GRAMMAR IN CONTEXT 3

EXERCISE 17 Work with a partner and talk about something ...

I. you wish you had done when you were younger.

2. you wish you had studied when you were younger.

3. your family wishes you had done differently.

4. you wish you had known before you came to this country.

5. you wish your parents had done or told you.

6. you wish had never happened.

EXERCISE 18 Fill in the blanks with the correct form of the verb given in each of the conversations.
Some wishes are about the present; some are about the past. Some are wishes for a change.

l. A: I wish I ------'-'h"'a-"d'------ good vision.

a. have

B: Why don't you try laser surgery? I had it two years ago, and I don't need glasses anymore. I had worn

glasses since I was a child. I wish they----,---;----- this surgery years ago.

b. have

2. A: I wish I _ _ _ _-;-____ thin.

a. be

B: Why don't you try a diet?

A: I've tried every diet. Nothing works.

B: You need to exercise every day.

A: I'm too tired when 1 get home from work. I wish scientists ----;--~-;---- a pill that would make

b. find

me thin with no effort on my part.

3. A: I've been bald since I was twenty-five years old. I wish I -----cc~_ _ _ bald.

a. not/be

B: They say bald men are very manly.

A: I don't care what they say. I wish I----;---;----- hair. I wish someone----~-;---- a

b. have c. find

solution for baldness.

4. A: I wish I-----,------- older.

a. be

B: Why? No one wants to get old.

A: I didn't say "old." I just said "older." Older people have more experience and wisdom.

B: I wish we---~~--- the wisdom of old people and the bodies of young people.

b. have

continued

Unreal Conditionals, Wishes 335

5. A: I wish I _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ travel to the future.

a. can

B: Why?

A: I would be able to see future problems and then come back and warn people about them.

B: I wish I - - - - , - - - - - - go to the past.

b. can

A: Why?

B: I would want to meet my grandparents. I never knew them. I wish I _________ them, but

c. know

they died before I was born.

6. A: We saw a great movie last night about time travel. Too bad you didn't come with us.

B: I wish I--------,---,----- with you, but I had to study for my biology test.

can/go

7. A: I'm an only child. I wish I - - - - - c - - - - - a sister or brother.

a. have

B: Maybe you will someday.

•i A: I don't think so. My parents are in their fifties. I wish they----,-...,------ another child when

b. have

they were young.

8. A: We went to see a great movie last night. I wish you _________ with us.

a, come

B: You didn't tell me about it. I wish you-----,--;--;;---- me. What was it about?

b. tell

A: It was about a man who wishes he -----,-----rich. And his wish comes true.

c. be

He's suddenly very rich, and he starts to have all kinds of problems.

B: I wish I _________ those kinds of problems!

d. have

EXERCISE 19 A mother (A) is complaining to her adult son (B). Fill in the blanks with the correct
form of the words given to express their wishes. Some wishes are about the present; some are about
the past. Some are wishes for a change.

A: You never visit. I wish you __w=o'-'u"l"dL<vbiS;,i"t'----_ me more often. I'm not going to live forever, you know.

1. visit

B: I do visit you often. Isn't once a week often enough?

A: Some day I won't be here, and you'll say to yourself, "I wish I ------;,---;c::---- my mom more often."

2. visit

I B: Mom, you're only forty-eight years old.

I;

A: Who knows how long I'll be here? There are no guarantees in life. My own mother died when I was a

teenager. I wish she -----::--;c---- to see you and your sister.
3. live

B: I do too. But what can we do?

336 Lesson 11

A: I wish you ----;---;:-:----married already.

4. be

B: Mom, I'm only twenty-five years old. There's plenty of time to get married.
A: Well, your sister's only twenty-three, and she's already married. I wish you------,-----

5. be

more like your sister. She finished college and then got married.
B: I wish you-----.,...------- comparing me to my sister. She has different goals in life.

6. stop

Besides, you don't like her husband.
A: You're right. I wish s h e - - - - - - , : - - - - - - - a different man.

7. marry

B: There's nothing wrong with Paul. He's a good husband to her.
A: We'll see. You know, you're too thin. I wish you -----;c--:-:c:---- more.

B. eat

B: I eat enough. When I was a teenager, you said I was too fat.
A: I'm still your mother. I wish you -----;:-;,..,.-_ _ _ _ _ to me.

9. listen

B: I do listen to you. But I've got to live my own life.
A: Sometimes you act like a child and tell me you're old enough to make your own decisions. Then you

tell me you're too young to get married.
B: I'm not too young to get married. I just don't want to do it now. I'm happy being a rock musician.
A: I wish you - - - = - c - - - - - a real job.

10. have

B: I have a real job.
A: You didn't finish college. You left after your junior year. I wish you-----:-;--,.,.,------

11. get

your degree.
B: You don't need a college degree to be a rock musician.
A: Well, I hope I live long enough to see you married, with a good job.
B: With today's technologies, you'll probably live to be 150 years old. I'll be 127, and you'll probably

still be telling me how to live my life.

Unreal Conditionals, Wishes 337

SUMMARY OF LESSON 11

1. Unreal Conditionals-Present Verb c+ Would/Could/Might+ Base Form
I would go to Mars.
.. I would know my great-great-grandchildren.
you could meet your ancestors.
If I were an astronaut1 we wouldn't be able to explore space.
you might live to be one hundred years old.
If I could live to be 150 years old,

Ifyou could travel to the past,

Ifwe didn't have advanced technology,

Ifyou took better care of yourself,

2. Unreal Conditionals-Past Verb c+ Would/Could/Might+ Have + Past Participle
you wouldn't have had a computer.
.' you could have practiced medicine without
a college degree.
If you had lived one hundred years ago,
If you had been a doctor one hundred years ago, I wouldn't have been born.

If my father had not met my mother, you might have died.
Ifyou had gotten an infection one hundred years
ago,

3. Real Possibilities-Future Result

Conditional we will learn a lot.
you'll live longer.
If we explore Mars,
Ifyou eat a healthy diet,

4. Wishes

. '. Explanation

I wish my grandparents were here. Wish about the present

I wish I could go to Mars.

' : I wish we were learning about dinosaurs.

I wish I could live to be one hundred. Wish about the future

I wish my grandpa would tell me more about his Wish for a change in another person or situation
childhood.
My mother wishes my father would take better care
of his health.

I wish I had studied more science when I was Wish about the past
younger.

338 Lesson 11

TEST/REVIEW

Circle the letter of the correct word(s) to fill in the blanks.

1. I _________ help you with your science project if I had more time.

a. were @would

b. will d. would be

2. I might become a scientist. If I _________ one, I'll try to find a cure for diseases.

a. will become c. would become

b. became d. become

3. If I _________ you, fd spend more time on science and less on science fiction.

a. were c. will be

b. am d. would be

4. I can't help you with your project. I would help you if I _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

a. can c. would

b. could d. had

5. We can't travel at the speed of light. If we could travel at the speed of light, we _________ able to

visit far away stars.

a. would be c. would have been

b. will be d. were

6. We would know more about Mars if it _________ so far away.

a. weren't c. wouldn't have been

b. won'tbe d. wouldn't be

7. Some people don't take good care of their health. If they _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ better care of their health,

they would probably live longer.

a. take c. had taken

b. would take d. took

8. I wouldn't go to Mars even if you _________ me a million dollars.

a. pay c. willpay

b. paid d. wouldpay

continued

Unreal Conditionals, Wishes 339

9. If I could visit any planet, I _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Jupiter.

a. will visit c. would be visit

b. would visit d. would have visited

10. I don't know much about science. I wish I _________ more about it.

a. knew c. have known

b. willknow d. know

11. We can't travel to the past. I wish we _________ travel to the past.

a. could c. can

b. would d. will

12. If I had known my great-grandparents, I _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ them about their childhood.

