Harvesting To Regenerate A Natural Forest: Site, Cut-Block ...

Species Rare Forest Range Forest Fire Fire Fire Fire Large Exotic Invasive r-strategists
dependent limit associated dependent intolerant promoted reduced long-
1
1 1 lived
1 1
Helianthemum bicknellii 1 1 1 1
1 1 1
Helianthus nuttallii 1 1 1
1 1
Heliopsis helianthoides 1 1
1 1
Houstonia longifolia 1 1
1 1
Hudsonia tomentosa 1
1
Juniperus horizontalis

Lactuca canadensis var.
longifolia

Leersia oryzoides

Leesia oryzoides

Lepidium densiflorum

Liatris punctata

Linnaea borealis var.
longiflora

Listera cordata

Lithospermum canescens

Lonicera dioica var.
glaucescens

Luzula acuminata

Lycopodium annotinum

Lycopodium clavatum var.
clavatum

Lycopodium clavatum var.
monostachyon

Lycopodium complanatum

Lycopodium inundatum
var. inundatum

Lycopodium lucidulum

Lycopodium selago

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Species Rare Forest Range Forest Fire Fire Fire Fire Large Exotic Invasive r-strategists
dependent limit associated dependent intolerant promoted reduced long-

1 1 1 lived
1
Lycopodium tristachyum 1 1 1
Maianthemum canadense 1 1
var. interius 1 1 1 1
Malaxis monophyllos var. 1 1 1 1
brachypoda 1 1
Malaxis paludosa 1
Malaxis unifolia 1 1 1
Matricaria matricarioides 1 1 1
Mentha arvensis var. 1 1 1
arvensis 1 1 1
Mirabilis hirsuta 1 1
Mirabilis nytaginea 1 1
Mitella nuda 1 1
Monarda fistulosa
Moneses uniflora(L.)
Monotropa uniflora
Muhlenbergia racemosa
Oenothera biennis
Onoclea sensibilis
Opuntia fragilis
Oryzopsis asperifolia
Osmorhiza claytonii
Osmorhiza longistylis
Osmunda claytoniana
Ostrya virginiana
Panicum capillare
Panicum depauperatum
var. depauperatum

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Species Rare Forest Range Forest Fire Fire Fire Fire Large Exotic Invasive r-strategists
dependent limit associated dependent intolerant promoted reduced long-
1
1 1 1 1 1 lived
1 1
Panicum depauperatum 1 1 1 1
var. psilophyllum 1
Panicum lanuginosum 1 1 1
Panicum lanuginosum 1 1 1
var. implicatum 1 1
Panicum lanuginosum 1 1
var. septentrionale 1 1 1
Panicum leibergii 1 1 1
Panicum linearifolium var. 1 1 1
werneri
Panicum perlongum 1
Panicum xanthophysum
Parthenocissus inserta 1
Pedicularis canadensis
Pedicularis lanceolata 1
Penstemon gracilis
Petasites palmatus
Petasites vitifolius
Physalis virginiana
Picea glauca
Picea mariana
Pinus banksiana
Pinus resinosa
Poa nemoralis var. interior
Polygonatum biflorum
Polygonum cilinode
Polygonum douglasii
Polygonum hydropiper

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Species Rare Forest Range Forest Fire Fire Fire Fire Large Exotic Invasive r-strategists
dependent limit associated dependent intolerant promoted reduced long-
Polygonum punctatum
var. confertiflorum lived
Polygonum scandens
Populus balsamifera 1
Populus deltoides
Populus tremuloides 1
Prunus americana
Prunus nigra 1 1
Prunus pumila 1
Pteridium aquilinum var. 1
latiusculum
Puccinellia nuttalliana 1 1
Pyrola asarifolia 1 1
Pyrola elliptica 1
Pyrola rotundifolia var. 1 1
americana
Pyrola secunda 1
Pyrola virens 1
Quercus macrocarpa 1
Rhamnus alnifolia
Rhus glabra 1 11
Rhyncospera alba
Ribes americanum 1
Ribes hudsonianum 1
Rosa acicularis
Rubus acaulis 1
Rubus pubescens 1
Salix amygdaloides 1

1
1

1
1
1

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Species Rare Forest Range Forest Fire Fire Fire Fire Large Exotic Invasive r-strategists
1 dependent limit associated dependent intolerant promoted reduced long-
Salix cordata
Salix scouleriana 1 1 lived
Saxifraga virginiensis 1
Selaginella densa
Shepherdia argentea 1
Sisyrinchium campestre 1
Smilax herbacea var. 1
lasioneura
Solidago juncea 1
Solidago missouriensis 11
Solidago nemoralis var. 11
decemflora
Solidago purshii 11
Sorbus decora 1
Sporobolus cryptandrus
Stellaria calycantha 1
Stipa spartea 1
Streptopus roseus
Streptopus roseus var. 1
longipes 1
Streptopus roseus var. 1
perspectus
Taxus canadensis 1
Thalictrum venulosum
Thuja occidentalis 1 11 1
Trillium cernuum 1
Ulmus americana
Vaccinium caespitosum 1
11

1

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Species Rare Forest Range Forest Fire Fire Fire Fire Large Exotic Invasive r-strategists
dependent limit associated dependent intolerant promoted reduced long-

