poverty Tax avoidance Rapid population growth Unofficial divide between rich and poor areas Crime Inequality Traffic jams Spread of disease Lack of green spaces Lack of facilities for relaxing Environmental and noise pollution Increase in the built-up area and damage to habitat What practical things would you suggest to reduce the problems and pressures of modern life? Garbage pile/pollution 31

3.5 Settlements and their economic activities Rural settlements People dwelling in rural settlements typically engage in agricultural activities to earn their livelihoods. Land is a significant natural resource, and the degree of its fertility influences the nature of agricultural practices or other economic activities that take place upon it. Agricultural activities include planting and tending to specific crops, managing livestock, and tending to farms and fields. Rural occupations also cater to other economic sectors including forestry, livestock farming, fisheries, business, and trade, etc. Economic activities in rural areas are also linked to many kinds of small-scale industries such as those dedicated to producing handiwork such as embroidery, dressmaking, weaving, pottery making, carving, mirror work, etc. Urban settlements There are a variety of economic activities carried out by those dwelling in urban settlements, which cater to diverse sectors in industry. Urban dwellers can work in health, education, banking, defense, transport, construction, information technology, communications, research, engineering, and many more industries. They take part in a wide range of roles depending upon their education and skillsets. The urban workforce can be broadly categorized into skilled and unskilled (or ‘low-wage’) labour. View of a village in Swat, KPK Hands of a craftsman weaving jute View of a village in Swat, KPK View of a village in Swat, KPK The term ‘unskilled’ labour is outdated. The politically correct term to use is ‘low-wage’ labour. Examples of famous embroidery in Pakistan include Swat embroidery, Sindhi embroidery, Ajrak, Phulkari, cross stitch, Ralli, Balochi Tanka, Dandi Tanka. Each piece of embroidery is unique and is a testament for the craftsperson’s attention to detail. Chapter 3: Settlements and Land Use 32

Chapter 3: Settlements and Land Use Factory welder Cobbler Scientist examining cells Teacher Skilled labour refers to the workforce that has had special training or education/knowledge that they apply to their work. Their skills and knowledge, obtained through higher education and experience, allows them to be more productive, creative, and more profitable to their organization. Examples of skilled labour include medical professionals, teachers, engineers, scientists, etc. Low-wage labour refers to those workers who have little to no formal training for their role. They are usually employed for doing those tasks that do not require one to have an educational degree. Examples of low-wage jobs include housekeepers, construction labourers, welders, etc. 33

Test Yourself Section 1: Quiz Questions 1. Define: A. Settlement. B. Village C. Megalopolis D. Conurbation 2. What is a hunter-gatherer way of life? 3. Conduct research on the way commercial land use is different from resident land use. 4. Investigate the different patterns of settlements and their impact on the lifestyle of people living in them. 5. What is a megacity? Name three megacities, and list the major problems they face. 6. On a blank map of Pakistan, mark the different type of settlements across the country. Remember to include a title and a key in your map. 7. Using online and print sources, explore the different ways the world has changed over time in terms of the settlements across it. 8. Explain the idea of push and pull factors, using at least one example of each. Section 2: Multiple Choice Questions 1. Nomadic means: A. people who move around, B. people who are settled in one place. C. people who farm. 2. A dispersed village is made up of buildings which are: A. very close together. B. spread out. C. along one side of a road. 3. An isolated settlement is a small number of buildings or single building: A. a long way from the city centre. B. in an industrial area. C. away from other settlements. 4. A ribbon settlement is: A. a narrow development built along a road. B. built in a loop. C. along a railway. 5. Baghdad reached what number of residents around the eight century CE? A. ½ a million. B. 1 million. C. 1.5 million. 6. The term ‘Topography’ refers to: A. Land quality. B. The form and features of land surfaces. C. How high land is compared to sea level. 7. The term ‘Standard of living’ refers to: A. The job or profession someone has. B. The quality of home someone has. C.The level of comfort, wealth, and material resources for an individual. 8. The term ‘Infrastructure’ refers to: A. The key facilities in a settlement. B. How advanced the sanitation and water supply are in a place. C. The extent of internet connectivity in a settlement. 34