a. would ask c. could ask

b. will ask d. would have asked

13. My uncle never exercised and was overweight. He had a heart attack and died when he was fifty years old.

If he _________ better care of himself, he might have lived much longer.

a. would take c. took

b. had taken d. will take

14. Salvatore Caruso broke his leg and couldn't serve in World War II. If he _________ in

World War II, he might have been killed.

a. were served c. would serve

b. has served d. had served

15. My favorite dog died ten years ago. I wish I _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ her.

a. clone c. had cloned

b. will clone d. would clone

16. I wish scientists a cure for AIDS.

a. find c. would find

b. found d. will find

340 Lesson 11

17. I didn't study physics in high school, but I wish I ________

a. have c. were

b. had d. would

18. I don't know much about dinosaurs, but I wish I _________

a. had c. would

b. were d. did

19. If you the movie Jurassic Park, you would have been very scared.

a. had seen c. would have seen

b. would see d. will see

20. If scientists brought dinosaurs back from extinction today, the world _________ very

dangerous for humans.

a. will be c. would be

b. would have been d. were

Unreal Conditionals, Wishes 341

WRITING

PART 1 Editing Advice

1. Don't use will with an unreal conditional.

were

If Iwilt-Be on Mars, I would look for life forms.

2. Always use the base form after a modal.

have

The teacher would hi!£ helped you with your science project if you had asked her.

3. Use the past perfect, not the present perfect, for unreal conditionals and wishes.

had

If you fnwe.seen the movie, you would have understood more about dinosaurs.

had

I wish you flilve-seen the movie.

4. For a real conditional about the future, use the simple present in the if clause.

If Iwill have time tomorrow, I will help you with your science project.

5. In formal writing, use were/ not was, in an unreal conditional.

were

I wish Iwa5 a better student in science.

PART 2 Editing Practice

Some of the shaded words and phrases have mistakes. Find the mistakes and correct them. If the
shaded words are correct, write C.

C had

There are a few things in my life that I wish were different. First, I wish I have a better job and

l. 2.

made more money. Unfortunately, I don't have the skills for a better job. When I was in high school.

3.

I wasn't interested in college. My parents always said, '~We wish you would continued your

4.

education," but I was foolish and didn't listen to them. If I have gone to college, I will be making

5. 6.

much more money now. And if I had more money, I could help my family back home. And, if

7. B.

I will be better educated, my parents would be very proud of me. I wish I can convince my younger

9. 10. II.

brothers and sister about the importance of an education, but they'll have to make their own

decisions.

Another thing I'm not happy about is my living situation. I have a roommate because I can't

afford to pay the rent alone. I wish I don't have a roommate. My roommate always watches TV, and

12.

the TV is too loud. I wish he would turn off the TV at night and let me sleep. My parents have told

13.

me, "If I were you, I will get a better roommate." But we signed a one-year lease together and I can't

14. 15.

342 Lesson 11

do anything about it until next May. If I had known that he was going to be so inconsiderate, I never

16.

would had roomed with him. I wish it was May already! I prefer to live alone rather than live with

17. 18.

a stranger. I'm saving my money now. If I will have enough money, I'll get my own apartment next

19.

May. Another possibility is to room with my cousin, who's planning to come here soon. If he comes

20.

to the U.S. by May, I share an apartment with him. He's very responsible. I wish he has come to the

21. 22.

U.S. with me last year, but he didn't get his visa at that time.
I realize that we all make mistakes in life, but we learn from them. If I could give advice to every

23.

young person in the world, I'd say, "Look before you leap." And I will say, "Listen to your parents.

24. 25.

They've lived longer than you, and you can learn from their experience."

PART 3 Write About It

1. What do you think would be the advantages or disadvantages of cloning human beings?
2. Write about an important decision you made in the past. What would your life be like if you hadn't

made this decision?

PART 4 Edit Your Writing

Reread the Summary of Lesson 11 and the editing advice. Edit your writing from Part 3.

Unreal Conditionals, Wishes 343



APPENDIX A

Vowel and Consonant Pronunciation Charts

Vowels Consonants

~ymbol Examples Symbol Examples
A b
love, cup d bread, cab
a father, box f door, dude
class, black g form, if
"' alone, atom h go, flag
ever1 well j hello, behind
" eat, feet k use, yellow
miss, bit I cook1 hil'e
£ talk1 corn m leg, little
i would, book n month, time
cone, boat never, nine
I tooth, through D singer, walking
able, day p put, map
~ mine, try r river1 try
about, cow s saw, parks
u join, boy show1 action
au J atom, lady
u take, tent
ei f check, church
aI thing, both
au t the, either
tJ voice/ of
~I would, reward
e zoo, mazes
usual, vision
0 just, edge
v
w
z

3

rl3

Appendix A IVowel and Consonant Charts AP1

APPENDIX B

Noncount Nouns

There are several types of noncount nouns.

Group A: Nouns that Jlave no distinct, separate parts. We look at the whole.

milk yogurt paper cholesterol

oil poultry rain blood

water bread air

coffee meat electricity

tea soup lightning

juice butter thunder

Group B: Nouns that have parts that are too small or insignificant to count.

rice hair sand

sugar popcorn corn

salt snow grass

Group C: Nouns that are classes or categories of things. The members of the category are not the same.

money or cash (nickels, dimes, dollars) mail (letters, packages, postcards, flyers)

furniture (chairs, tables, beds) homework (compositions1 exercises1 readings)
clothing (sweaters, pants, dresses) jewelry (necklaces, bracelets, rings)

Group D: Nouns that are abstractions.

love happiness nutrition patience work nature

truth education intelligence poverty health help

beauty advice unemployment music fun energy

luck/fortune knowledge pollution art information friendship

GroupE: Subjects of study.

history grammar biology

chemistry geometry math (mathematics*)

*Note: Even though mathematics ends with s, it is not plural.

AP2 Appendix B I Noncount Nouns

Notice the quantity words used with count and noncount nouns.

. , Plural Gaunt

a tomato tomatoes coffee

one tomato two tomatoes two cups of coffee

some tomatoes some coffee

no tomato no tomatoes no coffee
any tomatoes
,_ any coffee
(with questions and negatives)
(with questions and negatives)

a lot of tomatoes a lot of coffee

many tomatoes much coffee
(with questions and negatives)

a few tomatoes a little coffee

several tomatoes several cups of coffee

How many tomatoes? How much coffee?

The following words can be used as either count nouns or noncount nouns.
However, the meaning changes according to the way the nouns are used.

Count I bought some fruit at the fruit store,

Oranges and grapefruit are fruits that We don't need to go shopping today. We have a lot of
contain a lot of vitamin C. food at home.
Ice cream and butter are foods that I need some paper to write my composition.
contain cholesterol. There is a lot of crime in a big city,
He wrote a paper about hypnosis. We ate some chicken for dinner.
He committed three crimes last year. I have some trouble with my car.
I have two hundred chickens on my farm. She spent a lot oftime on her project.
I don't want to bore you with all my troubles. The window is made of bulletproof glass.
She went to Puerto Rico three times. She has some experience with computer
She drank three glasses of water. programming.
I had a bad experience during my trip Life is sometimes happy, sometimes sad.
to Paris.
I don't know much about the lives of my Those children are making a lot of noise.
grandparents.
I heard a noise outside my window.

Appendix B 1Noncount Nouns AP3

APPENDIX C

Use of Articles

PART 1 Use of the Indefinite Article

A. To classify a subject Explanation

...

Chicago is a city. • We use a before a consonant sound.

Illinois is a state. • We use an before a vowel sound.

I Abraham Lincoln was an American president. • We can put an adjective before the noun.

Chicago and Los Angeles are cities. We do not use an article before a plural noun.

Lincoln and Washington were American presidents.

...B. To make a generalization about a noun Explanation

A dog has sharp teeth. We use an indefinite article (alan)+ a singular
Dogs have sharp teeth. count noun or no article with a plural noun.