1 1 1 1 lived
1 1
Vaccinium vitis-idaea 1 1
Verbena hastata 1 1 1
Viburnum edule 1
Viburnum lentago 1 1 1
Viburnum opulus var. 1 1
americanum 1
Viburnum rafinesquianum 1
Viola blanda 1 1
Viola canadensis var. 1
rugulosa 1
Viola conspersa 1
Viola palustris
Viola pubescens 11 1
Viola renifolia 1
Viola selkirkii 1
Viola sororia 11
Vitis riparia 11
Zizia aptera
Zizia aurea
Agrostis scabra
Amelanchier sanguinea
Pyrola minor
Agropyron pectiniforme
Agropyron repens
Arctium minus
Artemisia absinthium
Bromus inermis

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Species Rare Forest Range Forest Fire Fire Fire Fire Large Exotic Invasive r-strategists
dependent limit associated dependent intolerant promoted reduced long-
1 1
1 lived 1 1
1
Campanula rapunculoides 1 1 1
Caragana arborescens 1 1 1
Carum carvi 1 1
Chenopodium album 1 1
Cirsium arvense 1 1
Conringia orientalis 1 1
Coronilla varia 1 1
Crepis tectorum 1 1
Echinochloa crusgalli 11
Erysimum cheiranthoides
Galeopsis tetrahit var. 1 1 1
bifida 1 1 1
Hesperis matronalis 1 1
Lythrum salicaria 1 1 1
Medicago lupulina 1 1 1
Medicago sativa 1 1
Melilotus alba 1 1
Melilotus officinalis 11 1 1
Pastinaca sativa 1 1 1
Pinus sylvestris 1 1
Poa compressa 1
Poa pratensis 1 1
Polygonum convolvulus 1
Polygonum scabrum 1
Portulaca oleracea 1
Potentilla argentea
Rorippa islandica var.

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Species Rare Forest Range Forest Fire Fire Fire Fire Large Exotic Invasive r-strategists
dependent limit associated dependent intolerant promoted reduced long-
hispida
Rumex acetosella lived
Saponaria officinalis
Setaria viridis 11 1
Silene noctiflora 11 1
Sisymbrium altissimum 1 1
Stellaria media 1 1
Tanacetum vulgare 1
Thlaspi arvense 1 1
Tragopogon dubius 11
Verbascum thapsus 1 1
11
11

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3.1.1.3 Forest “Dependent” Species
A forest dependent species is one that requires some of the effects of tree cover. This
could relate to light intensity, humidity, large diameter tree trunks as a substrate in
combination with a microclimatic factor, etc. Forest dependent species are not found in
openings except occasionally on steep north slopes where they are shaded. Interior
species are a special case of forest dependent species. Interior species are not found
near the edge of a forest patch.

A partial list of forest dependent species in the Southeast Vegetation District includes
Chimaphila umbellata, Goodyera repens, Hylocomium splendens and Ptilium crista-
castrensis (Table 11). A comprehensive list based on existing understanding was not
developed for this progress report.

3.1.1.4 “Old” Forest Dependent
“Old” forest species are a special case of forest dependent species. They require forest
attributes that are not present until after the forest reaches maturity. Typically these are
species that require large diameter trees, fire intolerant tree species, large diameter
snags, decayed large diameter downed woody material, acidic soil, a thick forest floor,
etc..

Old forest dependent plant species were not identified for this progress report since this
would involve an in depth literature review.

3.1.1.5 Populations Near A Range Limit In The Southeast Vegetation District

3.1.1.5.1 Overstory Distribution Of Trees
The provincial Forest Resource Inventory (FRI) provides one source of distribution
information for trees in the overstory. The FRI was used to identify tree species
overstory distributions.

Only one forest stand with at least 10% red pine is present in FMU 31 and this occurs
on Black Island in Lake Winnipeg. We are not aware that any red pine trees occur in the
study area (i.e., Southeast Vegetation District).

Although eastern white cedar trees can be found in the study area, FRI forest stands
with at least 10% eastern white cedar are not present.

Balsam fir and white spruce are distributed throughout the study area but their
appearance in the overstory is mostly limited to a small number of locations that have
escaped fires in the past and have suitable surface materials. Most balsam fir and white
spruce is found outside the external boundaries of large fires that occurred between
1920 and 1994 (Figure 3). The small patches that occur within fire events are probably
inside “skips” that were too small to map in the original fire event maps.

Black ash appears to be the only tree species with an overstory range limit in the study
area. Most overstory black ash in FML # 1 occurs between Lake Winnipeg and the
study area. There is a small area of overlap with the study area along its western edge.

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Size of stands exaggerated to enhance visibility.

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Figure 2. Overstory distributions of tree species.

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Figure 3. Stands with white spruce or balsam fir superimposed on fire event
boundaries from 1920 to 1994.

White spruce and balsam fir are the black patches.

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3.1.1.5.2 All Species

Information prepared for Manitoba’s Ecosystem Based Pilot Project for Ecoregion 90
(Punter 2002a, 2002b) identifies 133 species that are near their range limits at the
northern edge of the Southeast Vegetation District (Table 11). A total of 115 species
remain after excluding plants confined to aquatic, semi-aquatic and grassland habitats.
Of these species, only one is at a southern as opposed to a northern limit at the
northern edge of the study area.

