Secondary Geography Book-8

Dean Smart for Grade 8 3 Book Secondary Geography for Pakistan

T.V

iii An Introduction to Secondary Geography by Dean Smart Learning about Geography Studying geography offers the opportunities to: • develop an understanding of the physical geography of Earth, learning about the different continents and oceans, their environments, and threats to the biosphere. • know and understand the key features of our country, region, and the world more widely. • develop an understanding of human geography: population characteristics, human settlement, and economic activities. • understand the significance of environmental geography: the importance of protecting fauna and flora, natural resources and the climate, and how mankind’s interventions with each impacts on economics, human populations, and sustainability. • develop geographical skills: critical engagement and problem solving, using globes, maps, satellite, and aerial photographs; knowing about key technologies used by geographers in a variety of settings geographic information system (GIS), remote sensing, and global positioning systems (GPS).

iv Chapter Page Introduction: Using Geographical Data vii Chapter 1: Oceans and seas • Construct arguments and provide evidence for the understanding of Earth’s processes and patterns and how landscapes are changing constantly. (Features and movements of oceans) • Recall and describe some patterns of distribution of water in some selected geographical regions of the world. (Oceans and seas of the world) • Inquire about the impact of pollution due to human activity in oceans and seas of the world. • Identify how places are interdependent on each other and how human activity in one place affects others. (Water pollution in oceans) • Reflect on their role (Find ways) to improve the quality of their own and global environment. (Effects of the rising of sea level). • Interpret required information using maps, globes, photographs, aerial photographs, satellite images, and graphs to inquire about geographical changes of a selected region or a landform. • Use a range of multiple sources such as Google Maps, satellite images, photographs, diagrams, GPS, GIS, newspaper articles, thematic maps, and field trips to derive information of physical, human, and environmental geography of Pakistan and of the world to reach and support personal conclusions and critique with credibility. 1 Chapter 2: Living with the Climate • Study the distribution of climate in the world. • Investigate how and why our climate is changing. (Extreme weather) • Reflect on their role (Find ways) to improve the quality of their own and global environment (global warming and climate change) • Discover differences in lifestyles of two different settlements to appreciate and respect diversity. (People living in any two different climatic zones) • Interpret required information using maps, globes, photographs, aerial photographs, satellite images, and graphs to inquire about geographical changes of a selected region or a landform. • Investigate geographical, climatic, political, cultural, and economic aspects of places using geographic representations and geospatial technologies. • Use a range of multiple sources such as Google Maps, satellite images, photographs, diagrams, GPS, GIS, newspaper articles, thematic maps, and field trips to derive information of physical, human, and environmental geography of Pakistan and of the world to reach and support personal conclusions and critique with credibility. • Use sophisticated and appropriate vocabulary to describe growing issues connected to physical, human, and environmental geography and economy related to them. 13 Book 8 iv

v Chapter 3: Environmental Pollution • Investigate how and why our climate is changing. (Pollution and global warming) • Examine how weather and climate affect the processes of the Earth. (Global warming and climate change) • Identify how places are interdependent on each other and how human activity in one place affects others. (Pollution and climate change) • Understand and describe the effects of excess land use. (Global warming and its effects) • Reflect on their role (Find ways) to improve the quality of their own and global environment. (Reducing greenhouse gases and carbon footprint) • Find ways to utilise and conserve resources. (Reducing greenhouse gases and carbon footprint) • Demonstrate efficient use of resources in scarcity (reuse and recycle) • Interpret required information using maps, globes, photographs, aerial photographs, satellite images, and graphs to inquire about geographical changes of a selected region or a landform. • Investigate geographical, climatic, political, cultural, and economic aspects of places using geographic representations and geospatial technologies. • Use a range of multiple sources such as Google Maps, satellite images, photographs, diagrams, GPS, GIS, newspaper articles, thematic maps, and field trips to derive information of physical, human, and environmental geography of Pakistan and of the world to reach and support personal conclusions and critique with credibility. • Use sophisticated and appropriate vocabulary to describe growing issues connected to physical, human, and environmental geography and the economy related to them. 27 Chapter 4: Industrialisation and International Trade • Study a selected infrastructure to understand adaptation according to human needs. (Industrialisation) • Investigate economic development related to natural, capital, and human resources. (Textile and cotton industry of Pakistan) • Evaluate (Describe) that the economic progress of a region relies upon the specialisation of resources through education, scientific research, and technology. (Exports of Pakistan) • Analyse that high revenues can be generated by exporting finished goods through technological advancements, marketing trends, and professional ethics. (Exports of Pakistan) • Identify how places are interdependent and how human activity in one place affects others. (Industrialisation) • Describe the basic role of global economic institutions (and activities). (International Trade Organisations) • Analyse and describe the basics of global economic systems and interdependence of a selected region. (International trade) • Demonstrate efficient use of resources in scarcity. • Interpret required information using maps, globes, photographs, aerial photographs, satellite images, and graphs to inquire about geographical changes of a selected region or a landform. • Investigate geographical, climatic, political, cultural, and economic aspects of places using geographic representations and geospatial technologies. • Use a range of multiple sources such as Google Maps, satellite images, photographs, diagrams, GPS, GIS, newspaper articles, thematic maps, and field trips to derive information of physical, human, and environmental geography of Pakistan and of the world to reach and support personal conclusions and critique with credibility. • Use sophisticated and appropriate vocabulary to describe growing issues connected to physical, human, and environmental geography and the economy related to them. 37

vi Chapter 5: Transport and its Importance • Study a selected infrastructure to understand adaptation according to human needs. (CPEC, development in transport) • Find out factors that contribute to developing places into settlements. (Transport in and around Pakistan, international routes of Pakistan) • Investigate economic activities related to natural, capital, and human resources. (Transport in and around Pakistan, international routes of Pakistan) • Evaluate (Describe) that the economic progress of a region relies upon the specialisation of resources through education, scientific research, and technology. (Developments in transport and information technology) • Identify how places are interdependent on each other and how human activity in one place affects others. (Development in transport and its benefits) • Interpret required information using maps, globes, photographs, aerial photographs, satellite images, and graphs to inquire about geographical changes of a selected region or a landform. • Investigate geographical, climatic, political, cultural, and economic aspects of places using geographic representations and geospatial technologies. • Use a range of multiple sources such as Google Maps, satellite images, photographs, diagrams, GPS, GIS, newspaper articles, thematic maps, and field trips to derive information of physical, human, and environmental geography of Pakistan and of the world to reach and support personal conclusions and critique with credibility. • Use sophisticated and appropriate vocabulary to describe growing issues connected to physical, human, and environmental geography and economy related to them. 49 Chapter 6: Social and Economic Development • Inquire and describe some local, regional, and global patterns of distribution and consumption of resources of some selected regions of the world. (Measuring development) • Investigate economic activities related to natural, capital, and human resources. (Economic indicators) • Evaluate (Describe) that the economic progress of a region relies upon the specialisation of resources through education, scientific research, and technology. (Economic and human indicators of development) • Analyse that high revenues can be generated by exporting finished goods through technological advancements, marketing trends, and professional ethics. • Study a selected infrastructure to understand adaptation according to human needs. (Comparison of the development of one developed country and Pakistan) • Interpret required information using maps, globes, photographs, aerial photographs, satellite images, and graphs to inquire about geographical changes of a selected region or a landform. • Investigate geographical, climatic, political, cultural, and economic aspects of places using geographic representations and geospatial technologies. • Use a range of multiple sources such as Google Maps, satellite images, photographs, diagrams, GPS, GIS, newspaper articles, thematic maps, and field trips to derive information of physical, human, and environmental geography of Pakistan and of the world to reach and support personal conclusions and critique with credibility. • Use sophisticated and appropriate vocabulary to describe growing issues connected to physical, human, and environmental geography and economy related to them. 57

vii Introduction: Using Geographical Data Topics covered in the section: • Dot and choropleth methods used in map making • techniques of drawing different maps and diagrams • Use of statistical data for diagrams. • Use of diagrams and line, bar and pie graphs using statistical data • Value of maps and diagrams • Use of modern technology in geography • Satellites, satellite image, aerial photographs, computers, geographical information systems, and computer modelling in geography

viii Geographical Specialisms and Related Disciplines Our focus on what we want to know determines what information to look for, how to select relevant data, and what to do with that data. When very specialised fields of enquiry develop, whole disciplines of study can be created. While studying Geography, you should focus on different skills and knowledge in relation to three types of geographical specialisms, namely, physical, environmental, and human geography. Bear in mind that these disciplines often overlap, and the study of them is very detailed. Physical Geography focuses on the natural features of the Earth on or near its surface. It can include a study of the rocks and soil, climate, bodies of water, the plants and animals, Environmental Geography considers the nature of the environment and the impact of natural processes and human action on the environment. Human Geography is a study of how people use, impact and change the land and seas, for example, how resources are used, where people live and why. To make things even more complex, there can be sub-divisions within each of the three categories, or specialisms that operate across them, such as coastal studies or regional geographies. Introduction: Using Geographical Data Physical Geography Environmental Geography Human Geography What sorts of jobs and professions do you think people who have studied particular specialist areas of geography might do? Geography was established as an academic subject when some of the researchers involved started to develop specialisms in the discipline.