An elephant has big ears. Both the singular and plural forms have the
Elephants have big ears. same meaning.
Coffee contains caffeine.
We do not use an article to make a generalization
Love makes people happy. about a noncount noun.

C. To introduce a new noun into the conversation

Examples Explanation

I have a cell phone. We use the indefinite article alan with singular
I have an umbrella. count nouns.
We use some or any with plural nouns and noncount
I have (some) dishes. nouns.
Do you have (any) cups? We use any in questions and negatives.
I don't have (any) forks. Some and any can be omitted.
I have (some) money with me.
Do you have (any) cash with you? There+ a form of be can introduce an indefinite
I don't have (any) time. noun into a conversation.

There's an elevator in the building.
There isn't any money in my wallet.

'I'

I

'i

continued

AP4 Appendix C I Use of Articles

PiUtT 2 Use of the Definite Article

A. To refer to a previously mentioned noun

~xamples t• • •

There's a dog in the next apartment. The dog barks We start by saying a dog. We continue by saying the dog.
all the time.
We bought some grapes. We ate the grapes this We start by saying some grapes. We continue by saying
morning. tMgrapes.

I need some sugar. fm going to use the We start by saying some sugar. We continue by saying the
sugar to bake a cake. sugar.
Did you buy any coffee~ Yes. The coffee is We start by saying any coffee. We continue by saying the
in the cabinet. coffee.

B. When the speaker and the listener have the same reference

~xamples ...

The number on this page is APS. The object is present, so the speaker and
listener have the same object in mind.

The president is talking about the economy. People who live in the same country have things in
common.
Please turn off the lights and shut the People who live in the same house have things in
door before you leave the house. common.

The house on the corner is beautiful. The listener knows exactly which one because
I spent the money yon gave me. the speaker defines or specifies which one.

C. When there is only one in our experience Explanation

E)(amples The sun, the moon, and the world are unique objects.

The sun is bigger than the moon. The page has only one top.
There are many problems in the world. A superlative indicates that there is only one.
Write your name on the top of the page.
Alaska is the biggest state in the U.S.

D. With familiar places

Examples Explanation

I'm going to the store after work. Do you need We use the with certain familiar places and people-the
anything? bank, the zoo, the park, the store, the movies, the beach, the
The bank is closed now. I'll go tomorrow. post office, the bus, the train, the doctor, the dentist-when
we refer to the one that we habitually visit or use.

Language Notes:

1. Omit the after a preposition with the words church, school, work, and bed.

He's in church. They're at work.

I'm going to school. I'm going to bed.

2. Omit to and the with home and downtown.

I'm going home. Are you going downtown after class?

continued

Appendix C I Use of Articles APS

E. To make a formal generalization

Examples '• • I

The shark is the oldest and most To say that something is true of all members
primitive fish. of a group, use the with singular count nouns.

The computer has changed the way people deal To talk about a class of inventions, use the.
with information.

The ear has three parts: outer1 middle1 and inner. To talk about an organ of the body in a general sense,
use the.

Language Note:

For informal generalizations, use a+ a singular noun or no article with a plural noun.
The computer has changed the way we deal with information. (Formal)
A computer is expensive. (Informal)
Computers are expensive. (Informal)

PART 3 Special Uses of Articles Article

No Article The whole family:
Personal names: the Kennedys

John Kennedy Title without name:
the Queen
Title and name:
Queen Elizabeth Places that are considered a union:

Cities, states, countries, continents: the United States

Cleveland Place names: the of
Ohio
Mexico the District of Columbia
South America
Mountain ranges:
Mountains: the Rocky Mountains
Mount Everest
Collectives of islands:
Islands: the Hawaiian Islands
Staten Island
Collectives of lakes:
Lakes: the Great Lakes
Lake Superior
Rivers, oceans, seas:
Beaches:
Palm Beach the Mississippi River
Pebble Beach the Atlantic Ocean
the Dead Sea
Streets and avenues:
Madison Avenue Well-known buildings:
Wall Street the Willis Tower
the Empire State Building
Parks:
Central Park Zoos:
the San Diego Zoo

continued

AP6 Appendix C I Use of Articles

No Article Deserts:
the Mojave Desert
Seasons: the Sahara Desert
summer fall spring winter
Summer is my favorite season.

Note: After a preposition, the may be used.
In (the) winter, my car runs badly.

Directions: Sections of a piece of land:
the West Side (of New York]
north south east west

School subjects: Unique geographical points:
history math the North Pole the Vatican

Name + college or university: The University/College of _ _ _ __
the University of Michigan
Northwestern University

Magazines: Newspapers:
Time Sports Illustrated the Tribune the Wall Street Journal

Months and days: Monday Ships: the Queen Elizabeth II
September the Titanic

Holidays and dates: The day of month:
Mother's Day the fifth of May
July 4 (month + day) the Fourth of July

Diseases: AIDS Ailments: a toothache
cancer malaria a cold the flu
a headache
polio

Games and sports: Musical instruments, after play:
poker the drums the piano
soccer
Note: Sometimes the is omitted.
She plays (the] drums.

Languages: The language:
English the English language

Last month, year, week, etc.= the one The last month, the last year, the last
before this one: week, etc. = the last in a series:

I forgot to pay my rent last month. December is the last month of the year.
The teacher gave us a test last week. Vacation begins the last week in May.

In office= in an elected position: In the office= in a specific room:
The president is in office for four years. The teacher is in the office.

In back/in front: In the back/in the front: I
She's in back He's in the back of the bus.
of the car.

Appendix C I Use of Articles AP7

APPENDIX D

Verbs and Adjectives Followed by a Preposition

Many verbs and adjectives are followed by a preposition. ,

accuse someone of (be) familiar with (be) prepared for/to
(be) accustomed to (be) famous for prevent (someone) from
adjust to (be) fond of prohibit (someone) from
(be) afraid of forget about protect (someone) from
(be) proud of
agree with forgive someone for recover from
(be) amazed at/by (be) glad ab~ut (be) related to
(be) angry about (be) good at rely on/upon
(be) responsible for
(be) angry at/with (be) grateful to someone for (be) sad about
(be) satisfied with
apologize for (be) guilty of . (be) scared of
approve of (be) happy about (be) sick of
(be) sorry about
argue about hear about (be) sony for
speak about
argue with hear of speak to/with
(be) ashamed of hope for succeed in
(be) sure of/about
(be) aware of (be) incapable of (be) surprised at
take care of
believe in insist on/upon talk about
talk to/with
blame someone for (be) interested in thank (someone) for
(be) thankful (to someone) for
(be) bored with/by (be) involved in think about/of
(be) capable of (be) jealous of (be) tired of
(be) upset about
care about (be) known for (be) upset with
care for (be) lazy about (be) used to
wait for
compare to/with listen to warn (someone) about
complain about look at (be) worried about
concentrate on look for worry about

(be) concerned about look forward to

consist of (be) mad about
count on (be) mad at

deal with (be) made from/of
decide on (be) married to

depend on/upon object to
(be) different from (be) opposed to

disapprove of participate in
(be) divorced from plan on

dream about/of pray to

(be) engaged to pray for

(be) excited about

APS Appendix D IVerbs and Adjectives Followed by a Preposition

APPENDIX E

Direct and Indirect Objects

The order of direct and indirect objects depends on the verb we use. It also can depend on whether we use a noun or a pronoun
as the object.

Group 1 Pronouns affect word order. The preposition used is to.

Patterns: He gave a present to his wife. (DO to 10}

Verbs: He gave his wife a present. (!0/DO}

He gave it to his wife. (DO to 10}

He gave her a present. (!0/DO}

He gave it to her. (DO to 10}

bring lend pass sell show teach
tell
give offer pay send sing write

hand owe read serve take

Group 2 Pronouns affect word order. The preposition used is for.