3.1.1.6 Species With Low Reproductive Capacity
Infrequent mast years, specialized regeneration requirements, a specialized dispersal
strategy that strongly limits dispersal distance or rate, etc. are factors that contribute to
low reproductive capacity. White spruce is one species in the study area that is known
to meet this criterion. Other such species were not identified for this progress report.

3.1.1.7 Species Highly Sensitive/ Low Resilience To Disturbance
Species highly sensitive to fire and timber harvesting are dealt with below. Other types
of disturbance except for roads are not relevant for this report. Road disturbance is
qualitatively different in that they result in “permanent” habitat loss if they are all weather
and are not decommissioned. Roads may have indirect effects on long-term ecosystem
health indicators that result from altered flows of surface or subsurface water and water
table depth.

3.1.2 Biodiversity- Species- Elements- Key

3.1.2.1 Forest Associated Species
A forest associated species is one that is strongly promoted by some of the attributes of
a forest patch. This could relate to light intensity, humidity, trunks as a substrate (in
combination with a microclimatic factor), etc.. Forest associated species have sparse
distribution and low abundance in openings.

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Based on preliminary information, 87 species were designated as forest-associated in
the Southeast Vegetation district (Table 11).

3.1.2.2 “Wildfire” Species

3.1.2.2.1 Background

“Wildfire” species are those whose distribution and abundance are closely linked to the
immediate and short-term effects of large wildfires. These effects can be either
substantial reductions or increases in a species’ distribution and/ or abundance.

The goal of the KFHWT project is to minimize initial disturbance type differences and
promote rapid convergence of recovery pathways. Therefore, wildfire species of special
interest for indicators and monitoring are those that are affected differently by wildfire
and timber harvesting. There are four possible types of wildfire species when post-fire
and post-harvest performance are compared: dependent, promoted, reduced and
intolerant (Table 12).

“Fire- dependent” pioneer species are species that seem to require some of the effects
of fire because they are usually absent or virtually absent in the mature forest and their
post-fire abundance vastly exceeds post-harvest (e.g. Bicknell’s geranium, Marchantia
polymorpha). Most of these species disappear within a few years after fire because they
are adapted to conditions present during the establishment stage (Ehnes 1998). Many
of these species are poor competitors or are shade intolerant. The presence of these
species has two implications for timber harvesting. First, harvesting will have great
difficulty approximating the effects of fire for these species. Second, harvesting can
substantially change species composition if several such species occur in a cut-block or
operating area.

“Fire- promoted” species are species found in the mature forest whose performance is
greatly promoted by some of the effects of fire but not by harvesting without artificial
regeneration (e.g. jack pine, black spruce). Typically these are species that tolerate high
light and either regenerate from underground organs or have a profuse seed source that
is released by fire.

“Fire reduced” species are species whose post-fire pioneer abundance is vastly lower
than post-harvest (at least 5 times lower). These species may or may not be present in
the mature pre-disturbance forest. Typically these are species that benefit from high
light but have low to moderate resilience to fire’s effects.

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“Fire intolerant” species are species that are eliminated by fire and require at least 10
years to reestablish in a burn patch (e.g. balsam fir, Cladina stellaris {a reindeer
lichen}). Typically these are species that are present in the mature pre-disturbance
forest and have no mechanisms to regenerate from within a burn patch. Some of these
can reappear sooner than 10 years if an undisturbed propagule source is adjacent to
the burn patch.

There are some important points to note in this species classification with regard to the
meaning of “fire” dependent or promoted and with regard to the harvest comparison.

With regard to the distinction in the definitions of “fire dependent” or “fire promoted” as
used herein. Neither category means that the species cannot possibly regenerate or
even regenerate well without a fire. It does mean that the species generally requires
some of fire’s effects or is greatly enhanced relative to harvesting effects. It may be
possible to implement some human activities so they approximate the relevant fire
effects for some species. For example, Geranium bicknellii seeds require warm soil for
germination. It may be possible to achieve this effect through appropriate disruption of
the duff layer by site preparation. Species that require high light are not included in this
category if they do not also require some of the effects specific to fire (e.g., duff
removal, large change in nutrient availability). Fire dependent as used herein refers to
species requiring more than overstory removal for vigorous introduction into the
disturbance patch and where it has not been demonstrated that harvesting can
approximate wildfire effects.

Of course, harvest “method” is critical to this species classification. Harvest method is
the combination of tree cutting, site preparation and regeneration (i.e., artificial
regeneration and competing vegetation control). For some site types, we expect
different outcomes from the wildfire based guidelines than from cutting and left for
natural regeneration. As a preliminary hypothesis, we expect that fire dependent
species will show vast regeneration differences regardless of harvest method whereas
fire promoted species responses will vary by harvest method.

A preliminary list of fire-dependent, fire-promoted, fire-reduced and fire-intolerant
vascular plant species that typically occur on shallow mineral soils was developed
based on a cursory review of the literature (c.f. Ehnes {1998}). Results from the wildfire
and harvest trial areas included in the KFHWT project identified species with high
potential for reliable indication throughout the Southeast Vegetation District.