ix Introduction: Using Geographical Data Some more geographical specialisms What Specialist Tools do geographers use? Geographers have access to some high-tech tools to help them gather data for their work, as you’ll see in section 1.3. Remote sensing and Remote Imaging is based on satellite monitoring and photography which gives data about events on the Earth’s surface. Wireless communication sends the data to remote monitoring stations. Geographic Information Systems (GIS) are computer-based databases of geographic information, which can be used to pick out chosen features, compare datasets, and plot information onto different types of maps and diagrams. The power of computer memories and careful programming allows very fast and accurate manipulation of very large bodies of data, and sophisticated calculations and representations. Both of these can aid cartography: the production of maps. Geolocation software is now available in many places of the world- since mobile phones use some of the technology to track where you are in relation to other places. Into which category or categories would you place each of the above mentioned specialisms? Physical, Environmental or Human Geography? What do you think Political Geography and Economic Geography focus on? Find out more about digital mapping and the e-technology modern geographers use. Cryosphere Geography Studies of what we learn by observing masses of ice. Geomorphology The study of physical landforms ‘Feature’ and ‘Phenomenon’ Geographies Studies of hazards e.g. tsunamis and volcanoes, of distributions of religions, or plants, disease and other things in relation to place and distribution. Political Geography involves the study of the outcomes of political processes in terms of their impact to spacial structures. It involves the boundaries/size of countries, the distribution of natural resources (based on trade or war), etc. Marine Geography The study of seas and oceans. Population Geography Patterns of location, birth, death, migration Aerial view of an area Satellite

x Visual representations in maps What does cartography mean? The word ‘cartography’ originates from the Greek word ‘chartēs’ meaning a papyrus map. Papyrus is a form of paper that originated in Ancient Egypt. It was made from thin lengths of river reed pressed together and dried. Today cartography refers to the study and creation of maps. A cartographer can be a map maker or map specialist. Geographers use many different types of map and charts, and a variety of graphics. Maps can be described as diagrammatic representations of information or data regarding a small or large area/region. Being able to understand and interpret maps and charts is an important part of the visual literacy and skill-set required to be a geographer. For everyone else, it is a skill that makes it easier to navigate in a complex world. What is a distribution map? Distribution maps show the distribution of specific features across an area, showing how common or numerous some things are in a space. Thematic maps help us understand key features of an area. The quantitative data (number or frequency-based data) represented is population density, or the number of people per square kilometre. Qualitative data is not based on counting things, it includes opinions and descriptive data that is not centered on frequencies. These details give information about the characteristics of an area. Infographics comes from the blending of the words: information and graphics, and refers to sharing information in well-designed diagrams and the visual representations of information. Infographics are used in many forms of media, from newspapers and books to television news and documentaries. What sorts of data would work well on a distribution map? Have a look at some examples in your Oxford School Atlas for Pakistan. Distribution map of the world showing climatic regions Introduction: Using Geographical Data

xi 0 0 0 0 0 0 500 1000 1000 1000 1500 0 500 1500 1000 1000 0 0 0 0 0 0 500 500 500 500 1000 1000 1000 1000 1500 1500 1500 2000 2000 0 0 500 500 1000 1500 2500 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 500 1000 1000 Signy (UK) Orcadas (Argentina) Scott Base (NZ) McMurdo (USA) Halley (UK) Maitri (India) Novolazarevskaya (Russia) AmundsenScott (USA) SANAE (SA) Asuka (Japan) Mawson (Australia) Molodezhnaya (Russia) Syowa (Japan) Mirnyy (Russia) Zhongshan (China) Davis (Australia) Vostok (Russia) Dumont d’Urville (France) Casey (Australia) r A git sa U( ur guay) i K gn eS oj gn S( Ko . er a) uJ ab yn A( gr ent ni a) r A t c wo ks i P( o al nd) oC mm na t d e eF r ar z B( ar zi )l eG B. n r e an dr Oo H’ ig i g sn C( i h el ) aC ti p ná r A ut or r P t a C( il h e) aP ml r e U( SA) Fa ar ad y (UK) sE ep ranza A( gr ne nit ) a th oR ar e KU( ) l S ar eneG Mna nitr a Ar ( neg nit ) a V ci ec mo odo or Ma ar mbio A( gr ent ni a) A( gr ent ni a) General Georg von Neumayer G( e mr any) Be gl rano II Ma sr h (Chile) G er a Wt all (China) Bell ni gshausen Ru ( ssia) Rodolfo Ten ei n et S O U T H E R N O C E A N GNI LLEB NESUAHS AES AMUNDSEN SEA SEA W DE DELL SEA ROSS rake D ssaP e ag CS TO AI SEA SOUTHERN OCEAN B ya Co vl oco er ss e Falkland Islands (UK) South Shetland Islands South Orkney Islands Alexander Island Berkner Island 4897 Vørterkaka Nunatak 3630 in V Mnos sa i s f SOUTH AMERICA AFRICA AUSTRALIA T r a n s a n t a r c t i c M o u n t a i n s Cape Horn Larsen Ice Shelf R o s s I c e S h e l f Ronne Ice Shelf Filchner Ice Shelf Coats Land Kemp Land Enderby Land Lambert Glacier Amery Ice Shelf Cape Darnley Queen Mary Land Wilhelm II Land Princess Elizabeth Land George V Land W i l k e s L a n d Palmer Land Grah ma Byrd Land Marie swll E htro naL d Dronning Maud Land Land Antarctic Peninsula Victoria Land Adel ei Land SOUTH POLE 2800 metres above sea level South Magnetic Pole (2004) A N T A R C T I C A pack ice - average autumn minimu m pack ice - average spring maximum pack ci e - ave ar ge ua mut n i m mi n mu I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I A R C T I C O C E A N Gulf of Alaska B E R I N G S E A gnire B ra t S ti CHUKCHI SEA B I EASTSI ER AN SEA BEAUFORT SEA AmundsenGulf Gulf ofBoothia LAPTEV SEA B ARENTS SEA AK AR AES Gulf of Ob Baffin Bay Denmark Strait GREENLAND ON WR GE AI N ES A WHITE SEA f o lf uG hto B ai n SE Wrangel A Island New Siberian Islands Banks Island Prince of Wales Island Vi ot c air Me vl il el Devon Island Prince Patrick Island Zemlya Severnaya Novaya Zemlya Sva bl ard Franz oJ sef L na d Ellesmere Island Baf nif sI al dn Jan Mayen (Norway) sI al nd Is nal d Verkhoyansk Kazach’ye Prudhoe Bay Barrow Inuvik Nordvik Dikson Amderma Nar’yan Mar Alert Upernavik Uummannaq Kangerlussuaq Nuuk Ittoqqortoormiit Tromso Apatity Narvik Magadan Murmansk Arkhangel’sk Oulu Helsinki Trondheim Reykjavik Anchorage Oslo Stockholm St. Petersb urg Mt. McKinley 6194 –3800 –4321 –730 –5449 Mont Forel 3360 –3690 –3970 Hekla 1491 –2875 U S A RUSSIAN FEDERATION C A N A D A G reenland (Denm ark) WR O N Y A WS DE NE F INLAND ICELAND ESTON AI LATV AI LITHU AN AI (RUSSIA) BELARU S L. Onega L. Ladoga Yukon Ko yl ma Lena N.Dvina A l a s k a R a e g n Brooks Range Chukots K k oryak Range Ko yl ma Range Cherskogo Range V e r k h o y a ns k Ra n g e Range K ma cha kt a A l e u t i a n I s l a n d s C. Lisburne Chukotsk Peninsula Kolyma Lowland C. Bathurst NORTH POLE Taymyr Peninsula North Cape International Date Line unnav gi ab el po al r ci e pack ice - average autumn m ni mi um pack ci e - average spr ni mg ax mi mu o N htr a M gnet ci oP el 2( 00 4) A B East Antarctic Ice Sheet Transantarctic Mountains ice sea level land below sea level horizontal scale 1 cm to 400 km Ross Ice Shelf West Antarctic Ice Sheet ice A section through the Antarctic ice sheet (from the Bellingshausen Sea to Colvocoresses Bay) metres 3000 2000 1000 SL 1000 2000 A B 60°E Arctic Circle Arctic Circle International Date Line An at ct r ci C ri cle 50°E 70°E 120°E 130°E 40°E 30°E 20°E 10°E 0° 10°W 20°W 30°W 40°W 50°W 60°W 70°W 90°W 100°W 110°W 120°W 130°W 140°W 150°W 160°W 170°W 180° 170°E 160°E 150°E 140°E 60°S 60°S 85°S 80°S 75°S 70°S 65°S 60°S 65°S 60°S 55°S 180° 170°E 170°W 160°W 150°W 140°W 130°W 120°W 110°W 100°W 90°W 80°W 70°W 60°W 40°W 40°W 30°W 20°W 0° 20°E 30°E 40°E 110°E 90°E 80°E 70°E 60°E 50°E 130°E 120°E 140°E 150°E 65°N 60°N 85°N 80°N 75°N 70°N 50°N 0 400 800 1200 1600 2000 km Scale 1: 40 000 000 © Oxford University Press Zenithal Equidistant Projection Arctic Ocean Antarctica 63 What is a Choropleth Map? This word Choropleth has Greek origin, and is a combination of the terms for area and multitude (frequency). A choropleth map shows distribution or frequency, and represents them with dots. Each dot represents a set of quantity of what is being counted—the more the dots, the higher the frequency of the item represented. In some variants (versions) of such a map, the dots are bigger to represent larger density of the things being counted—the dots might also be shaded or coloured to help show density. What do the lines on a map mean? The name given to the lines on maps and charts depends on what is being shown: Temperature maps show isotherm lines, pressure maps show isobars, and rainfall maps isohyets. In the example on the right, the height above sea level in Antarctica is being shown. Local or large-scale maps might show micro-relief features: changes over a very short distance. For example changes in relief (land height above sea level) per 15 meters. Why might this type of map be good for ‘getting general information quickly’; why might you need other sources to ‘get the detail’? Excerpt of a relief map of Antarctica Choropleth map of the world showing population density Introduction: Using Geographical Data

xii Representing data in geography Representing geographical data visually can take lots of forms. Each form has its particular advantages and drawbacks. Before using a particular graph, it is important to consider which graph can best showcase your data. Bar Charts Bar graphs, or bar charts, are used to represent data as vertical columns (bars). While the X axis indicates the type of data, the Y axis highlights the value of the data in question. Bar graphs are great for mapping changes in data over time, or the differences in data in terms of value. Line graph showing Pakistan’s population Bar chart showing Percentage of the main religions in the total world population 0 10 20 30 40 Buddhist Hindu Muslim Christian Others 7% 15% 25% 31% 26% per cent The order in which the categories are shown can be swapped in bar charts, without disrupting the meaning, but not in histograms. In the given examples, the religions could be in any order, but the histogram on the following page would make no sense unless it was in age order. 1941 1951 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001 2007 2017 220 200 180 160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 Millions Key Male Female Total 1941 1951 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001 2007 2017 220 200 180 160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 Millions Key Male Female Total Line Graphs Line graphs, also called linear graphs, are continuous representations of data to show the correlation of things. The adjoining line graph shows the trends relating to the levels of population over time, comparing the data for both men and women (as demonstrated by lines of different colours). Typically, line graphs show two variables particularly time which is plotted against the quantity of whatever is being represented. The variables in question are marked on the two axises. The names of the two axises 0 y axis x axis Introduction: Using Geographical Data