Patterns: He bought a car for his daughter. (DO for 10}

Verbs: He bought his daughter a car. (!0/DO}

He bought it for his daughter. (DO for !0}

He bought her a car. (10/DO}

He bought it for her. (DO for 10}

bake buy draw get make

build do find knit reserve

Group 3 Pronouns don't affect word order. The preposition used is to.

Patterns: He explained the problem to his friend. (DO to 10}

Verbs: He explained it to her. (DO to IO}

admit explain prove report say

announce introduce recommend speak

describe mention repeat suggest

Group 4 Pronouns don't affect word order. The preposition used is for.

Patterns: He cashed a check for his friend. (DO for !0}

Verbs: He cashed it for her. (DO for IO}

answer change design open prescribe

cash close fix prepare pronounce

Group 5 Pronouns don't affect word order. No preposition is used.
Patterns:
She asked the teacher a question. (!0/DO}
Verbs:
She asked him a question. (!0/DO}

ask charge cost wish take (with time}

Appendix E J Direct and Indirect Objects AP9

APPENDIX F

Plural Forms of Nouns

man men Vowel change
woman women (Note: The first vowel in women is
tooth teeth pronounced !I/.)
foot feet
goose geese No change

sheep sheep Different word form
fish fish
deer deer us--+ i

child children is--+ es
person people (OR persons)
mouse mice ix--+ ices OR --+ ixes

alumnus alumni ex --+ ices OR --+ exes
'••• cactus cacti (oR cactuses) um4a
radii
radius stimuli ion--+ a
stimulus syllabi (oR on--+ a

analysis analyses a--t-ae
crisis crises
!: hypothesis hypotheses
oasis oases
parenthesis parentheses
thesis theses

appendix appendices (oR appendixes)
index indices (OR indexes)

bacterium bacteria
curriculum curricula
datum data
medium media
memorandum memoranda
criterion criteria
phenomenon phenomena

alga algae
formula formulae (OR formulas)
vertebra vertebrae

AP1 0 Appendix F I Plural Forms of Nouns

APPENDIX G

Metric Conversion Chart

Length

When You Know Multiply by to Find
inches (in) 2.54 centimeters (em)
feet (ft) 30.5 centimeters (em)
feet (ft) 0.3 meters (m)
miles (mi) 1.6 kilometers (km)
Metric:
centimeters (em) 0.39 inches (in)
centimeters (em) 0.03 feet (ft)
meters (m) 3.28 feet (ft)
kilometers (!em) 0.62 miles (mi)
Note:
12 inches ~ 1 foot To Find
3 feet~ 36 inches ~ 1 yard
grams (g)
Weight (Mass) Multiply by kilograms (leg)
28.35
When You Know 0.45 ounces (oz)
pounds (!b)
ounces (oz) O.G4
pounds (!b) 2.2
Metric:
grams (g)
kilograms (kg)
Note:
1 pound ~ 16 ounces

continued
Appendix G J Metric Conversion Chart AP11

Volume

When You Know Multiply by To Find
milliliters (mL)
fluid ounces (fl oz) 30.0 liters (L)
liters (L)
pints (pt) 0.47 liters (L)

quarts (qt) 0.95 fluid ounces (fl oz)
pints (pt)
gallons (gal) 3.8 quarts (qt)

Metric: - gallons (gal)

milliliters (mL) 0.03

liters (L) 2.11

liters (L) LOS

liters (L) 0.26

Note:

l pint =2 cups
l quart =2 pints =4 cups
l gallon =4 quarts =8 pints =16 cups

Temperature

degrees Celsius ("C) Multiply by%, degrees Fahrenheit ("F)
then add 32
Note:
32"F = O"C
212"F = lOO"C

AP12 Appendix G I Metric Conversion Chart

APPENDIX H

Irregular Verb Forms

Base Past Past
Form Form Participle

be was/were been
bear bore born/borne
beat beat
fled fled
bent begun forbid forbade forbidden
forget forgot forgotten
bid bet froze frozen
bound bid freeze
get went hung
bled bitten heard
bled hung hidden
heard held
bred broken hid
bred held led
kept lent
broadcast broadcast laid let
led
chose come lent
cut let
carne
cost

cut

dove/dived drawn overcome overcame meant
drew overthrow overtook mistaken
drank driven
ate eaten overtaken

felt fed

continued

Appendix H !Irregular Verb Forms AP13

Base Past Past
Form Form Participle

ridden

swelled/swollen

shoot shot set told
understood
shaken woken
shed woven

shot

i'

withheld withheld
written

~~--------~~~----------~--------------~burn burned or burnt

~:Ji!--------~~~~--------~Jit,~~--------~ dream dreamed or dreamt

p=--------==---------------"='-------------1 kneel kneeled or knelt

learned or learnt
leaped or leapt

spilled or spilt

AP14 Appendix H !Irregular Verb Forms

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Alb<!> Conic !"q"o/-Ne.o l'l'ofooHon

GLOSSARY

Adjective An adjective gives a description of a noun.

It's a tall tree. He's an old man. My neighbors are nice.

Adverb An adverb describes the action of a sentence or an adjective or another adverb.

She speaks English fluently. I drive carefully.

She speaks English extremely well. She is very intelligent.

Adverb of Frequency An adverb of frequency tells how often an action happens.

I never drink coffee. They usually take the bus.

Affirmative Affirmative means y11 es.11

They live in Miami.

Apostrophe ' We use the ap'ostrophe for possession and contractions.
My sister's friend is beautifuL (possession)

Today isn't Sunday. (contraction)

Article An article comes before a noun. It tells if the noun is definite or indefinite. The
definite article is the. The indefinite articles are a and an.

I have a cat. I ate an apple. The teacher came late.

Auxiliary Verb An auxiliary verb is used in forming tense, mood, or aspect of the verb that
follows it. Some verbs have two parts: an auxiliary verb and a main verb.

You didn't eat lunch. He can't study. We will return.
li Base Form The base form of the verb has no tense. It has no ending (-s or -eel): be, go, eat,

i! take, write.

'

I didn't go. We don't know you. He can't drive.

Capital Letter A B C D E F G ...

Clause A clause is a group of words that has a subject and a verb. Some sentences have
only one clause.

,, She speaks Spanish.

' Some sentences have a main clause and a dependent clause.

il' MAIN CLAUSE DEPENDENT CLAUSE (reason clause)

She found a good job because she has computer skills.

MAIN CLAUSE DEPENDENT CLAUSE (time clause)

I She'll turn off the light before she goes to bed.

MAIN CLAUSE DEPENDENT CLAUSE (ifclause)
if you don't have your car on Saturday.
I'll take you to the doctor

G2 Glossary of Grammatical Terms

GLOSSARY

Colon:

Comma

• Comparative The comparative form of an adjective or adverb is used to compare two
things.

My house is bigger than your house.

Her husband drives faster than she does.

My children speak English more fluently than I do.

• Consonant The following letters are consonants: b, c, d, J, g, h, j, lc, l, m, n, p, q1 r, s, t, v, w,
X, y, Z.

NOTE: Y is sometimes considered a vowel, as in the world syllable.

Contraction A contraction is two words joined with an apostrophe.

He's my brother. You're late. They won't talk to me.

(He's= he is) (You're= you are) (won't= will not)

• Count Noun Count nouns are nouns that we can count. They have a singular and a plural
form.

l pen-3 pens l table-4 tables

Dependent Clause See Clause.

Direct Object A direct object is a noun (phrase) or pronoun that receives the action of the
verb.

We saw the movie. You have a nice cur. I love yuu.

Exclamation Mark !

Frequency Word Frequency words (always, usually, generally, often, sometimes, rarely,
seldom, hardly ever, never.) tell how often an action happens.

I never drink coffee. We always do our homework.