Potential fire-dependent vascular plant species are Aralia hispida, Corydalis
sempervirens, Gaultheria procumbens, Geranium bicknellii and Panicum xanthophysum

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(Table 13). At least two bryophytes should be added to this list: Marchantia polymorpha
and Polytrichum commune for a total of seven fire-dependent species. A review of the
bryophyte and lichen literature is required to determine which other non-vascular plants
should be added to this list.

Potential fire-promoted species include jack pine, black spruce, aspen, low sweet
blueberry (Vaccinium angustifolium), fireweed (Epilobium angustifolium) and certain
sedges (Carex spp.) (Table 13). Black spruce is included in this list even though it had
substantially lower frequency in the wildfire because we expect that it has a slower
response to the effects of fire (Ehnes 1998).

Potential fire-reduced species include Diervilla lonicera, Rosa acicularis, Vaccinium
myrtilloides, Aralia nudicaulis and Linnaea borealis (Table 13). At the least, the following
non-vascular plants should be added to the list (Ehnes 1998): Pleurozium schreberi and
Polytrichum juniperinum to bring the total to a minimum of seven species.

Potential fire-intolerant species include balsam fir, Vaccinium vitis-idaea, Clintonia
borealis and Oryzopsis asperifolia (Table 13). Based on results from Ehnes (1998), the
following non-vascular plants should be added to the list: Cladina mitis, Cladina
rangiferina, Cladina stellaris,. Even though black spruce, paper birch, green alder (Alnus
crispa) and Labrador tea (Ledum groenlandicum) were absent or had substantially
lower frequency in the wildfire, they are not identified as fire-intolerant or fire-reduced
because we expect their performance in the wildfire to improve considerably by the
middle of the second growing season.

Based on data collected at replicate wildfires and naturally regenerated cutovers in the
study region (Ehnes 1998), all of the species identified as fire-promoted, fire-intolerant
and fire-reduced still had performance differences at 13 years [check again after list is
finalized for this report]. This corroborates the suitability of using these species as
indicators of recovery.

The most reliable indicator species should be those that had the same recovery pattern
in all three of the harvest trial areas. These species included Agrostis scabra, Aralia
hispida, Aralia nudicaulis, Calamagrostis canadensis, Carex spp., Corydalis
sempervirens, Geranium bicknellii, Marchantia polymorpha, Polygonum cilinode, Pyrola
secunda, Rubus ideaus, Vaccinium angustifolium and Vaccinium myrtilloides. This list
includes some species that had a questionable or indeterminate response in one
treatment but a consistent pattern in the remaining five treatments (ECOSTEM 2003a).

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Table 12. “Wildfire” plant species types in the South-East Vegetation District.

Category Description Potential Implications

“Dependent” • Absent or virtually absent in mature • Harvesting cannot approximate
Promoted forest, and effects of fire for these species.
Reduced Post-fire abundance is vastly higher
than post-harvest (at least 5 times • Harvesting substantially changes
higher). species composition.

• Found in mature forest, and; • Difficult for harvesting to
• Distribution and abundance is greatly approximate effects of fire.

promoted by some of the effects of • Some harvest methods1 will shift
fire, but species composition.
• not by harvesting without artificial
regeneration. • Harvesting promotes atypical
species.
• Post-fire pioneer abundance is vastly
lower than post-harvest (at least 5 • Harvesting shifts species
times lower). composition.

Intolerant • Eliminated by fire and require at least • Harvesting substantially changes

10 years to reestablish in a burn species composition.

patch, and

• Persist after overstory removal by

disturbances other than fire.

1 Harvest method is the combination of tree cutting, site preparation and regeneration (i.e., artificial

regeneration and competing vegetation control).

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Table 13. Understorey species responses* to the disturbances included in the

KFWHT project.

(source: ECOSTEM 2003a unless otherwise noted)

Species Name Fire Winter Harvest Summer

Harvest

1998 1999 2000 2000

Site Prep No Prep Site Prep No Prep

Agrostis scabra P! none none none none none

Aralia hispida D! none none none none none

Aralia nudicaulis N ? ? NNN

Calamagrostis canadensis N Pm P D P P

Carex spp. P! Pm P Pm Pm P

Corydalis sempervirens P* P P Pm Pm P?

Geranium bicknellii D! none none none none none

Marchantia polymorpha D none none none none none

Polygonum cilinode P Pm P Pm Pm ?

Pyrola secunda R R? R? R? R? R?

Rubus ideaus N Pm P P P ?

Vaccinium angustifolium N N N N N N

Vaccinium myrtilloides N R? R? R? R? R?

Abies balsamea I

Diervilla lonicera R

Cladina mitis R

Cladina rangiferina R

Cladina stellaris I

Picea glauca I

Rosa acicularis I

Linnaea borealis I

Clintonia borealis I

Vaccinium vitis-idaea I

Oryzopsis asperifolia I

Gaultheria procumbens D

Panicum xanthophysum D

Pinus banksiana P

Picea mariana P

Polytrichum juniperinum D

Polytrichum piliferum D

* Response to disturbance: D=”Dependent”; P=Promoted; R=Reduced; I=Intolerant; N=No apparent response; ?=response

questionable usually because there was a pattern that was not statistically significant possibly due to low statistical power;

!=response was pronounced. Responses based on post- versus pre-disturbance mean quadrat frequency.