xiii Pie Diagrams Pie diagrams (also called pie charts) represent data using a circle divided into sections (like slices of a cake!) to represent relative quantities of items being compared. Since a circle has 360˚ and can be split into a 100 segments, every 3.6 degrees is equivalent to 1% of the total circle. In the given example, Sindhi speakers in Pakistan are 10% of the population, and so have a 10 x 3.6 share in the pie chart— making a 36˚ slice of the ‘pie’ or total. What are the advantages of the pyramid bar chart and the pie chart? Could you list any drawbacks? The World Bank’s website has an excellent range of maps to visually represent national data. Ask the experts What is the difference? Both bar charts and histograms represent information using rectangular columns. While, bar charts are used to compare different items, perhaps with uneven time gaps, only histograms are used to show variables of only one type over a particular sequence of time. Histograms Histograms represent continuous data, organising it into specific logical ranges (also called 'bins'). The height of each bar typically represents the number of times a certain value is placed in a bin. Double histograms, as shown in the adjoining image, can help people make comparisons between data of two different sets of people. Punjabi Pushto Siraiki Sindhi Urdu Balochi Others other Hindko 44% 15% 10% 14% 4% 4.6% 7.50% Punjabi Pushto Siraiki Sindhi Urdu Balochi Others other Hindko 44% 15% 10% 14% 4% 4.6% 7.50% Pie chart showing the incidence of languages spoken in Pakistan Double histogram showing the population of Pakistan in terms of age, and across genders. Introduction: Using Geographical Data

xiv Global Positioning Software (GPS) allows you, and your telephone company to know exactly where you are in the world provided you have a phone signal, because the connection is made via local telephone masts, and from those to satellites hovering over the Earth. There are remote locations, where connections are not possible, and some weather conditions also disrupt signals. We can use a mobile phone to navigate maps and directions, see weather predictions, and access local information based on our location, by using GPS. Ships and aeroplanes also use GPS. Technology in geography The late twentieth century saw a rapid increase in the range and sophistication of technological devices that can assist in oceanography, cartography, geospatial location finding, and analysis. The functionality of computers and communications software made huge leaps in portability (size and weight), cost, and function. In summation, technology has improved with time. The typical portable telephone now has a long battery life, an excellent camera, and a range of applications (apps) that give it a huge potential as a source of information, calculation, and support for the owner, especially when connected to the Internet Satellites and Satellite Images help find location, map, and monitorgeographical events, and enable predictions of weather and other natural events and disasters. Geographical Information Systems (GIS) are computer-based software programs, that handle large-scale databases, which allow fast storage, retrieval, and sorting of data. GIS also allows comparisons to be made between information. This technology uses human brain-like power to analyse the data in new ways and reach conclusions faster than in the past. NASA image of the Atacama Desert in Western Chile Accuracy for navigation and business is so important that geographic digital information has its own international quality standard: ISO/TC 211. Find out more about how computers store and categorise information, and how computer modelling in Geography uses statistics and data to make predictions. Introduction: Using Geographical Data

xv Aerial Photographs are images of an area that have been taken by using a drone, a small aircraft, a helicopter, or a satellite. This photography technique helps evaluate specific sites and assists in regional analysis. Oblique aerial photographs are images taken by fixed or hand-held cameras at a tilted angle to the item being photographed. Vertical (or overhead) aerial photographs are images taken by cameras fixed directly beneath aircraft (at a 90-degree angle) to capture a plan-like view directly above the target. Oblique Aerial photograph of Taxila Vertical or Overhead Aerial photograph of Mohenjo Daro What uses can you think of for aerial photography? Find out more about the Survey of Pakistan, the national mapping and land survey agency: surveyofpakistan.gov.pk Find out more about map scale. What is the difference in the nature of 1:50,000; 1:250,000 and 1:1,000,000 scale maps. Why are computers and large bed (wide) printers so useful for cartography? Oblique photograph Vertical photograph Drone Introduction: Using Geographical Data

xvi Test Yourself Section 1: Quiz Questions 1. Explain the terms Human, Physical, and Environmental Geography. 2. How are cartography and other infographics beneficial to geographers? 3. What is the difference between quantitative data and qualitative data? 4. Describe the lines and features on a map and their meaning. 5. How does a choropleth map display frequency? 6. How can we differentiate between bar graphs and histograms? 7. Explain how pie graphs show data. Use an example in your answer. 8. Define GPS and GIS, and describe practical applications of both. 9. Describe uses of aerial photographing and the two varieties of aerial photographs. 10. Why are satellites useful to geographers? 11. Explain the notion of ‘scale’ on maps. Section 2: Multiple Choice Questions 1. What is a map maker called? A. geographer B. topographer C. cartographer 2. A weather map is an example of which of the following categories? A. distribution maps B. thematic maps C. relief maps 3. Which of the following data is number or frequency based? A. simulative data B. quantitative data C. qualitative data 4. Which map shows Isobars? A. temperature map B. pressure map C. rainfall map 5. What term best describes micro relief features on a map? A. changes over a very short period of time B. changes over a very long distance C. changes over a very short distance 6. How does a choropleth map show distribution or frequency? A. vertical lines B. horizontal lines C. dots 7. How many degrees are equivalent to 1% of the total circle in a pie chart? A. 36 B. 3.6 C. 0.36 8. Temperature maps show isotherm lines, pressure maps show isobars, and rainfall maps show what? A. Isohyets B. Isotherms C. Isosceles 9. A double histogram is sometimes called a: A. Triangle diagram B. Pyramid diagram C. Umbrella diagram 10. GPS is the abbreviation for which of the following? A. Geography position system B. Global position statistic C. Global positioning system

1 01 Oceans and Seas Chapter Covered in the chapter: Knowledge • Differentiate between seas and oceans. • Describe the location, total area, and marine biodiversity of major oceans of the world. • Describe the location, total area, and importance of the Arabian Sea in context of economic activities in Pakistan. • Describe and differentiate between different sea features • such as island, peninsula, isthmus, gulf, bay, and strait. • Explain the movements of ocean water and the role of ocean currents in it. • Explain the importance of oceans in our lives. • Identify ways in which oceans act as a source of food for the world. • Identify the role of marine biodiversity in our environment. • List down all possible threats the oceans are facing Skills • Use maps, GIS and Google Maps to identify different seas and oceans of the world. • Inquire how climate change is affecting seas and oceans. • Inquire and gather data about various seas and oceans around the world. • Gather, organise, and interpret data to investigate reasons for pollution in oceans. • Discuss and formulate questions about the use of ocean water as a source of food. Evaluate some sustainable ways of that use. • Evaluate the consequences of the rising sea level. • Compare the Indian Ocean with the Pacific Ocean.

2 1.1 The Blue Planet The world of oceans and seas From space, as the Sun’s light shines on the Earth, the planet looks blue because 71% of its surface is covered with water. In reality it is one huge ‘world ocean’, which has been divided into five oceans and numerous seas in order to make navigation and map making easier. There are also some inland (landlocked) seas that are not a continuous part of the World Ocean. The first man to see the Earth from space was the Russian cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin. He made one orbit of the Earth in 1961 in his Vostok 1 spacecraft. After he returned to Earth he wrote: ‘Orbiting Earth in the spaceship, I saw how beautiful our planet is. People, let us preserve and increase this beauty, not destroy it!’ Oceans and seas are important because they transfer heat to the poles from the equator and thus are responsible for regulating the Earth’s weather patterns. Phytoplankton, which are tiny organisms that live in water, produce around 50% of the world’s oxygen, thus ensuring that oceans help us breathe! Seas and oceans are also a great source of food, while also being responsible for absorbing large amounts of carbon dioxide from the environment! Chapter 1: Oceans and Seas The International Law of the Sea uses the term World Ocean, but also refers to it as a sea. So legally an ocean is also a sea. The difference between an ocean and a sea is size, but people quite often use the term ‘the sea’ when they are talking about part or all of an ocean. The oceans and their seas Sea Area km3 Ocean Arabian Sea 3,862,000 Indian South China Sea 3,500,000 Pacific Weddell Sea 2,800,000 Southern Caribbean Sea 2,754,000 Atlantic Mediterranean Sea 2,500,000 Atlantic Bay of Bengal 2,172,000 Indian Bering Sea 2,000,000 Pacific Sea of Okhotsk 1,583,000 Pacific Gulf of Mexico 1,550,000 Atlantic East China Sea 1,249,000 Pacific Hudson Bay 1,230,000 Atlantic Sea of Japan 977,980 Pacific Ross Sea 637,000 Southern Bering Sea Hudson Bay Gulf of Mexico Caribbean Sea Arabian Sea Bay of Bengal South China Sea East China Sea Mediterranean Sea Sea of Japan Sea of Okhotsk Try searching online with the phrase ‘Alexey Akindinov Gagarin’s breakfast’. The artist is having some fun with visual jokes, partly related to Gagarin’s sense of humour.