Hyphen -

Imperative An imperative sentence gives a command or instructions. An imperative
sentence omits the subject pronoun you.

Come here. Don't be late. Please help me.

Infinitive An infinitive is to + the base form.

I want to leave. You need to be here on time.

Linking Verb A linking verb is a verb that links the subject to the noun, adjective, or
adverb after it. Linking verbs include be, seem, feel, smell, sound, look, appear, and taste.

She is a doctor. She looks tired. You are late.

Glossary of Grammatical Terms G3

GLOSSARY

Main Clause See Clause.

Modal The modal verbs are can, could, shall, should, will, would, may, might, and must.

They should leave. I must go.

Negative Negative means 11n0.11

Nonaction Verb A nonaction verb has no action. We do not use a continuous tense (be +
verb -ing) with a nonaction verb. The nonaction verbs are: believe, cost, care, have, hear,
know, like, love, matter, mean, need, own, prefer, remember, see, seem, think, understand,
want, and sense-perception verbs.

She has a laptop. We love our mother. You look great.

Noncount Noun A noncount noun is a noun that we don't count. It has no plural form.

She drank some water. He prepared some rice.

Do you need any money? We had a lot of homework.

• Noun A noun is a person, a place, or a thing. Nouns can be either count or noncount.

My brother lives in California. My sisters live in New York.

I get advice from them. I drink coffee every day.

Noun Modifier A noun modifier makes a noun more specific.

fire department Independence Day can opener

Noun Phrase A noun phrase is a group of words that form the subject or object of the

!i sentence.
A very nice woman helped me. I bought a big box ofcereal.

Object The object of the sentence follows the verb. It receives the action of the verb.

He bought a car. I saw a movie. I met your brother.

Object Pronoun We use object pronouns (me, you, him, her, it, us, them) after the verb or
preposition.

He likes her. I saw the movie. Let's talk about it.

• Parentheses ( )

Paragraph A paragraph is a group of sentences about one topic.

Past Participle The past participle of a verb is the third form of the verb.

You have written a good essay. I was told about the concert.
Period .

Phrasal Modal Phrasal modals, such as ought to, be able to, are made up of two or more
words.

You ought to study more. We have to take a test.

Phrase A group of words that go together.

Last month my sister came to visit. There is a strange car in front of my house.

Plural Plural means "more than one." A plural noun usually ends with -s.

She has beautiful eyes. My feet are big.

G4 Glossary of Grammatical Terms

GLOSSARY

Possessive Form Possessive forms show ownership or relationship.

Mary's coat is in the closet. My brother lives in Miami.

Preposition A preposition is a short connecting word. Some common prepositions include
about, above, across, after, around, as, at, awa~ back, before, behind, below, by, down, Jo0

from, in, into, like, of, oft on, out, ave~ to, u1i:de0 up, and with.

The book is on the table. She studies with her friends.

Present Participle The present participle of a verb is the base form + -ing.

She is sleeping. They were laughing.

Pronoun A pronoun takes the place of a noun.

I have a new car. I bought it last week.

John likes Mary, but she doesn't like him.

Punctuation The use of specific marks, such as commas and periods, to make ideas
within writing clear.

Question Mark ?

Quotation Marks

• Regular Verb A regular verb forms its past tense with -ed.

He worked yesterday. I laughed at the joke.

-s Form A present tense verb that ends in -s or -es.

He live!i_ in New York. She watches TV a lot.

Sense-Perception Verb A sense-perception verb has no action. It describes a sense.
The sense-perception verbs are: look, feel, taste, sound, and smell.

She feels fine. The coffee smells fresh. The milk tastes sour.

Sentence A sentence is a group of words that contains a subject and a verb and gives a
complete thought.

SENTENCE: She came home.

NOT A SENTENCE: When she came home

Singular Singular means 011 ne.11

She ate a sandwich. I have one television.

Subject The subject of the sentence tells who or what the sentence is about.

My sister got married last April. The wedding was beautiful.

Glossary of Grammatical Terms GS

GLOSSARY

Subject Pronoun We use a subject pronoun (L you, he, she, it, we, you, they) before a verb.

They speak Japanese. We speak Spanish.

Superlative The superlative form of an adjective or adverb shows the number one item in
a group of three or more.

January is the coldest month of the year.

My brother speaks English the best in my family.

Syllable A syllable is a part of a word. Each syllable has only one vowel sound. (Some words
have only one syllable.)

change (one syllable) after (af-ter= two syllables)

look (one syllable) responsible (re-spon-si-ble= four syllables)

Tag Question A tag question is a short question at the end of a sentence. It is used in
conversation.

You speak Spanish, don't you? He's not happy, is he?

Tense Tense shows when the action of the sentence happened. Verbs have different tenses.

SIMPLE PRESENT: She Usually works hard.

PRESENT CONTINUOUS: She is working now.

SIMPLE PAST: She Worked yesterday.

:!! FUTURE: She will work tomorrow.
I' Verb A verb is the action of the sentence.
I He runs fast.
I speak English.
I Vowel The following letters are vowels: a, e, i, o, u.

NOTE: Y is sometimes considered a vowel, as in the world syllable.

!

G6 Glossary of Grammatical Terms

INDEX

A Adverbial clauses and phrases, B
253-261
A lot of, 55 Base form
Ability, with can and be able to, 149 introduction, 253
Action verbs, 16 main clauses and, 253 after sense-perception verbs, 244
Active voice, 75-89, 96 punctuation in sentences with1 with causative verbs, 219
with simple present, 7
compared to passive voice, 75, 253,317 .• with will, 19
76, 79 Be
questions with, word order in, 317 patterns with, 5
introduction, 75 to show condition, 253, 266 present of, 5
summary,96 to show contrast, 253, 263 simple past, 25
use, 79 to show reason and purpose, 253, with adjectives and noun clauses,
with intransitive verbs, 84-85
with modals, 163 255 283,287,306
with transitive verbs, 84-85 to show time, 253, 258 with adjectives vs. get, 95
Adjective(s) summary,275-276 with passive voice, 75
be vs. get with, 95 using -ing form ofverb after time with past participles, 94-95
followed by infinitive, 221, 228 Be able to, 135, 149
followed by noun clauses, 283 words, 261 Be allowed to, 135
participles used as, 91, 94 Affirmative statements Be permitted to, 135, 146
prepositions after, 233, AP8 Be supposed to, 135, 139, 146
Adjective clauses, 183-209 with already, 48 Be used to, 241
after indefinite pronouns, 197 with be, 5, 25 Because, 115
defined, 183 with be going to, 19 compared to because of, 255
essential vs. nonessential, 201 with irregular verbs, 25 Born, 85
introduction, 183 with modals, 135, 149 But, 270
nonessential, 200 with passive voice, 75 By with passive voice, 75
past perfect in, 115 with past continuous, 103
place and time in, 193 with past perfect, 110 c
shortened to descriptive phrases, with past perfect continuous, 117
with present continuous1 13 Can, 135, 146, 293
203 with present perfect, 51, 53 for ability or possibility, 149
summary, 206 with present perfect continuous, for suggestion, 144
with relative pronoun as object, vs. should, 144
62
187 with regular verbs, 25 Cannot, 135, 146
with relative pronoun as object of with -s form, 7 Causative verbs, 219
with simple past, 25 Clauses
preposition, 190 with simple present, 7
with relative pronoun as subject, with will, 19 adjective, 183-209
Agent, 75, 79 adverbial, 253-270
185 Allow, as causative verb, 219 comma with, 253
who/whom/that/which in, 185, Already conditions, 266
with present perfect, 39, 43, 48 definition of, 183
187, 190, 193 Although, 263 noun, 283-309
with whose, 195 Anyway, 263 Commas
Adverb(s) Apostrophe, 37, 110 after purpose clauses, 226
before participles, 91 Appositives, 203 with adverbial clauses, 253, 255
before past participles, 94 Articles, AP4-7 with essential and nonessential
followed by infinitive, 221 As
showing frequency, 8 with past continuous, 104-105, adjective clauses, 203
with passive voice, 75 with sentence connectors, 270
with past continuous, 103 258 Conditionals
with past perfect, 110 As a result, 270 adverbial clauses to show, 253,
with past perfect continuous, 117 Auxiliary verbs after wish, 331
with present perfect, 39, 43 266
implied, 322