Entries with the same color indicate the same response in Burn 1998 and Winter Harvest 1999. None = not present prior to
harvesting and absent post-harvest or frequency not significantly different from nil.

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3.1.3 Biodiversity- Species- Elements- Problem

3.1.3.1 Exotic/ Alien Species

An exotic/ alien species is any species which arrived in Canada after the start of
European settlement. Exotic species affect native biodiversity when they establish in
natural areas. Their arrival could be from transport by equipment or natural dispersal
processes. There are 60 recorded exotic species in the Southeast Vegetation district
(Table 11).

3.1.3.2 Invasive Species

Some naturalized species have life-history characteristics that enable them to colonize
and spread rapidly in intact natural habitats. Invasive aliens share several life-history
characteristics that enable them to be very effective competition to native species in
intact habitats.

White et al. (2003) consider the following species to be the most highly invasive alien
invasive species in Canada:

• Glossy buckthorn/ black buckthorn (Rhamnus frangula);
• Common buckthorn (Rhamnus cathartica);
• Flowering-rush (Butomus umbellatus);
• Purple loosestrife/ swamp loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria).
• Leafy spurge/ wolf's milk/ Faitours grass (Euphorbia esula);
• Garlic mustard/ hedge garlic (Allaria petiolata), and;
• European frog-bit (Hydrocharis morsus-ranae);

Glossy buckthorn, common buckthorn and flowering rush have been found in southern
Manitoba (herbaria records). They are not considered a significant concern because
their range in Manitoba has been restricted to the southern quarter of the province for
many years (ECOSTEM and Calyx Consulting 2003).

Purple loosestrife is a highly invasive species that has been extending its range
northward in the province. The northern-most recorded observation of purple loosestrife
is The Pas (ECOSTEM and Calyx Consulting 2003). Efforts elsewhere to control purple
loosestrife have met with little success because it is so effective at expanding its range.
It is such a highly invasive species that it should ultimately spread throughout any
region where growing conditions are favorable. Purple loosestrife is most often spread
in wetlands and marshes by waterfowl independent of disturbance or development.

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Leafy spurge is most likely to spread in the lighter soils of agricultural and prairie
grasslands.

Garlic mustard and European frog-bit are wetland plants that have been previously
recorded in Manitoba.

White et al. (2003) also identify the following species as moderately invasive in Canada:
• Smooth brome grass (Bromus inermis);
• Canada thistle (Cirsium arvense);
• Tatarian honeysuckle (Hypericum perforatum); and
• Yellow and white sweet clover (Melilotus spp.).

Smooth brome grass occurs in the southern quarter of Manitoba, and is considered to
be a potential risk for invasion of the southern boreal forest. Conversely, Canada thistle
and sweet clovers occur mainly in agricultural or prairie areas. Canada thistle has been
found in most areas of Manitoba, but it is typical of disturbed habitats, and is not
considered a threat to natural areas. Similarly, sweet clovers are usually found in
prairies, meadows, or roadsides, with white clover occurring farther north than yellow
clover in Manitoba, but they don’t compete well in natural areas.

Tatarian honeysuckle has been found in the southern half of Manitoba, in natural areas
including open woods, ravines, and woodland edges. This species is of high concern in
eastern Ontario, but has not been a widespread concern in Manitoba.

3.1.3.3 r- Strategist Species

An r-strategy species is one with a short life cycle that produces a copious number of
propagules. It has the ability to undergo rapid increase in population size over a short
period of time. An increase in the number and proportion of r-strategist species has
been suggested as an indicator that the ecosystem is under stress (Odum 1985). R-
strategist species tend to require high light intensity.

For this preliminary assessment, species were considered to be an r-strategist if they
have an annual or biennial life cycle. On this basis, 31 r-strategists may occur in the
Southeast Vegetation District (Table 11).

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3.1.4 Ecosystem Condition- Resilience- Elements

3.1.4.1 Large, Long-Lived Species

In the plant kingdom, these are trees. There are 16 tree species found in the SouthEast
vegetation district (Table 11). Balsam fir was not included as a potential species since it
often does not persist long enough to form a stand. Factors which lead to its early
demise include spruce budworm, disease and frequent fires.

3.1.4.2 r- Strategist Species

This species is indicative of more than one ecosystem health issue of concern. See
Section 3.1.3.3 for details.

3.2 Results

For each evaluative indicator, two comparisons were made based on plot frequencies
from the permanent sample plots. The two comparisons were: pre- versus post-
disturbance and post-harvest versus post-fire. The initial effects of timber harvesting
were evaluated on this basis.

Only those permanent sample plots on moderately deep mineral soils were included.
This was the only site type with adequate replication in all of the five disturbance areas.

Of the estimated 794 species occurring in the Southeast Vegetation District, 300 were
designated as potential evaluative indicator species and 41 occurred in at least one of
the disturbance areas (Table 14).