3 Chapter 1: Oceans and Seas Major oceans of the world Pacific Ocean The Pacific Ocean is the largest and deepest ocean in the world, with a maximum depth of 10,911m (35,797 ft). It stretches from the Arctic Ocean in the north, to the Southern Ocean in the south, nestled between the four continents Asia, Australia, North and South America. As its size can attest, the Pacific is also home to the greatest number of marine species than any other oceanic basin. Prominent inhabitants include the largest variety of coral reef species, deep sea sponges, hundreds of groundfish species (e.g., Pacific cods, lingcod, ling fish, etc.), along with a range of marine invertebrate predators such as nudibranchs, octopuses, sea stars, etc. Atlantic Ocean The Atlantic Ocean is the second-largest ocean in the world. It is also called the ‘wildest ocean in the world’ or the ‘Wild Atlantic’ since it is characterized by fierce hurricanes, powerful currents, and underwater volcanoes. Due to these powerful, temperamental conditions, the Atlantic plays a key role in influencing the weather and climate of the mid-latitude Northern Hemisphere. The Atlantic has also facilitated global travel and trade due to its strategic position on the globe. This ocean is also known for the movement of its current based on changes in temperature and salinity. The Atlantic is home to a rich variety of marine life, including many species of turtles, mollusks, dolphins, and pinnipeds such as seals. It is also home to the remaining 400 North Atlantic right whales, a species famously teetering towards extinction due to poaching and climatic changes. Indian Ocean The Indian Ocean is the third-largest ocean of the five, positioned between Asia, Africa, and Australia, and extending towards Antarctica. This ocean is known for having several tectonic plate boundaries, as well as having water with the lowest oxygen content. The Indian Ocean is also the only one that has an asymmetric and (in the north) a semiannually reversing surface circulation. Due to its central position on the globe, the Indian Ocean is also the hottest ocean of all, and is peppered with many tropical islands. Lagoon of Huahine, Pacific Ocean Storm raging across the Atlantic Ocean Coconut Island (Mary’s Island); located in the Arabian Sea The Pacific Ocean got its name when the Portuguese navigator Ferdinand Magellan accidentally ventured into the unfamiliar ocean in 1520, and called it “Pacific” because of the calmness of the water at the time (‘pacific’ means ‘peaceful’). The Atlantic Ocean covers 20% of the Earth’s surface.

4 The Arabian Sea is famously located in the Indian Ocean, present between the Arabian Peninsula, the Horn of Africa, Iran, Pakistan, and India. The Arabian Sea is a significant historical trade route linking Asia with Europe and the western world through the Suez Canal. Over time, the Indus River has cut a deep submarine canyon while also depositing an abyssal cone in the northeastern floor of the Arabian Sea. This water body is home to Pelagic fish such as tuna, sharks, wahoo, gillfish, and moonfish. The Arabian Sea is particularly important for Pakistan as it is a source of livelihood for fishermen, and those connected to this industry. Moreover, over 95% of Pakistan’s trade comes through Port Qasim and Karachi Port, with Karachi being the major port city of the country. Recently, Gwadar Port is also being developed. The Arabian Sea is what facilitates Pakistan’s geo-strategic importance in the region and the world at large. Arctic Ocean As its name suggests, the Arctic Ocean roughly centres the Arctic (the North Pole), sharing borders with Eurasia and North America. It is the world’s smallest and shallowest, and coldest ocean. It has a diverse marine life, with many different species of seals, walruses, whales, as well as plankton, and polar bears. Southern (Antarctic) Ocean The Southern Ocean, also known as the Antarctic Ocean, is the youngest ocean of the world, having formed roughly 30 million years ago. It is positioned around Antarctica, at the south of 60°S latitude. Despite the cold temperature, the ocean is home to a variety of organisms including penguins, albatrosses, seals, and even blue whales. Why marine biodiversity significant for the world? The diverse marine organisms make up fragile ecosystems that are essential for the processes which support all life on Earth, including humans. Even the smallest organisms have an essential role in the ecosystem, for example, the phytoplankton present in the oceans produces 50% of the world’s oxygen. The biodiversity also ensures the long-term stability of the ecosystem. Compare the Indian Ocean with the Pacific Ocean. Polar bears jumping across ice sloe in the Arctic Ocean Penguin group against the backdrop of the Southern Ocean Chapter 1: Oceans and Seas During the time of the Romans, the Arabian Sea was known as the Erythraean Sea.

5 What is a marginal sea? Marginal Seas serve as the dividing line between ‘the ocean’ and ‘the sea’. They are parts of an ocean that have been labelled as a sea because one or more geographical features occur somewhere between the mainland coast and the theoretical edge of the marginal sea. The feature marking the edge of a marginal sea can either be a solid landform, or a geographical process like a current or even specific lines of latitude or longitude that seem to divide the surfaces. What other coastal terms are used interchangeably? Below are a few key terms that describe water bodies in terms of their relationship with nearby land. Bay: a coastline that curves into the land Bight: a moderate depth body of water in a bay Cove: a small and sheltered bay Fjord: a long bay with steep sides, often shaped by glaciers Gulf: a very large bay/inward curving coastline Passage: water between two islands Sound: a deep water bay Channel: a broad body of water connecting two larger bodies Fjard: a large body of open water between groups of islands Island: land that is surrounded on all sides by water Isthmus: a narrow strip of land connecting two larger bodies of land Strait: a narrow body of water connecting two larger bodies A small cove Satellite image of the Aleutian Islands A larger bay Why do you think different terms are used for similar features? Examples of ‘sea boundaries’ include: 1. a peninsula: a body of land stretching out into the water 2. a small or larger group of islands; strings or chains of islands are called archipelagos 3. an undersea ridge or mountain Chapter 1: Oceans and Seas

6 1.2 Features of seas and oceans What is a wave? Waves are created by water being displaced (moved or pushed out) by physical force, usually the wind, and the kinetic (movement) energy passing through the water. The water is pushed away and then circles around and refills the gap, making an undulating (falling and rising) sequence. The trough and peak are repeated as the force is passed along. ‘Normal’ waves occur mainly on or close to the surface of the water, while undersea earthquakes or rock collapses create a wave of force and can cause a tsunami (discussed later in the book). Most of the wave action moves water around in a circular motion, so most of the water does not move far. When the kinetic force arrives at the shore the circular pattern of energy distorts, and the peak of a wave starts to travel at a slightly different speed to the base water under it. That way, the top of the wave topples forwards in a curve. The effect of swash (water pushed up the beach by kinetic energy) and backwash (water running back down the slope of the beach to the sea) makes it look like the whole sea is moving inland, but mostly it is the water, on the edge of the sea that is moving in response to the kinetic energy. There are underwater currents to consider, so the water under the surface can be still or moving. The energy in the waves can make this a very dramatic process, and standing in the water at the edge of the sea as the backwash pulls at your feet and legs towards the open sea, and the wave energy trying to push you towards the land can be very dangerous, as can tidal currents and cold water. Beaches and waves can be very popular sources of leisure, and can generate tourism which is quite beneficial for an economy. Moreover, the water currents are essential in helping regulate the Earth’s climate by transferring heat from the equator to the Poles. Additionally, the movement of water is critical for marine life since it helps transfer nutrients and food, while also helping carry ocean life from one place to another. Find out more about seaside leisure and tourism in Pakistan. People surfing on waves Chapter 1: Oceans and Seas

7 What determines the nature of waves? Sea waves are mostly formed by the action of the wind. Their size and shape are influenced by wind strength, fetch (duration of the distance over which the wind presses on the water) and gravitational pull from the Sun and Moon on the Earth, which causes the tides and tidal waves. There are lots of different types of waves. The type that collapses on top of themselves anywhere at sea are called breaking waves. These are easy to see on a coastline. There are many types of breaking waves: A. Spilling waves are mild, undramatic waves which gradually break. B. Plunging waves are faster moving, more explosive, and they break over a short distance, having a more destructive impact on the rock of the shore. C. Surging waves are steep waves approaching a coastline that has a steep offshore profile. Their backwash can be dangerous as the water is sucked back to the sea. Collapsing waves blend the features of plunging and surging waves creating whitewater, an unstable and dangerous swirling stretch of water with a frothing white surface caused by the air that has been mixed in with the water. A C B Find out more about ocean currents and weather at sea. Waves caused by the tides are tidal waves but people also use the term tidal wave to describe huge tsunami waves. Find out more about how tides work. Chapter 1: Oceans and Seas

8 1.3 Ocean beds and sea floors Possibly because of the magnanimous size of the oceans and an average depth of 3700 metres, less than 20% of the oceans have been mapped. Features of the sea and ocean floor and relief The oceans help recycle carbon dioxide. They are home to 230,000 species. They influence our climate and weather. Research the 1972 Stockholm Convention on ‘The Dumping of Waste at Sea’. Why do you think it was necessary? Abyssal plain is a large relatively flat area of sea floor; it is usually 4000–6000m deep. Continental shelf is the edge of a continent Continental slope is the slope underwater that connects the continent down to the abyssal plain Guyot refers to a flat-topped undersea volcano that once reached the surface, but the cone has been eroded or has collapsed. Mid-ocean ridge is a line of underwater mountains where two tectonic plates are pushing together and creating a pushed-up feature Ocean trenches are the deepest part of the oceans—a trench is caused when two tectonic plates meet and one is subducted (pushed under the other). Seamount is an extinct underwater volcano Submarine canyon isan underwater feature where rock has been worn away by a fast running river flowing into the sea Chapter 1: Oceans and Seas

9 Why is underwater map-making so important? Hydrography is the branch of applied sciences which deals with the measurement and description of the physical features of oceans, seas, coastal areas, lakes, and rivers—as well as with the prediction of their change over time. This is important for safety of navigation and to support various marine activities, including those related to economic development, security and defence, scientific research, and environmental protection. What is a bathymetric chart? They are to-scale representations of ocean beds and sea floors to show underwater features to aid exploration and the laying of underwater pipes, cables, and powerlines. This might seem a new idea, but the Ancient Egyptians had created maps of undersea features 4000 years ago. In the past people took depth soundings by swinging a weight on measured or knotted rope. Today technology allows echosounding, a Lidar (laser) signal, remote-controlled submarines, and cameras to check and to map features. There are many commercial reasons to keep detailed records of such information— large quantities of transcontinental underwater cables connect communications systems around the world. What is a hydrographic chart? This is a form of a map that is used at sea and is designed to enable people to navigate ships and boats safely. It also show sandbanks and currents, and wrecks and features such as lightships. Topographic maps show features on the land. Bathymetric charts show undersea and oceans features. Maps of seas and oceans are called charts. Find out more about the United Nations Convention on The Law of the Sea and the idea of territorial waters. Pre-mercator hydrographic (nautical) chart Chapter 1: Oceans and Seas