Index 11

unreal questions with, 43, 45 Get
past, 328 with past perfect, 115 as causative verb, 219
present, 317 Ever since, 58, 62, 260 passive voice with, 88
vs. real conditionals, 325 Exact quotes vs. be with past participles and
noun clauses as, 294 adjectives, 95
Conjunctive adverbs, 270 punctuation with, 294, 296
Contractions vs. reported speech, 295-296 Get used to, 241
with say (to), 298 Glossary ofgrammatical terms,
with be, present, 5 Expectations
with had, 141 with be supposed to, 139 G2 G6
with have or has, 37 Go
Contrary-to-fact conditionals, F
Feel, followed by noun clause, 283 gerunds after, 235
316-331 For -sform, 7
Contrast, 253, 263
Cost to show purpose, 255 H
with object and infinitive, 224,
with infinitive, 224 Had
word order, 7 226. contractions with, 110, 141
Could, 135, 136, 291 past perfect with, 110
vs. could have, 170 with past perfect, 112 past perfect with, 112, 115
vs. had been able to, 328 with past perfect continuous, 118, past perfect continuous with, 117
vs. should, 144 with rule of sequence oftenses,
with unreal conditionals, 317,325 123 296,300
Could have with present perfect, 58 with wishes, 331
with unreal conditionals, past, 328 with present perfect continuous,
vs. could, 170 Had been able to vs. could, 328
with unreal conditionals in the 62 Had better, 135,141
with time, 258 Had to
past, 328 For this reason, 270
Couldn't have, 174 Frequency adverbs, 8 vs. must have , 175
Count nouns, AP2 Furthermore, 270 Has
Future
after too many, 226 choosing will, be going to, or contractions with, 37
with so many/so few, 273 with present perfect, 37-38
present continuous, 22 with present perfect continuous,
D in active and passive voice, 76
form, 19 62
Dependent clauses, 253-261 with present, in time clauses, 258 Have
Descriptive phrases, 203 Future, wishes about, 331
Direct objects with active and after modals, 163-165
G with past participle, 165
passive voice, 82
Direct and indirect objects, word Gerunds, 229-246 as action or nonaction verb, 16
after be used to/get used to, 241 as causative verb, 219
order with, AP9 after go, 235 contractions with, 37
Do, -s form, 7 after nouns, 231 with present perfect, 37-38
Don't have to, 146 after prepositions, 231 with present perfect continuous,
During, 258 after verbs, 236
as subject, 230, 237 62
E defined, 229 Have been, after modals , 177
negative form of, 229 Have got to, 135, 137
-edform, 25 or infinitive, difference in Have to, 135,137,146
Embedded questions, 287-288,291 meaning, 238 Help, with infinitives, 213, 219
Enough with infinitives, 226 or infinitive, no difference in How long
Essential vs. nonessential adjective meaning, 236
overview of, 229 with present perfect, 58
clauses, 203 passive fonn of, 229 with present perfect continuous,
sense-perception verbs, 244
Even if summary,245-246 62,65
with simple past, 58
to show condition, 266 How much/how many, with present
with unreal conditionals, 317
Even though, 263 perfect, 55, 65
Ever However, 270
placement in present perfect, 39 Hypothetical situations, 317, 325

12 Index

I present continuous, 13 for expectations, 139
after sense-perception verbs, 244 for logical conclusion, 150
If after time words, 261 for necessity, 137
Intransitive verbs and active voice, for obligation, 137
to introduce noun clauses as for possibility, 136, 149, 152
included questions, 287 84-85 for probability vs. possibility, 152
Irregular verbs, APl3-14 for suggestions, 144
to show condition, compared to form of, 135
past participles of, 38 in adverbial clauses to show
even ifand unless, 255 patterns with, 25
purpose,255
Ifclauses in simple p~st, 25 in exact quotes, 296
with implied conditions, 322 It, to introduce infinitives, 224 in reported speech, 295
with real conditionals and future in the past, 153-175
possibility, 325 J negative, 146
with unreal conditionals overview, 135
in past, 328 Just, 43, 51 patterns with, 135
in present, 317 questions with, 135
K summary, 155
Imperatives, reporting with ask and with passive voice, 135
tell, 301 Know as a nonaction verb1 16 Modalsin the past, 153-175
continuous forms, 175
Implied conditions, 322 L for ability and possibility, 174
In addition, 270 for logical conclusion about the
In fact, 270 Lately, 43, 51, 52
In order to, 225, 255 Let, as causative verb, 219 past, 167, 173
In spite ofthe fact that/in spite of, Live in the present continuous, 13 for necessity or obligation, 173
Logical conclusion for past direction not taken, 170
253 for past possibility, 155, 174
Included questions vs. had to+ base form, 173 for past regrets or mistakes, 154
with must, 150 form of, 163
noun clauses as, 287-288 with must have, 167 summary, 176
question words followed by with passive voice, 153
M Moreover, 270
infinitive, 291 Must, 135
Indefinite past time, with present Main clauses, and adverbial clauses in negative statements, 145
and phrases, 253 for logical conclusion, 150
perfect, 43, 51, 55 vs. may, migh~ could, , 152
Indefinite pronouns, adjective Make, as causative verb, 219 for necessity or obligation, 137
Many with present perfect, 55 Must be, 154
clauses after, 197 May, 136 Must have+ past participle, 167
Indirect objects vs. had to + base form, 173
vs. must, 152 Must not, 145, 150
with active and passive voice, 82 May have+ past participle, 165
with reported speech, 298 May not, 146 N
Infinitive(s), 213-227 Maybe vs. may be, 135
after a verb, 214 Metric conversion chart, APll-12 Necessity, with must, have to, and
after verbs, 214 Might have got to, 137
as subject, 224, 237
defined,213 for possibility, 135 Negative contractions with have/
following adjectives, 221 for probability vs. possibility, 152 has, 37
negative form of, 213 modal overview, 135
object before, 215 Might be, 154 Negative forms
or gerund, with difference in Might have+ past participle, 165 of gerunds, 229
with unreal conditionals, past, 328 of imperatives, 301
meaning, 238 Mistakes, with should have, 154 of infinitives, 213
or gerund, with no difference in Modals and related expressions, ofmodals, 135, 146

meaning, 235 135-156
active vs. passive voices in, 76
overview, 213 continuous, 154
question words followed by, 291 defined, 135
summary,245-245 followed by infinitives, 214
with too and enough, 225 for ability, 149
to show purpose, 226 for advice, 141
with causative verbs, 219
with passive voice, 213
-ingform
as gerund, 229

Index 13

of used to/be used to/get used to, Nouns with modals, 135, 163

241 contraction with has, 37 with past continuous, 76, 103

Negative statements count and noncount with past perfect, 110

with be, present, 5 with so . .. that/so much . .. Past, 25

with be, simple past, 25 that, 273 Past continuous, 103-108

with be going to, 19 after too many/too much, 226 active vs. passive voices in, 76

with irregular verb, 25 gerunds after; 231 adverbs with, 103

with modals, 135 gerunc-Js as, 229 compared to other past tenses,

with passive voice, 75 plural forms, 7, AP10 123

with present continuous, 13 possessive form whose, 195 form, 103

with present perfect continuous, prepositions after, 233 present participle with, 103