No protected species and only two “rare” species (indicators # 1.2.2.1 and 1.2.2.2 in
Table 7) were found in the disturbance areas. Vaccinium caespitosum and Erigeron
glabellus were the rare species and they occurred in Winter Harvest 2000 and the
Wildfire, respectively. Both were promoted (i.e., had a post- versus pre-disturbance
increase in quadrat frequency) in the disturbance areas where they occurred.

Thirteen range limit indicator species were encountered in the sample plots. Two of
these had a disturbance response based on the response criteria. Amelanchier
sanguinea had opposite responses in Summer Harvest 2001 (intolerant) and Winter
Harvest 2000 (promoted). Pteridium aquilinum was promoted in Winter Harvest 2000.

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Of the three forest dependent species identified thus far, only Goodyera repens was
found and had a threshold response in the disturbance areas1. As expected, it was
eliminated from Summer Harvest 2000. We expect that the number of affected forest
dependent species will increase once further work is completed to identify which other
species fall into this category.

Forest associated species was the evaluative indicator that had the second largest
number of species in the disturbance areas (up to 14 species, depending on
disturbance type; Table 7). Six responses were recorded for this indicator. Two species
were promoted by Winter Harvest 1999 (Clintonia borealis, Oryzopsis asperifolia), two
species were reduced (Lycopodium clavatum in Summer Harvest 2000, Rubus
pubescens in Wildfire) and three species were eliminated (Cypripedium acaule and
Goodyera repens in Summer Harvest 2000, Pyrola asarifolia in Summer Harvest 2001).
We expect that the number of affected forest associated species will increase once we
collect age 2 or 3 data from the harvest trial areas.

Two “fire dependent” species, Aralia hispida and Geranium bicknellii, had a “dependent
response” in the disturbance areas. That is, they were absent prior to disturbance and
had a post- disturbance plot frequency of at least four. Both species had responses in
the Wildfire and Summer Harvest 2001. Aralia hispida also had a “dependent” response
in Winter Harvest 1999. Fire dependent species had a dependent response in two
harvest areas because different, less stringent criteria were applied for two reasons.
Only data for age one was available for three of the four areas and pre-disturbance data
was lacking for one area. These species had substantially higher quadrat frequencies in
the Wildfire compared with the harvest areas.

Although there were a number of “fire promoted” species with a disturbance response,
none of these were a promoted response (i.e., post-disturbance/ pre-disturbance plot
frequency > 1.5). Three fire promoted species had a “dependent” response (Agrostis
scabra, Corydalis sempervirens, Polygonum cilinode). All three appeared after wildfire.
Polygonum cilinode also appeared in Summer Harvest 2000 and Winter Harvest 1999.
Corydalis sempervirens appeared in Summer Harvest 2000. As with the fire dependent
species, the contradiction between fire promoted and dependent response is only
apparent. It reflects the constraints from data availability and progress analyzing
available data at the time of writing this report. Plot frequency was substantially higher
in the Wildfire than in the harvest areas with a response.

1 Pre-disturbance data was not collected in the Wildfire and Winter Harvest 1999. 69

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None of the “fire reduced” indicator species had a reduced response in the Wildfire. This
was because pre-fire data was not available and we did not assume that these species
were present prior to fire (they were not found in all of the mature replicates). One fire
reduced species, Diervilla lonicera, was promoted in Winter Harvest 1999.

Both of the “fire intolerant” indicator species (Abies balsamea, Vaccinium vitis-idaea)
were presumably eliminated by wildfire. Rosa acicularis was reduced in the Wildfire. No
fire intolerant species were promoted by harvesting. This was probably due to a
combination of having only age one data for some replicates and the use of plot rather
than quadrat frequencies. These limitations will be rectifiable after the next
remeasurements which are scheduled for summer 2004.

A disturbance response was not observed for large, long-lived species. This was
because plot frequency is an adequate measure of distribution and abundance for these
species because all of the species identified to date are trees. There were strong
responses for many of the tree species when tree density and recruitment are used as
the response measure (ECOSTEM 2003a).

Invasive species did not occur in the sample plots. Only one exotic species (Agropyron
repens) was encountered and that was in Winter Harvest 1999 where it had no
distgurbance response based on the criteria.

One r-strategist (Panicum capillare) was encountered and this was in the Wildfire where
it had no response based on the criteria.

A graphical and more detailed comparison of post-disturbance recovery is available.
Post-fire and post-harvest recovery pathway comparisons are provided for many of
these species in ECOSTEM (2003a).

In summary, there was only one situation where a response was contrary to the criterion
for evaluative indicator selection: a range limit species was eliminated in Summer
Harvest 2001. These results are encouraging but should be interpreted with some
caution as they only extend to age one for some of the harvest areas and are based on
plot rather than quadrat frequency. Both of these drawbacks will be eliminated after the
next remeasurements which are scheduled for summer 2004. This results section
should be primarily used as an example of how results could be presented rather than
as strongly supporting any conclusions.