10 1.4 Biodiversity in our seas and oceans Food from Seas and Oceans Humans collect a wide range of creatures for food from the seas and oceans. These include fish, invertebrates, plants, and even mammals and sea birds. Humans use these as food resources, or even as feed for aquaculture and agriculture. Threats to Seas and their Economic Ramifications Threats to the well-being of the sea and its related marine life are a geographical, economic, and environmental issue. This is because as well as providing food, the fishing, food processing, production and distribution industries all provide jobs and economic benefits to a country. Traditionally, river and coastal margin fishing have been important in Pakistan, and in recent times deeper sea fishing has increased in significance. Harvesting sea food is an environmental concern since levels of fish and other creatures are reducing quite rapidly in some parts across the world. Global warming is responsible for the rising sea levels and changing temperatures, having a domino effect on the well-being of oceanic species, and threat of extinction thus looms. Though humans have been on the planet for a lesser time than many sea creatures, they have been responsible for causing great damage to the oceans. The waste products and plastics dumped in the sea, agricultural chemicals washed by rain into water bodies, and foreign species introduced in some places which become dominant and threaten native species have all upset the natural balance of the ecosystem. If this is left unchecked, humans will have to face severe consequences for their actions. Economic Geography Case Study: A1. Company A is based in Karachi. It is a seafood business which suppliers the domestic (home/Pakistan) market, and exports to Hong Kong, Taiwan Korea, China, and Thailand. The company has a website, which lists its products, and makes clear its thorough and hygienic quality control process. Company A (Seafood supplier) A2. The company’s website says they sell these seafood items Source A. A3. 10 Step Processing System* 1 Raw-material received from local markets 2 Quality inspection: Accept and process or reject and return to supplier. 3 De-heading 4 Washing and chilling. 5 Chilled goods graded. 6 Further washing and chilling. 7 Goods sent for packaging. 8 Freezing for 90 minutes in the contact freezer at -40°C 9 Packaging in outer cartons. 10 Cartons stored at -18 to -20°C until they are shipped to buyers Fish Shellfish Crustaceans Grouper, Croaker, Pomfret (White and Brown), Queen Fish, King Fish, Monk Fish, Seabream, Sole, Stingray (Grey and Tiger) Clams Fan Shells , Green Mussels Razor shells, Shrimps (White and Pink) Star shells, Topshells Crab (Blue Swimming, Mud, Three Spot), Lobster (Red and Green) Chapter 1: Oceans and Seas

11 Another type of commercial fishing enterprise in Pakistan refers to those which work as part of a company fishing across the wider ocean region. The ships of such companies are typically long liners. Company B (Commercial fishing) Purse seines are used to net species which travel in large shoals in the open ocean. A vertical net curtain surrounds the shoal, and then first the bottom and then the top of the net is tightened. Long line fishing targets pelagic (midwater) or demersal (bottom) fishing of specific species using baited hooks. This approach is sometimes criticised because birds and other non-target species can be hooked Source D. ‘Prices up as fish stock shortages hurt Pakistan’s fisheries’ Mark Godfrey. November 21st, 2013. ‘Stocks of fish in the Arabian Sea are at unprecedented lows, driving up seafood prices according to seafood exporters interviewed by SeafoodSource. Prices paid to fishermen are up 30 percent compared to last year according to Bachu Dewan, head of sales as Maritime Seafood, a processor and exporter supplying Middle Eastern and Asian markets from Karachi. The firm has been scrambling to get adequate quantities of crab and lobster for clients in Thailand and the U.S. while also supplying a growing client base in China.’ https://www.oceansentry.org/fish-stocks-depleting-fast/ Source C. ‘Pakistan’s fish stocks depleting fast’ Shahid Shah. March 26th, 2011. ‘Pakistan’s fish stocks are depleting at a rate of 15 percent a year, a top exporter said. M Faisal Iftikhar, chairman Pakistan Fisheries Exporters Association (PAKFEA), said that fish stocks were depleting quickly. A fisherman with more than 40 years in the business said no survey of fish stocks had been conducted in the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) of Pakistan for 28 years. “I think fish stocks have declined by 75 percent.”… Pakistan’s fish stocks depleting fast - Ocean Sentry Source B. Why do you think websites are important for modern businesses? Why is high quality and hygiene an important part of the marketing for food companies? Why might modern companies find it helpful to have a social media presence? What are the consequences of climate change? Gather data about its impact on specific seas and oceans across the world. A fishing vessel at sea Chapter 1: Oceans and Seas

12 Test Yourself Section 1: Quiz Questions 1. How is a marginal sea different from an ocean? 2. Define a bight, a fjord, and a gulf. 3. Use online and print sources to evaluate the rising sea levels and analyse its consequences. 4. How does the motion of a wave change as it approaches the surface? Use terms such as swash and backwash to explain this. 5. How is ocean water a source of food? Explore the sustainable use of this source. 6. Why is the sea sometimes dangerous? 7. Describe the features and relief of the ocean floor, using the provided geographical terminology to support your answer. 8. Describe the destructive properties of waves and their environmental and human impact. 9. Discuss how hydrography is beneficial to various sectors. 10. What are Bathymetric charts? How are they produced and what are its benefits? 12. Explore the reasons why the oceans and seas are polluted. Is pollution avoidable? 13. On a blank world map, mark the seas and oceans of the world. Section 2: Multiple Choice Questions 1. Which of the following is an ocean? A. Mediterranean B. Caribbean C. Indian 2. What is not a difference between an ocean and a sea? A. An ocean is a larger body of water than a sea B. It is easier to sail into seas than oceans C. Seas are part of oceans 3. Which of the following statements best describe an archipelago? A. a body of land stretching out into the water B. a small or larger group, strings, or chains of islands C. undersea ridges or mountains 4. Which of the following waves have a stronger swash, which destroys the rocks at the beach? A. collapsing waves B. plunging waves C. surging waves 5. What do we call maps that show undersea and ocean features? A. topographic B. bathymetric C. hydrographic 6. What word is used to describe a long bay with steep sides, often shaped by glaciers? A. Peninsula B. Fjord C. Isthmus 7. One of the features of The Arabian Sea is a very large bay/inward curving coastline, known as the Arabian A. Isthmus B. Peninsula C. Gulf 8. The deepest part of the oceans were created when two tectonic plates meet and one is subducted (pushed under the other). These are called: A. Ocean trenches B. Ocean Rifts C. Ocean Deeps

13 02 Living with the Climate Chapter Covered in the chapter: Knowledge • Investigate some examples of the extreme weather on earth and its reasons. • Recall the main causes of climate change. • Identify the consequences of global warming. • Explore ways of preventing global warming. • Explain the relationship between extreme weather and climate change. • Discuss the main threats of climate change. • Identify ways in which climate change affects life in general. • Differentiate the climatic patterns of a national and an international city. • Describe ways in which the climate of coastal areas and river plains affect the lifestyles of people living there. • Compare and contrast the lifestyle of people living in Polar • Regions with those living in tropical regions. Skills • Use physical maps or GIS/ Google Maps to identify different climatic regions of the world. • Inquire how climate change is affecting human life in terms of food supply and farms. • Gather, organise, and interpret data to investigate reasons for climate change and global warming. • Examine the consequences of climate change in developing countries. • Explore how people adapt to various climatic conditions drawing examples from Pakistan. • Examine ways in which climate change is affecting farms and our food supply.

14 2.1Extreme Weather Extreme weather is an event that is unusual, even in the degree of its severity, for the place where it occurs. For example, snow falling in a tropical climate in mid-summer is an example of extreme weather. Examples of extreme weather include heatwaves, heavier than usual rainfall, thunderstorms, typhoons, tornadoes, hurricanes, cyclones, hailstorms, drought, and even wildfires. Storms Tropical cyclones, hailstorms, tornadoes, and storm surges are kinds of storms capable of inflicting much damage. Storms are typically formed when updrafts (warm air that moves upwards in the atmosphere) create clouds. Since these clouds are made of tiny water droplets, when they move upwards, they become colder and form ice particles, growing larger until they become heavy enough to fall as rain, snow, or hail. Thunderstorms, as their name suggests, are a kind of storm that feature lightning and thunder and are caused when clouds collide. Winter storms include blizzards, where fast moving winds bring down precipitation in freezing climates. Typhoons, hurricanes, or cyclones are extremely intense storms that typically occur on oceans, and often cause flooding on the coastal shore. Floods Atmospheric rivers are corridors of moisture, created when cyclones transport moisture and heat away from the tropics. The moisture from the atmospheric river, moving upwards, cools and falls as precipitation. Extreme rain is that when a large amount of rain (typically at the rate of 5 cm of rain in one hour) falls in a short amount of time. Heavy rain often causes massive flooding, posing severe risks to human health, the environment, and even the economy since it causes much damage to infrastructure. Heat waves and droughts A drought is when an area receives drier than average temperature over a certain period of time. This is a dangerous weather condition since droughts can last several days, weeks, months, or even years, depending on the availability of water. Similarly, a heat wave is defined as a period of Recall the difference between weather and climate. 03.08b OUP AS Geography Barking Dog Art Tropic of Capricorn Equator Tropic of Cancer 13 Hurricanes Jun.–Oct. 9 Hurricanes Aug. – Oct. 6 Cyclones Oct. – Nov. 8 Cyclones Dec. – Mar. 10 Cyclones Jan. – Mar. 26 Typhoons May – Dec. A map showing the location of tropical revolving storms Chapter 2: Living with the Climate