62 summary, 128
0
with regular verb, 25 use, 104

with -s form, 7 Objects vs. simple past, 106

with simple present, 7 and transitive verbs, 84 with passive voice, 103

with will, 19 before infinitives, 216 with simple past, 104

with yet; 48 direct, 82, AP9 Past direction not taken, with could

Never indirect, 82, 298, AP9 have, 170

with present perfect, 65 ofprepositions, relative pronouns Past participle, 38, AP13-14

I with present perfect vs. ever, 45 as, 190 adverbs before, 94
,I

I with present perfect with relative pronouns as, 187 and placement of adverbs, 39
indefinite past time, 43 with verbs and prepositions, 232 be with, 94
I

1•

I, Never ... before, 112 Obligation, with must, have to, and in descriptive phrases, 203
Nevertheless, 270 have got to, 137 of irregular verbs, 38

I Nonaction verbs, 16, 118 Opportunity not talcen, with could of regular verbs, 38
I have, 170 surnmary,96
Noncount nouns, AP2-3
'
after too much, 226
Ought to, 141 used as adjectives, 91, 94

with so much/so little, 273 p with getvs. be, 95
Nonessential adjective clauses1 with passive voice, 75

200-201, 203 Paraphrasing, in reported speech, with past perfect, 110

Not . .. yet with past perfect, 112 302,306 with present perfect, 37

Not have to, 146 Participial phrases after time words, with unreal conditionals in the

Noun clauses, 283-312 261 past, 328

after adjectives, 283 Participles, 91-96 Past perfect continuous, 117-121

!I afterverbs,283,305 summary,96 compared to other past tenses,

I' as exact quotes, 294-295 used as adjectives, 91, 94 123
as included questions, 287-288 Passive voice, 72-85, 96 form, 117

as reported questions, 306 adverbs with, 75 present participle with, 117

as reported speech, 306 agents in, 75, 79 summary, 128

defined, 115, 283 compared to active voice, 75, 76, use, 118

included questions shortened to 79 vs. present perfect continuous,

infinitive, 291 form, 75 120

1: introduction, 283 introduction, 75 with adverbs, 117
past perfect in, 115 patterns with past, 75 Past perfect, 110-116

question words followed by pronouns in, 75 compared to other past tenses,

infinitive, 291 summary,96 123

reporting an imperative, 301 transitive verbs and, 84-85 form, 110

rule of sequence of tenses, 296, use, 79 in adjective clauses, 115

300,306 verb tenses with, 76 in noun clauses, 115

say vs. tell, 298 verbs with two objects, 82 or simple past, with when, 114

summary, 310 with gerunds, 229 summary, 128

using reported speech to with get, 88 use, 112, 115

paraphrase, 302 with infinitives, 213 vs. present perfect, 120

14 Index

:

ji

with adverbs, llO Present continuous patterns with, 62
active vs. passive voice in, 76 summary, 68, 128
with passive voice,. no for future, vs. will and be going vs. past perfect continuous, 120
to, 22 vs. present perfect and simple
with simple past, ll2 form, 13
with wishes, 331 patterns with, 13 past, 65
Past regrets, with should have, 164 summary,68 Present tense. See Simple present
Past tenses vs. simple pres~11t, action and Probability vs. possibility, 152
comparison of, 123 nonaction verbs, 16 Pronouns
past continuous, 103-108, 123 use1 13
past perfect, ll0-ll6, 123 contraction with be, 5
past perfect continuous, ll7-ll8, Present participle contraction with had, llO
in descriptive phrases, 207 contraction with have and has, 37
120, 123 used as adjective, 91 contraction with will, 19
simple past, 25 using -ing form after time words, in active vs. passive voice, 75
Past time, indefinite, with present 263 indefinite, adjective clauses after,
with past continuous, 103
perfect, 43 with past perfect continuous, ll7 197
Pastwithmodals, 163-175 with present continuous, 13 relative, 185, 187, 190, 197, 201,
Patterns
Present perfect, 34-68 203
with base form, 7 active vs. passive voice in1 76 Pronunciation
with be going to, 19 and past participle, 38
with irregular verb, 25 and placement of adverbs, 39 can, 149
with modals, 135 compared to other past tenses, does, 7
with passive voice, 75 123 11gonna,n 19
with present continuous, 13 compared to simple past, 48, 55, '(gotta/' 137
65
with present perfect continuous/ compared to present perfect has to, 137
62 continuous, 65 have after modals, 163, 328
have got to, 137
with regular verbs, 25 contractions with, 37 have to, 137
with the -s form, 7 form, 37-38 ought to, 141
with the verb be, 5, 25 in adverbial clauses to show time, supposed to, 139
with will, 19 used tn, 241
Periods 258 Pronunciation charts, API
at end of included questions, 288 Punctuation
with sentence connectors, 270 overview ofuses, 41 after purpose clauses, 226
Permit, as causative verb, 219 summary,68, 128 at end of included questions, 288
Phrases vs. past perfect, 120 of exact quotes, 294, 296
descriptive, 203 with always and never, 43 with adverbial clauses, 253, 255
infinitive, as subjects, 224 with continuation from past to with essential and nonessential
Place in adjective clauses, 193
Plural forms of nouns, 7, AP10 present, 58 adjective clauses, 201, 203
Possibility with ever and never, 43, 45 with reported speech, 296
past, with may/might/could+ with indefinite past time, 43 with sentence connectors, 270
with just, 43 Purpose
have, 167 with lately, recently, and just, 43, adverbial clauses to show, 253,
vs. probability with mustvs. may,
51 255
might, and could, 152 with no time mentioned, 53 infinitives to show, 226
with can and be able to, 149 with repetition from past to
with may, might, and could, 136 Q
Preposition(s) present, 41, 55
after adjectives, 233, AP8 with yet and already, 39, 43, 48 Question words followed by
after nouns, 233 Present perfect continuous, 62 infinitives, 291
after verbs, 232, AP8 compared to other past tenses,
gerunds after, 231 Questions
in adjective clauses, 193 123 included, noun clauses as, 287-
in descriptive phrases, 203 form, 62 288
relative pronouns as objects of, in adverbial clauses to show time, noun clauses as reported, 306
wh-. See Wh- question
190 258 with modals, 135, 149

Index 15

with unreal conditionals, present, s patterns with, 25
317 summary,68, 128
-sform, 7 vs. past continuous, 106
yes/no. See Yes/no question Said, in exact quotes, 294 with past continuous, 104
Quotes, exact. See Exact quotes Say vs. tell, 298 with past perfect, 112
Semicolons with sentence with wishes, 331
R Simple present
connectors, 270 comparison of active and passive
Readings Sense-perception verbs
adopting a baby from abroad, 271 voice in, 76
AIDS bike rides, and Dan as intransitive verbs, 84 form and use, 7-8
Pallotta, 242 as nonaction verbs, 16 in adverbial clauses to show
Andrew Carnegie, philanthropist, with base form and -ing form,
214 condition, 266
animation, history of, 83 244 in adverbial clauses to show time,