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Table 14. Evaluative indicator species- estimated number of responses by indicator species an

Response Area Present Rare Forest Forest Range Fire Fir
Category Dependent Associated Limit Dependent Prom

Indicator # 1.2.2.2 1.2.2.3 1.2.3.1 1.2.2.5 1.2.3.2 1.2.3

Present In: Fire 300 91 3 88 115 4
Winter Harvest 1999 19 1 83 4
Region
22 11 2 2
Disturbance
Areas

Winter Harvest 2000 22 1 12 5 1

Summer Harvest 2001 25 14 3 2

Summer Harvest 2000 22 1 14 1 1

Responses Fire 7 1 3
Dependent Winter Harvest 1999 7 1 1

Promoted Summer Harvest 2001 2 21 2
2
Reduced Summer Harvest 2000 2
Intolerant/ 1
Eliminated Fire 11 1
Winter Harvest 1999 4
1 11
Winter Harvest 2000 51 1

Fire 2
Summer Harvest 2000 1

Fire 2
Summer Harvest 2001 2

Summer Harvest 2000 2

Total

Responses 21 65 6

* Plant species protected by legislation were not encountered in the cut-blocks. Note: shaded cells indicate responses tha

nd disturbance types*.

re Fire Fire Large Invasive Exotic r-
oted Reduced Intolerant Long- 1.2.4.1 1.2.4.2 Strategists
Lived
3.3 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.5
2.2.1.2

5 2 7 16 24 41 27

3121 1

2162 1

1162

3261

2162

3
1 11

2

1
1

2

61 4 2 1
at are of concern.

Chapter 4 Progress On Potential Process Indicators From
Post-Harvest And Post-Fire Ecosystem Dynamics Research

4.1 Background

Identifying reliable multi-scale indicators of timber harvesting effects on long-term
ecosystem health is an extremely challenging undertaking given the complexity,
hierarchical nature and our limited understanding of evolutionary and ecological
processes. It is relatively easy to identify what types of things should be monitored in
much the same way that one can say that a safe car is one whose steering, brakes, etc.
are in good working order. However, it is very difficult to suggest measurable indicators
that are simultaneously reliable, efficient, non-duplicating, leading (or have a short lag)
and synthetic. For example, nutrient cycling is an important process that is expensive to
measure as part of a monitoring program. There is no generally accepted, easily
collected measure that synthesizes soil nutrient availability in the same way that water
supply over the growing season is synthesized by the standard moisture regime
classification used in the field (c.f., Zoladeski et al. 1995).

A preliminary effort has been made thus far in the Keeping Forests Healthy While
Harvesting Timber project to identify an evaluative indicator set that captures all of the
issues of concern related to the site, cut-block and operating area effects of timber
harvesting (Table 7). From this indicator set, Table 15 identifies generic indicators of
long-term ecosystem health that still require measurable indicators. Intensive scientific
research being conducted as part of the Keeping Forests Healthy While Harvesting
Timber project is contributing towards the development of site scale indicators for some
of these generic indicators/ issues of concern. Research towards this end is underway
in a subset of the permanent sample plots in the Wildfire and Summer Harvest 2000.
The overall objective of the intensive scientific research is to get a better understanding
of how nutrients are distributed within the site ecosystem and how they are transferred
between different ecosystem components over time (e.g., between soils and
vegetation). Clearly this is a large task and this research will only be able to address a
portion of the complete ecosystem.

It is anticipated that operational data collection for some of the measures identified by
this component of the KFHWT project will only be feasible at a subset of sites due to the
costs involved. Consequently, the measures being developed could be included in
sustainability reporting but not to the same extent as other indicators. These
measurable indicators are essential part of the of a monitoring program as they help to
validate the reliability of other indicators.

For the remaining measurable indicators being studied in the intensive scientific
research program, it is the intention that operational versions of the measurements will
be specified. It is hoped that these operational measures will be less reliable than the
scientific ones but still sufficiently reliable for sustainability assessment provided that
they are complemented by validation monitoring and ongoing intensive research at a
small number of research sites.

Table 15. Generic indicators that require measurable indicators and some
candidate measures.

Attribute Generic Indicator Potential Measure for the
Process-Leakage
(type of change that is considered to be Southeast Vegetation
adverse is shown in italics) District

Ecosystem Condition-
Resilience

Nutrients retained in site Amount and distribution of Foliar nutrient content
ecosystem nutrients in system Soil nutrient availability

Ecosystem Condition- Leaching losses.
Extant biomass

Primary productivity Mean annual tree increment Short-term: stem elongation
- reduction or increase rate, root collar diameter

Basal area/ ha

Soil Quantity & Quality

Soil fertility Within block tree, slash and Ca content of foliage.

snag retention Ca availability in soil.

(Johnson 1994)

Decomposition Patterns over time release
nutrients when they can be
captured

Contributions to Global Carbon Budget
Cycles

Soil carbon in mineral soils Loss of soil organic matter Carbon concentration.
in mineral soils

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4.2 Methods

Biomass samples were collected from four 0.5 x 1 m quadrat at the intensive study plots
in the Wildfire, Summer Harvest 2000 conventional cut-blocks and Summer Harvest
2000 wildfire based cut-blocks. All above ground vegetation in the low shrub and bryoid
layers was clipped, placed in paper bags, air dried in the lab and then dried at
approximately 30º for 24 to 48 hours. The duff layer was also collected. Understory,
ground, jack pine seedlings and black spruce seedlings were placed into separate bags
in the field. The understory and ground bags were separated into finer taxonomic
groups in the lab. Jack pine and black spruce seedling heights were also recorded by
growth form (i.e., seedling, sapling) in the lab.