15 excessively hot weather, typically with high humidity (which makes it different from the condition of drought). Heat waves usually occur in countries with oceanic climate. Heat waves put a great strain on water resources, and even on the power and energy sectors since more people use things that run on electricity to help them keep cool. Developing countries such as Pakistan often face blackouts and power shortages due to the increased energy consumption during a heatwave. Wildfires Wildfires are unplanned and uncontrolled outbreaks of fire in the natural vegetation of a region. These are extremely devastating weather conditions since they cause massive destruction and are extremely difficult to bring under control. More detail on wildfires has been given in the following pages. Extreme weather and the economy It is not hard to believe that extreme weather conditions come with a great risk of causing largescale destruction to life and property. Governments, businesses, and individuals often have to pay large sums of money to recover from the damage inflicted by extreme weather conditions. Climate and the lifestyle of people The lifestyles of people are largely dependent on the climate and weather conditions of the place they inhabit. People in coastal areas typically experience mild temperatures year-round, as compared to landlocked areas. This is because land heats up faster than water. People who live near coasts are less likely to experience extremely cold weather conditions, though may experience a lot of flooding due to heavy rain, or even be exposed to tropical storms and cyclones. People living in river plains have access to extremely fertile lands, which usually means that many people living there survive on agricultural practices. Being near a water body also encourages jobs related to transportation. It is also important to note how the climate of a region not just affects the economic practices of the people living in the area, but also influences what they wear, what they eat, and sometimes even determines what they like to do. People living in the cold Polar regions wear clothing that keeps them warm and eat foods that are high in fat and calorie count to help keep them warm. Explore the lifestyles of people living in different kinds of climatic conditions. Inuit fishing Chapter 2: Living with the Climate

16 The body of ‘Otzi the Iceman’ was found by hikers at the Italian-Austrian borders in 1991. Upon studying the remains (preserved by a glacier), scientists discovered much about how humans lived before recorded history. The Iceman had lived in the Copper Age (about 5300 years ago), and proved that early humans were able to live in harsh conditions. Chapter 2: Living with the Climate 2.2 Adapting to the Climate Adapting to Climate Humans have been quite good at adapting to different climatic zones through history. They have learned to use local plants and animals that are adapted to specific environmental conditions and weather patterns. Humans have also learnt how to farm and build homes in a way that suit the conditions of the local environment. These differences have ensured great diversity across the world, since people live various climatic regions, some in urban areas while others live in rural areas. It is our responsibility to empathise with people who live in settlements that are different from ours, respecting them all equally. Examining Contrasting Climates Anchorage, Alaska (USA), a small coastal city with a sub-Arctic cold climate The modern high-rise city and district of Anchorage in the USA’s state of Alaska began its development as a small settlement for the native Dena’ina Athabascan people long before the USA existed. Today the city is the largest in the state, is the state capitol and is home to 40% of the population of the state with 291,247 residents in 2020. The district covers 1,961 square miles/ 3,900 square kilometres. Skyline of Anchorage, Alaska Otzi the Iceman

17 Chapter 2: Living with the Climate Where big modern cities have developed in very cold or hot places there is usually infrastructure which is designed to cope with the extremes of weather locally, although global warming is changing some of the ‘normal’ weather patterns. In rural areas the climate might have a bigger impact on humans as there are often fewer resources and facilities to help people adapt to extremes so people have to be more self-sufficient. Karachi is the largest of Pakistan’s cities, as well as being one of the largest globally, with 14.9 million residents at the last count in 2017. Humans have lived in the area for thousands of years, with the ‘city’ officially founded as a fortified village called Kolchai in 1729. The city-district covers 1,460 square miles/ 3.780 square kilometres, and has two major ports (Port Karachi and Port Bin Qasim) and other transport links. It is a major business centre and is key to the national economy. Karachi, Pakistan- a large coastal city with a hot-desert (dry) climate. Find out more about life in Anchorage and events like the Fur Rondy at https://www.anchorage.net/ That although the City of Reykjavik, Iceland, is the world’s most northerly capital, the 120,000 residents have seen far less snow and icy weather in recent years as global warming has begun changing their weather patterns. What do the climate figures tell you about life in these two cities? What other information might you want to access to know more about how climate change is impacting on these cities? How might a city with a tropical climate be similar or different in its experience of climate change? Karachi, Pakistan

18 2.3 Adapting to the changing Climate During the Industrial Revolution (approximately after 1740), people began to burn coal to create steam power. More recently oil and gas have been used to generate power. This has released ‘greenhouse gases’ and large amounts of carbon into the atmosphere. Global temperatures have risen and in some places the availability of water, the temperature range and nature of plant and animal life is altering. This impacts human life and food supply and the growing numbers of extreme weather events result in landslips, the expansion of arid land and deserts and the loss of habitats. Human actions, creating pollution, cutting down forests and changing water courses (particularly through activities that lead to erosion), are all threatening the ecosystem and life on the Earth. If Pakistan has fewer industries than wealthier countries, why is this a problem? Source A. The Asian Development Bank (ADB) report ‘Climate Change, Coming Soon to a Court Near You’ states that ‘Pakistan has faced extreme weather events, including droughts, floods, cyclones, heatwaves, and glacial lake outbursts, which has impacted (on) property, livelihoods, and economic growth. Climate change projections predict average temperature warming in the region to exceed the global mean, affecting the timing and strength of monsoon rainfall... Climate change is expected to significantly impact water-dependent sectors, such as agriculture and industry.’ From: ADB Website, 2022 Why is food supply at risk? What is changing for the worlds farmers? There are many impacts from global warming and extreme weather on: Water availability and quality; Working conditions; Length and nature of growing seasons; Fertility of land/soil retention; Weather predictability; Ability of workforce to operate; Transport costs and availability; Consumer demand; Natural and livestock crops which will survive and do well on land available. What do you think is changing in each of these areas and how is climate warming impacting on or causing these changes? Find out about how farmers are being helped and trained to adopt new approaches to reduce the impact of climate change in Pakistan. Find out about how climate change is impacting economically developing countries such as Bangladesh or Mali. Farmers in Pakistan Chapter 2: Living with the Climate

19 Chapter 2: Living with the Climate Changing our habits as individuals and workers to reduce greenhouse gas emissions will be essential to reduce the negative impact of climate change. Pakistan’s Ministry of Climate Change has a published vision statement: ‘To mainstream climate change in the economically and socially vulnerable sectors of the economy and to steer Pakistan towards climate resilient development’ Source: Ministry website 2022 Source B. Daily Times Pakistan, article. ‘Currently, more than 500 climate-induced disastrous events are recorded each year around the globe, which was reported to be only 125 in 1980. Climate modelling reported an increase in temperature between 0.5 to 2 degrees Celsius and between 1 to 7 degree Celsius by 2030 and 2070… Agriculture is one of the most climate-sensitive sectors because extreme events and changes in weather affect the crop production. During the past few years… the yield of major cereal crops has been significantly reduced by the sudden rise in temperature, irregular precipitation, and extreme droughts. It is reported that an increase of 1 degree Celsius in the temperature reduced the wheat production by 5-7%. This is an alarming situation for food security in the current scenario of high growing population…. Countries in South Asia are likely to be more affected because of their high population and agro-based economies. According to the IPCC (intergovernmental panel on climate change) and World Bank, South Asian countries particularly Pakistan, Bangladesh, and India are predicted to be highly affected because of rising temperature which will reduce the cereals production from 4 to 10% by 2100.’ Climate change and agricultural challenges in Pakistan: the need for adaptation policy - Daily Times What do you think needs to be done to achieve this vision? Most of the Ministry’s online materials are designed for an adult audience. Do you feel children and young people need to be more involved in action to combat climate change? If so, how would encourage more direct action and ‘ownership’ of taking action? Find out what you and your community can do to help tackle climate change German-Watch’s 2018 ‘Global Climate Risk Index’ report placed Pakistan in the top 10 countries likely to be most negatively impacted on by climate change. Pakistan’s Climate Change law of 2017 created The Pakistan Climate Change Authority as a body to plan the national steps to tackle climate change.

20 Flash flooding is the rapid flooding of a low lying area by a rush of water caused by storm or sudden dumping of a large weight of water further upstream. It could be caused by rain or ice-melt. Such flooding usually occurs within six hours of the influx of water. 2.4 Climate Change as a trigger of Floods and Landslips What happened in the flood disaster of 2010? The heavy monsoon rains of 2010 across Balochistan, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Punjab, and Sindh deposited so much rain that one-fifth of the country, and around 20 million people experienced flooding— which led to a massive destruction of property and huge disruption to work and everyday lives. Warnings of heavier than usual rain had been issued by the Meteorological Department, but little could be done at that point. The hardest hit area was Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, where 1600 of the national death toll of 2000 was recorded. Large areas of farmland were damaged. The Minister of Information for Khyber Pakhtunkhwa deemed the floods as the ‘worst calamity in our history’. Global warming is disrupting natural weather patterns and therefore, over time, the climate of regions. This is leading to more extreme weather events: long dry periods, and exceptionally heavy sudden rains. For example, in Australia and California there have been huge forest fires, and other parts of Australia and the USA have seen repeated large-scale floods. In Pakistan there were extreme droughts between the 1990 and 2003, and large floods in 2010, 2011, 2012, 2014, and 2022. Each devastated crops, caused distress, loss of life, and bankrupted many people. People in many countries now experience super-heated summers with a risk to life through heatexhaustion; and flooding due to torrential rains and the acceleration of the melting of mountain glaciers. This unpredictable and disasterous situation risks animal and human life, transforms and devastates districts and destroys habitats and risks wildlife in any environment involved. It hits agriculture and business and makes working conditions almost impossible at times. What are landslides? Landslides are mass wasting events (collapses) that occur due to a trigger event (cause)—usually ground movements such as rock falls, mudflows, and debris. The collapse that happens above ground or underwater is due to the effect of water, or gravity. Such sudden collapses or slump of hillsides can destroy whole communities. In 2016, a period of rain led to the worst landslides in Pakistan’s recent history. On this, an environmental campaign group reported: What does your family remember about the 2010 floods? Area affected by flash flooding in Pakistan Chapter 2: Living with the Climate

21 Chapter 2: Living with the Climate ‘Northern Pakistan faces worst landslides in history’ Torrential rain this week has triggered extensive landslides across northern Pakistan, resulting in high losses... Over 140 people have died and more than 1000 houses have been damaged. Landslides have blocked the Karakoram Highway in many places …leaving thousands of people stranded. ‘Unsafe construction, development work, lack of land planning, construction of houses, and deforestation have weakened the mountains, which has become the major reason for landslides, said the Director Pakistan Meteorological Department in Peshawar.’ https://www. thethirdpole.net/2016/04/08/northern-pakistan-faces-worst-landslides/ What can be done to prevent floods and landslides in Pakistan? Find out more about the work of the Pakistan National Disaster Management Authority http://web.ndma.gov.pk/. Pakistan’s Federal Flood Commission was created in 1977 to deal with emergency planning and recovery from flooding; The Pakistan Meteorological Department also supports flood prediction and local and national government have disaster management teams. Creep Slide Fall Slump Flow Topple