Real conditionals vs. unreal Sentence connectors, 270 258
conditionals, 325 Short answer of be, 5
summary, 68
Reason, adverbial clauses to show, with be, simple present, 5 vs. present continuous, action
253,255 with be, simple past, 25
with be going to, 19 and nonaction verbs, 16
Recently with irregular verbs, 25 Since, 58, 62
placement in present perfect, 39 with modals, 135
in present perfect with indefinite with passive voice, 75 to show reason, 255
past time, 43,51 with past continuous, 103 to show time, 62, 255, 258
with past perfect, ll0 So
Regrets, with should have, 164 with past perfect continuous, 117
Regular verbs with present continuous, 13 as sentence connector, 270
with present perfect continuous, to replace noun clauses, 283
in simple past, 25 vs. so that, 255
past participles of, 38 62 So . .. that, 273
patterns with, 25 with regular verbs, 25 So far, 55
Relative pronouns with -s form, 7 So few . .. that, 273
as object of adjective clauses, 187 with simple present, 7 So little ... that, 273
as object of preposition, 190 with will, 19 So many ... that, 273
as subject of adjective clauses, Should So much . .. that, 273
So that, 255
185 in shortened included questions, Still, to show contrast, 263
in adjective clauses, 201 291 Stop, with infinitive or gerund, 238
Remember, with infinitive or Strong agent, in passive voice, 79
modal overview, 135 Subject question
gerund, 238 to show advice, 141 with be, simple present, 5
Repetition from past to present Should be, 154 with be, simple past, 25
Should have+ past participle, 164 with be going to, 19
with present perfect, 55, 65 Should not, 146 with irregular verbs, 25
Reported speech Simple past, 25 with modals, 135
compared to other past tenses, with passive voice, 75
imperatives, 301 with present continuous, 13
modals in, 296 123 with present perfect continuous,
noun clauses as, 295 compared to present perfect, 55
noun clauses as reported compared to present perfect and 62
withregularverbs,25
questions, 306 present perfect continuous, with -sform, 7
punctuation with, 296 65 with simple present, 7
rule of sequence of tenses, 296, comparison of active and passive with will, 19
voices in, 76 Subjects
300 form and use, 25-26 gerunds as, 230, 237
say/tell with, 298 in since clauses, 58 infinitives as, 224, 237
time words in, 296 noun clauses after past-tense
to paraphrase, 302 verbs, 305
vs. exact quotes, 295, 296 noun clauses as reported
Result with so . .. that and such ... questions, 306
or past perfect, with when, 114
that, 273
Rule of sequence of tenses, 296,

300, 305-306

16 Index

of adjective clauses, relative with present perfect present continuous vs. simple
pronouns as, 185 and continuation from past to present, action and
present, 41, 58 nonaction verbs, 16
Such ... that, 273 and indefinite past time, 41, 43
Suggestions with can and could, 144 and no time mentioned, 53 simple past, form, 25-26
Superlative in past sentence, 115 and repetition from past to simple present, form, 7-8
present, 41, 55 simple present of be, 5
T summary,30
with present perfect continuous, Verb tense. See Tense(s)
Take, with infinitive, 224 62 '· Verbs
Tell causative,219
with present perfect, present changing to participial phrase
reporting imperatives with, 301 perfect continuous/ and
vs. say, 298 simple past, 65 after time words, 261
Tense(s) followed by gerund, 235
in adverbial clauses to show time, with simple past, 26 followed by gerund or infinitive,
Time words
258 with differences in meaning,
past continuous, 103-108, 123 in adjective clauses, 193 238
past perfect, 110-116,123 in adverbial clauses, 253, 258 followed by gerund or infinitive,
past perfect continuous, 117-118, in reported speech, 298 with no difference in
using the -ing form after, 261 meaning, 236
120, 123 To followed by infinitive, 214
past tenses, comparison of, 123 as infinitive, 213, 235 followed by noun clauses, 283
present perfect, 34-68 as preposition, 232-233 followed by noun or object
present perfect continuous, 62 as verb connector, 7 pronoun+ infinitive, 216
rule of sequence of tenses, 296, before indirect object, 82 followed by prepositions, 232
to show purpose, 226, 255 forming gerunds, 229
300 Too, with infinitives, 226 gerunds after prepositions and
simple past, 25 Too much/too many, with nouns, 231
intransitive, 84-85
with noun clauses, 296 infinitives, 226 irregular forms of, AP13-14
with noun clauses after past Transitive verbs, 84-85 nonaction, 116
Try, with infinitive or gerund, 238 sense-perception, 16, 84, 244
tense verbs, 305 transitive, 84-85
with noun clauses as reported u with reported speech, 296, 300
with two objects in passive voice,
questions, 306 Unless 82
with passive voice, 76 to show condition, 266
That with unreal conditionals, 317 w
as beginning of adjective clause,
Unreal conditionals, 316-331 Was/were
187 implied, 322 with past continuous, 103
as beginning of essential past, 328 with simple past form, 25
present, 317
adjective clause, 201 vs. real conditionals, 325 Was/were able to, for ability and
as place or time in adjective wishes, 331 possibility in the past, 174

clauses, 193 Until, 258 Was/were supposed to, 139
omission of, 273, 283 Up to now, 55 Weak agent, in passive voice, 79
relative pronoun as object of Used to/be used to/get used to, 241 Were

adjective clauses, 187 v with unreal conditionals, 317
relative pronoun as object of with wishes, 331
Verb review, 2-30 Wh- question
preposition in adjective choosing will, be going to, or in reported questions, 306
clauses, 190 present continuous for noun clauses as included
relative pronoun as subject of future, 22
adjective clauses, 185 future, form, 19 questions, 287
to introduce noun clauses, 283 present continuous, form, 13 shortening included question to
with wishes, 331
Therefore, 270 infinitive, 287
These days, 51
Though,263
Time duration
with past perfect, 112
with past perfect continuous, 118

Index 17

with be, simple past, 25 relative pronoun as object of with implied conditions, 322
with be, simple present, 5 preposition in adjective with rule ofsequence oftenses,
with be going to, 19 clauses, 190
with irregular verbs, 25 296,300
with modals, 135 relative pronoun as subject of with unreal conditionals, present,
with passive voice, 75 adjective clauses, 185
with past continuous, 103 317
with past perfect, llO While with wishes, 331
with past perfect continuous, ll7 Would have+ past participle with
with present continuous, 13 as time clause, with continuous unreal conditionals, past, 328
with present perfect, 37-38 action, 258
with present perfect continuous, y
to show contrast, 263
62 with past continuous, 104 Yes/no questions
with regular verbs, 25 Who in reported questions, 306
with -s form, 7 noun clauses as included
with simple present, 7 as beginning of adjective clause, questions, 287
with will, 19 185 shortening included, 293
What if, 317 with be, simple past, 25
When as beginning of nonessential with be, simple present, 5
as beginning of adjective clause, adjective clause, 200-201 with be going to, 19
with irregular verbs, 25
183 relative pronoun as object of with modals, 135
as beginning of nonessential adjective clauses, 189 with passive voice, 75
with past continuous, 103
adjective clause, 200 relative pronoun as object of with past perfect, llO
as time clause, 258 preposition in adjective with past perfect continuous, ll7
as time in adjective clauses, 193 clauses, 190 with present continuous, 13
with past continuous, 104 with present perfect, 38
with past continuous or simple relative pronoun as subject of with present perfect continuous,
adjective clauses, 185 62
past, 106 with regular verb, 25
with simple past or past perfect, vs. whom in adjective clauses, 187 with -s form, 7
Whom with simple present, 7
ll4 with will, 19
Whenever, 258 as beginning of adjective clause,
Where 185 Yet
in present perfect vs. already, 48
as beginning of adjective clause, as beginning of nonessential in present perfect with indefinite
183 adjective clause, 200 past time, 43
placement in present perfect, 39
as beginning of nonessential relative pronoun as object of
adjective clause, 200-201 adjective clauses, 189

as place in adjective clauses, 193 relative pronoun as object of
Whether preposition in adjective
clauses, 190
shortening included question to
infinitive, 291 vs. who in adjective clauses, 187
Whose
to introduce noun clauses as
included questions, 287 as beginning of nonessential
adjective clause, 200-201
Which
in adjective clauses, 195, 200
as beginning of adjective clause, Will
183
for future, compared to be going
as beginning of nonessential to or present continuous, 22
adjective clause, 200-201
patterns with, 19
as place or time in adjective with future, 19
clauses, 193 with rule of sequence of tenses,

relative pronoun as object of 296,300
Wishes, 331, 338
adjective clauses, 187 Won't, 19, 22
Word order

with noun clauses, 287
with simple present, 7
with unreal conditionals in

present, 317
Would, 135

18 Index

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