Data available from field samples includes:
• Dry weight by taxon;
• Macro-nutrient content. Nutrients included P, Ca, K, Mg, Na, S and total N;
• Jack pine height by growth form (i.e., seedling, sapling).

4.3 Results

4.3.1 Biomass

Total weight of the measured taxa was significantly lower in the Wildfire than in the
Conventional or Wildfire based cut-blocks (ANOVA with α = 5%). This was the case for
both years. When only living biomass was considered, the Wildfire overtook the harvest
blocks between the first and second measurements. Most of the difference was due to
large increases in Marchantia polymorpha and jack pine biomass in the Wildfire
combined with a decline in living moss in Summer Harvest 2000 (Figure 4). Understory
biomass was higher in the fire in both years. Understory vegetation was mostly
herbaceous in the Wildfire and post-harvest residual species in Summer Harvest 2000.

These results confirm the expected difference between the initial effects of wildfire and
timber harvesting: wildfire removed more of the understory biomass than summer
harvesting. Wildfire also promoted vigorous regrowth that was initially dominated by
Marchantia polymorpha and some herbs (probably mostly Epilobium angustifolium and
Corydalis sempervirens based on changes in quadrat frequency; ECOSTEM 2003a).
This was followed by vigorous jack pine regeneration. A biomass response to
harvesting was exhibited by Vaccinium angustifolium, Vaccinium myrtilloides and some
other understory species (probably mostly Calamagrostis canadensis and sedges
based on changes in quadrat frequency; ECOSTEM 2003a).

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Table 16. Biomass weight by species and year in the Wildfire and Summer
Harvest 2000.

Year 2000 2001
Conventio Conventio
Species Fire Wildfire Fire Wildfire Cut
(age 1.5) nal Cut Cut (age 2.5) nal Cut (age 1.1)
Bryoid- dead (age 0.1) (age 1.1) 1,445
147 (age 0.1) 559
Moss spp.- dead 8 0 1,575 1
Pleurozium schreberi-
dead 124 191 1
3
Polytrichum spp.- dead 53 6 6
40 14 13
Dicranum- dead 199 66 58
8 2
Marchantia polymorpha 4 2
30 0 44 1
Polytrichum spp. 119 6
Polytrichum- alive & dead 4 20
mixture 10 24 32
28 416 10 101
Dicranum spp. 1
1 2 2
Pleurozium schreberi 21 1
17 9 1,583
Moss spp. 30 8 36 34
12 70 31
Sphagnum spp.
0 40 1
Cladina spp. 266 388
65
Lichen- other 11 2
943 1,785
Cladina & moss mixture

Vaccinium ang. & myrt.

Understory- other
Jack pine- current year
growth
Jack pine- prior year
growth

Black spruce

Total

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1,600 Fire 2000
1,400 Harvest 2000
1,200 Fire 2001
Harvest 2001

1,000

800

600

400

200

0 Bryoid Understory Tree Species

Ground-
Dead

Figure 4. Biomass (gm/ 0.5 m2) distribution by stratum and year.
Harvest values are the mean of both harvest types.

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4.3.2 Nutrient Content

Samples from up to 17 of the biomass plots sampled in 2000 and 2001 were analyzed
for nutrient content (Table 17). ANOVA was conducted on mean plot concentrations
(mean µg/gm or % of four quadrats) by element using disturbance area, site type and
year as fixed factors and α = 5%.

ANOVA models were significant for all elements except for magnesium (Table 18).
Magnesium was the only model with statistical power less than 1.0.

The age effect (i.e., year variable) was significant for potassium and sodium. Potassium
temporal change varied by disturbance area (significant interaction term).

The disturbance effect (i.e., area variable in table) was significant only for calcium and
phosphorus (Table 18). There was an interaction between disturbance and site type for
phosphorus. Concentrations of all elements varied by species.

Blueberry was the only species available in both disturbances in both years. Mean
blueberry calcium concentrations were substantially higher in the Wildfire than in
Summer Harvest 2000 for both years. Phosphorus concentrations were only slightly
higher. Ground biomass was available for both disturbances in 2001. Mean ground
tissue calcium and phosphorus concentrations were both substantially higher in the
Wildfire than in Summer Harvest 2000 in 2001.

It appears that wildfire had a positive short-term effect on calcium and phosphorus
concentrations in blueberry tissue. This is especially noteworthy given that the above
ground portions of these plants were killed by fire and substantial resources were
expended in regeneration. Whether or not blueberry tissue calcium and phosphorus
concentrations are a good indicator of adverse short-term harvesting effects is yet to be
determined. Others have hypothesized that calcium should be a good indicator of
harvesting effects (Johnson 1994). Calcium is generally not volatilized by fire but is
immobilized in tree boles which are removed by timber harvesting. There is also the
confounding effect of individual size on nutrient concentrations. That is, recently
regenerated plants have a smaller biomass per individual than the residual plants left
after timber harvesting. The potential utility of calcium concentration as a long-term
indicator of site fertility will be the subject of further literature review and
remeasurement, both of which are beyond the scope of this progress report.

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