22 A B C D 2.5 The Shaking Earth Why does Pakistan experience earthquakes? When the Eurasian and Indian tectonic plates under Pakistan move, tremors are caused. The southern edge of the Eurasian plate is below Balochistan, Gilgit-Baltistan, and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. The north-western edge of the Indian plate is under Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Punjab, and Sindh. How often does Pakistan experience earthquakes? Earth tremors caused by tectonic movement are fairly common, but not always strong enough to be noticed, and do not pose a serious risk. Every few years, three or four sizeable earthquakes shake the land. Once or twice in a century, larger quakes have caused a devastating impact, destroying buildings, and killing thousands at a time. Earthquakes cannot be prevented, but planning and public education can reduce the death toll and ensure that infrastructure (basic facilities) are resilient (tough) enough to survive the impact of a disaster and ensure quick recovery from the damages. The 1935 and 2005 earthquakes were the most damaging to have taken place in Pakistan’s recent history. What aspects of earthquake safety training are being shown in these images? Destruction caused by an earthquake Chapter 2: Living with the Climate

23 Chapter 2: Living with the Climate Tsunami Tsunamis occur when a large body of water sweep across an ocean and hit the land with considerable force, after it has been displaced from its original position. These are usually caused by massive undersea or landmass collapse, or a large earthquake, and the shockwave pushing the water into a huge wave. What happened at Sendai in 2011? A six-minute-long, scale 9, earthquake in the Pacific Ocean off the west coast of Japan occurred in March 2011. It was followed by a series of smaller aftershocks. As a result, a tsunami formed and spread across the ocean, hitting the land with very little warning. The destruction severely crippled the infrastructure of the region, and resulted in the deaths of more than 15,000 people. What impact has the tsunami wave and aftershock waves had on Sendai? Why do you think the loss of life is so high in a tsunami? Read more about the Indian Ocean Tsunami. Find out more about the destructive power of tsunamis and their devastating effect—the National Geographic site is a good starting point. The United States’ Weather Service operates two tsunami warning centres using sophisticated buoys that are sensitive to sudden sea pressure changes, and also alert coastal communities accordingly. Before (left) and after (right) images of the tsunami at Sendai (2011)

24 2.6 Raging fires: An effect of climate change How do forest fires start? Forest fires can be ignited by natural triggers such as lightening in summer storms, careless human action, and/or poor management of resources. As summers are becoming drier and warmer due to climate change and global warning, the risk of fire in scrub lands, bushes, and forests has increased in size and impact. Why are these fires so devastating? Small forest fires are needed by some plant species to activate their seeds and clear space, but their frequency and size is increasing around the world, and there have been some huge and difficult to extinguish (put out) fires in recent years. The trees and plant life that are lost take considerable time to be replaced, and the fire destroys important habitats and kills animal life and vegetation, destroying human habitations, settlements, and farmland. Large-scale fires seriously impact the population size of many species, and the food chain. Deforestation impacts the stability of the soil, since plant roots no longer anchor it, allowing wind and water to strip the landscape of its nutrients and soil. Fires also release carbon dioxide and methane, contributing to greenhouse gas emissions and global warming. Due to mass destruction of trees and plants, there is a reduced carbon dioxide intake, and lesser oxygen released to the atmosphere. Find out more about the 2020 forest fires in Australia and their impact on people, land, and wildlife. Look at what the World Wildlife Fund has to say about the positive impact of small scale natural forest fires and massive uncontrolled fires. https://www.worldwildlife.org/stories/forest-fires-the-good-and-the-bad Ask the experts Why are forest, scrub and bush fires a threat to the environment and to human food supply? Why could climate change be a factor in the increasing levels of risk from these fires? Despite the changes due to climate change and global warming, the Earth’s processes and patterns are changing constantly due to a variety of different natural phenomenon, such as the rock cycle, the water cycle, and earthquakes. Minor alterations in river systems particularly due to long-term erosion and deposition change the faces and even directions of rivers over time. Human extraction of mineral resources also effects the landscape and the connected ecosystems. Raging forest fire Chapter 2: Living with the Climate

25 Chapter 2: Living with the Climate Learning to manage disasters Disaster management is the process of planning and predicting hazards. This is important because most hazards are random, while others are inevitable (certain). Statisticians who work for insurance companies also predict and use figures to model how likely an event is, including the level of damage that might happen, and the cost of restoring things. It is in this way that the amount of money needed to support recovery from accidents and disasters is calculated. Large modern businesses have disaster recovery plans for their computer systems because of these risks. A country establishes disaster management and recovery plans, and assemble specialist teams to predict, prevent, warn, and deal with disasters. What can be done to prepare for and reduce the impact of disasters? What would present the biggest challenges in different types of disasters? Enhance preparedness Establish agencies with the resources to predict. Respond to natural and man-made disasters Develop monitoring and forecasting Use science to establish patterns. Use technology to enhance early warning Develop capacity Ensure the health, fire, rescue, and police services have adequate capacity to cope with emergency situations. Train people in evacuation, rescue, and response/relief work. Stockpile key emergency stores ready for use for high possibility scenarios. Prevention and risk reduction Make laws to ensure new buildings are earthquake resistant, that flood relief channel carry flood water away in high risk areas Install warning systems for tsunamis, floods, etc. In-built safety measures in new buildings in earthquake prone areas Educate the population Help people to know what to do when warned. Spread awareness of a disaster to reduce the risk of greater damages. Work with private sector Coordinate with private, voluntary, and charity organisations during relief actions to prevent inefficiency, waste, and disease. An actuary is a professional who calculate future risk and work with computer modelling, statistics, and probability. They apply the system of mathematics that calculates how likely something is to happen. What is affected after a natural disaster? Disruption to water supplies, food, power, waste, non-drinkable water, sewerage removal, transport and communication systems, and disturbed public services such as health, education, and law and order are affected the most after a natural disaster.

26 Test Yourself Section 1: Quiz Questions 1. What does the story of `Ötzi the Iceman’ tell us about human willingness to live in varied climate zones? Explore human adaptation to climatic zones, drawing examples from Pakistan.? 2. What climate related infrastructure is needed for a community in a: • Cold climate settlement? • Hot-dry/desert climate settlement? • Tropical climate? 3. Define and give examples of extreme weather events. 4. Why might climate change be a threat to human food supply? 5. What impact do wildfires have on the environment? 6. Explain how natural and human processes can trigger landslides. 7. What are the consequences of climate change in developing countries? 8. What is meant by the term disaster management planning? Which method of planning and preparation, in your opinion, is the most efficient in terms of minimising risk and impact? Section 2: Multiple Choice Questions 1. Which of the following departments convey information about weather and disasters due to extreme weather? A. Disaster Management Department B. Meteorological Department C. Civil Aviation Department 2. What term is used for rapid flooding caused by storm or huge amount of rainfall? A. flash floods B. sudden floods C. rapid floods 3. Which of the following is not a flood associated hazard? A. landslides B. mudslides C. advance slide 4. Sultan volcano group is an example of which of the following types of volcanoes? A. active volcanoes B. dormant volcanoes C. extinct volcanoes 5. Earthquakes in Pakistan happen due to movement of which of two tectonic plates? A. Indian and African B. Arabian and Eurasian C. Indian and Eurasian 6. Wildfires burn trees, bushes, scrub and other items and release which gases? A. Oxygen and carbon dioxide B. Carbon dioxide and methane C. Helium and carbon dioxide 7. What term is used to describe the mass loss of trees in an environment? A. Defenestration B. Deforestation. C. Clear-felling

27 03 Environmental Pollution Chapter Covered in the chapter: Knowledge • Explain the link between pollution and climate change. • Describe the harmful effects of water, land, air, noise, and light pollution on our environment. • Compare and contrast the connections between different types of pollution and suggest ways to reduce them. • Suggest ways to reduce different types of pollution. • Describe the effects of greenhouse gases on our planet and relate them to global warming. • Suggest ways to prevent the further thinning of the ozone layer. • Explore the short-term and long-term effects of global warming on our planet and suggest measures to reduce them. • Classify the health consequences of air and water pollution on the biodiversity on Earth. • Explore alternative energy sources that can help reduce pollution. Skills • Gather and then interpret some local data related to pollution and climate change. • Evaluate and discuss how different forms of pollution have affected students’ personal lives. Subsequently, draw conclusions. • Gather and organise data about local campaigns in their respective cities for countering climate change and pollution.

28 3.1 What problems has mankind created in the natural environment? Pollution and climate change: Too many humans? Too much technology? With each passing minute, the human population of the Earth increases, so does the demand for more resources, and consequently the creation of more waste. This growing cycle of consumption (use) of resources is not sustainable and huge damage is being done to our beautiful planet and sensitive environments by careless and reckless actions of humans. Different kinds of pollution contribute to climate change due to the numerous ways in which it alters the natural order of things, and even the balance of the ecosystem. The high levels of greenhouse gases increases the rate of global warming, causing drastic changes in the global climate. Overpopulation Overpopulation describes the situation when the birth rate of the population exceeds the death rate to such an extent, that public resources become scarce for everyone to use and access equally. As the world population rises and global warming changes the weather, natural resources are unsustainably harvested and exploited to meet the growing needs. Light pollution Light pollution is caused by very noticeable, or excessive light. It can undermine enjoyment of the natural world, and is a waste of the Earth’s energy resources. It also poses a problem for nocturnal (night-active) animals and for our ‘body clocks’. A recent British Government report stated: ‘Wildlife is often more sensitive to light, and the polarising nature of some building materials can cause insects, birds, and other wildlife to mistake the material for water. The effect is particularly strong with smooth (shiny) dark surfaces.’ Chapter 3: Environmental Pollution Why might businesses not be too worried about environmental issues? What reasons can you suggest as to why light pollution has a harmful effect on wildlife and on the environment? Overcrowded market Satellite image showing light pollution

29 Chapter 3: Environmental Pollution Water pollution Water pollution is caused due to the dumping of untreated waste products in bodies of water. Waste products such as plastics are non-biodegradable, tending to linger in the environment for hundreds, if not thousands of years. Plastic pollution in particular is a major long term environmental problem (in land and water) because it takes roughly 1000 years to disintegrate. Moreover, scientists have discovered that plastic fragments (microplastics) are a significant threat to water quality, marine life, and human health (by accumulating and developing into substances that poison their internal systems). Around 80% of plastics in the seas have been washed in from land, or carried in by rivers or sewers. Humans also dump plastic directly in the seas and oceans. The Great Pacific garbage patch is a giant island of trash that extends 1.6 million square kilometres, making it three times larger than France! Such cases of human irresponsibility have terrible consequences on the well-being of oceanic and human life. Air pollution Air pollution is caused by the introduction of harmful gases, particulates, and other contaminants in the atmosphere, particularly by industrial carbon emissions and release of greenhouse gases. These pollutants can effect not just the health of humans (affecting vital organs like the lungs and skin), but also influence climate change by contributing to global warming by accelerating the depletion of the Ozone layer. Climate change threatens hundreds of species by affecting their habitat and food sources. During the lockdown of major industrial processes after the Covid-19 pandemic, there was a significant improvement in air quality, which demonstrated that if humans actively control the release of air pollutants, they can reduce their carbon footprint, and better manage global climate change. Land pollution As the living standards of people improve, they buy more things for their comfort, e.g. televisions, computers, cars, air conditioners, and other household equipment. Improper disposal of the old things, such as dumping them in landfills pollutes the land and contaminates the soil. The plastic packaging of goods is also a problem as it does not rot away nor is it easily recyclable. The compromise to soil quality effects the fertility of the land, and makes it less fit for agriculture. Poor growth of vegetation increases the chances of flash floods and irregular rainfall, while also endangering native animal species. The solution would be to actively choose a more sustainable lifestyle, choosing to reduce, reuse, recycle, as discussed later in the chapter. Some plastics have been linked with causing cancers because they contain carcinogenic (cancer causing) chemicals. Wasted food is a major environmental problem in many wealthy countries—for example in Malta, a national agency recently reported that 22% of all food bought is wasted and goes into rubbish tips untouched. Non-biodegradable: not broken down by natural processes Plastics in the water effect marine life

30 3.2 Pressures of demand Why do renewable energy schemes need to increase? The increasing demand for electricity to feed homes and businesses means large quantities of oil, gas, and coal are burnt in generators. This leads to a significant impact on pollution and global warming. To be sustainable, the use of these fossil fuels needs to end and renewable energy (wind, water/hydroelectric, solar power) significantly increased. Nuclear plants are generally a safe and clean way of generating energy, but many environmentalists have concerns about risks, and the exceptionally long period that radioactive waste takes before it stops being deadly. Once the expensive power plant is installed, it can also result in terrible disasters if proper safety precautions are not taken. Well-managed farming can be highly beneficial; with a rotation of crops keeping soil productive and yields (quantities produced) good— but neither all land is equally suitable for all crops or animals, nor it is well managed or close to a market. What impact does the food industry have on the environment? Find out more about the nuclear accidents at Three Mile Island (1979, USA, equipment failure); at Chernobyl (1986, Ukraine, overheating and failed safety equipment); and Fukushima (2011, Japan, earthquake damage). Why might environmentalists be worried about this experiment? Genetically modified plants are on trial in some countries- where scientists have changed the DNA (genetic structure) of plants to produce larger, insect and disease resistant crops. Overuse of pesticides and herbicides Chemical sprays also kill ‘friendly’ insects along with crop-damaging ones. This impacts the food chain and reduces biodiversity. For example, if bee populations fall drastically, crop pollination becomes difficult. Overuse of antibiotics High use of antibiotics (medicines) and growth hormones on livestock and poultry increases yield in the short run, but leaves the chemicals in meat and dairy products, and groundwater, and are absorbed into the bloodstreams of their consumers. In effect, many diseases develop resistance to the drugs. Chernobyl disaster Nuclear power plant Chapter 3: Environmental Pollution

31 Pressures from our economic model How has our economy created ‘the Greenhouse effect’? Having greenhouse gases, e.g. water vapour (H2 O), carbon dioxide (CO2 ), methane (CH4 ), nitrous oxide (N2 O), and ozone (O₃) in the atmosphere, is vital to keep the Earth warm enough to sustain life. However, industrialisation has seen a massive increase in herds of cattle for the meat industry, while the increased use of cars, air travel, and other human activities are increasing greenhouse gases and therefore speeding global warming. The ozone layer filters harmful solar radiation, but emissions continue to weaken it, exposing the Earth to many possible dangers. It’s important to consider ways to prevent the further thinning of the Ozone layer by using sustainable methods in everyday settings, such as carpooling, cycling, walking, and purchasing and using products that do not use HCFCs or CFCs as propellants. In modern society, having a good standard of living and being ‘happy’ and content has been cleverly linked, by business and advertising companies, to having ‘a nice house, a nice car, and nice things’. This attitude involves replacing the household items regularly to ‘keep up’ in society. The biggest example of this is the fashion industry where lots of clothes are bought, not worn enough, and are disposed long before being old or damaged. Capitalism as an economic model is based on encouraging the consumption of goods, selling products or services, and increasing profit. Producing all of these goods means using energy and other resources while greenhouse gases are released into the atmosphere. Global warming will cause much of the polar ice caps to melt and sea levels to rise, with a serious impact on countries with land already close to sea-level like Bangladesh, The Maldives, The Netherlands, etc. Chapter 3: Environmental Pollution

32 3.3 Environmental problems in Pakistan Writing in The Nation newspaper in 2019, Ajmal Meer Mehdi suggested: ‘Industrial pollution is one of worst challenges among all pollution types in Pakistan (and) industrial pollution in particular, is wreaking havoc with the health and environment of the populace. Besides the vehicular emissions that account for almost 45 per cent of pollution, the industrial pollutants are grossly responsible for widespread environmental degradation. Pakistan’s industrial sector is broad-based, covering textile, leather, fertiliser, chemicals, petrochemicals, pharmaceutical, paper and board, electrical goods, food, sugar and other agriculture-related, basic metal, non-metallic minerals, cement, automobile and light/heavy engineering industries. These industrial processes generate voluminous hazardous waste, toxic gaseous pollutants and other health-injurious emissions like smoke and dust. Sadly, there is no understanding of pollution prevention and improving control of pollutants as far as the industry, primarily in private sector, is concerned. As a result, toxic waste is dumped and released to cleaner industrial or in-water bodies, unchecked by the authorities and other stakeholders. The current social and environmental indicators and other related figures are horrific and mind-boggling. Pakistan is among 12 Asian countries, out of a total of 15, where industrial pollution is recorded at severe and unacceptable levels. More than six-and-a-half million persons are hospitalised annually due to industrial pollution related illnesses. As per Pakistan Council of Research in Water Resources, drinking water in 17 major cities is not suitable for human consumption, and in Lahore alone, 70 per cent of city water is contaminated. Net forest coverage in Pakistan has reduced by five per cent in recent times. The levels of ambient particulates i.e. smoke particles and dust are generally twice the world average and more than five times as high as in the industrialised countries. There are over six million vehicles on the roads in the country. According to an ADB report, carbon dioxide (CO2 ) emissions in 1995 amounted to 85.4 million tons. Vehicles operating in Karachi add 275,000 tons of carbon monoxide (CO) in a year. Industrial pollution introduces chemicals, particulates or biological materials which cause discomfort, disease or death to humans, and damage to both the living organisms and the built environment. According to the WHO, asbestosis, skin cancer, and peritoneal mesothelioma are sicknesses associated with continued exposure. The Organisation also states that 2.4 million people die each year from causes directly attributed to industrial pollution.’ https://nation.com.pk/07-Jan-2019/industrial-pollution-in-pakistan Which pollution and climate-related problems do you feel are the ones that most urgently need addressing in Pakistan, and how should they be tackled? Chapter 3: Environmental Pollution

33 H A Inadequate sewerage C Poor waste disposal mechanism E Air pollution from vehicles G Garbage dump mechanism B Dumping waste into the sea D Impact of industrial activities on environment F Desertification Deforestation What forms of pollution have affected your life? What role do we have to play to improve things for future generations? Chapter 3: Environmental Pollution

34 3.4 Making a difference Around the world people-power (activism), seems to be making the biggest difference in changing how people deal with environmental problems. Methods include pressurising elected officials to ‘go green’ or lobbying (persuading) companies to behave more responsibly. Go Green: Develop environment-friendly thinking The first step is to look at our own behaviour: Initiatives to take control and mend some of the environmental damage mankind has done are underway all around the world. In Nepal and Bhutan, forest conservation schemes are restoring habitats, while the forests prevent soil dandification and flash flooding. In the Maldives coral mining has been banned to protect the coral reefs. Though much work has been done, the road to healing the Earth is long. By adopting sustainable practices at the individual and commercial scale, humans can help prevent further damage to the ozone layer, allowing it to do its ‘job’ in protecting the Earth from heating up. Rethink: Is your lifestyle sustainable? What can you do (and stop doing, or do less) to help the environment? Reduce: Can you cut back on what you consume? Reuse: Can you find ways to use products that might be thrown away, if a new use is not found for them? Repurpose: Can you find new ways to use things you already have? Recycle: Where do you dispose-off items of no further use for you; Refuse: If something has bad environmental impacts don’t accept it. Politely tell companies when they have too much packaging, a poor environmental record or any other wasteful practices. Rethink, Reduce, Reuse, Repurpose, Recycle, Refuse In 2018, Greta Thunberg (aged 15 at that time) started a movement in Sweden when she decided to take direct action to alert people to the state of the planet. How well is your community responding to protecting its environment? What else could be done to start to make a positive difference? Recycling bins Greta Thunberg Chapter 3: Environmental Pollution