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Index
abduction 232–3
acceptance as law 28–9, 30, 32
accountability
distinguished from responsibility 124–5
as hot topic 139
accountancy standards 281
acquisition of territory 76–9
act of state doctrine 302
adjudication
in dispute settlement 142
as way of acquiring territory 79
admissibility of complaints to ICJ 154–7
Africa
Banjul Charter of Human and People's Rights 112
colonization of 8
aggression, defining 174–6, 225–6
see also armed conflict, law of; force, use of
air, regulation of
air traffic agreements 247–8
Chicago Convention on International Civil Aviation 1944 246, 247, 248
five freedoms 247
hijacking 248
importance of 234
International Air Transport Association (IATA) 247
International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) 247
intrusions into air space 248
liability of air craft carriers 247
Lockerbie incident 248
outer space, boundary with air space 248–9
realization of need for 246
safeguarding of aircraft 248
safety 247
Alvarez-Machaín, Humberto 232–3
amendments to treaties 57–8
American Convention on Statehood 70–3
Antarctic as internationalized territory 80
anti-trust law of the United States 96
anticipatory self-defence 193
arbitration in dispute settlement 142–4
Arendt, Hannah 16, 120, 138
armed conflict, law of
arms and weapons, banning of certain types 204, 209–11
civil wars 207–8
closeness with laws of peace 217–18
common provisions 206–7
cultural/environmental properties, damage to 205–6
cyberwarfare 211
distinction between military and civilian 205
drones, use of 211
drugs and terror, wars against 216–17
general savings clause 206
Geneva Convention 206–7
protocols to 204
Geneva law 204
hacking 211
Hague law 204
humanitarian law 204–7
international/non-international distinction 207–8
international organizations, compliance by 211–13
jus post bellum 215–16
Martens clause 206
mercenaries 213
non-state actors 207
nuclear weapons, use of 210–11
occupation 214–15
post-conflict governance 215–16
private military companies 213–14
proportionality and military necessity 208–9
state-building 215–16
unnecessary suffering, not causing 205
victims, protection of 204
see also force, use of
arms trafficking 230
assumptions about international law 3–4
Atlantic Charter 1941 189–90
attribution 126–7, 135
Austin, John 10, 165
automatic reservation 152–3
Badinter Commission 76, 144
balance and military necessity 208–9
banality of evil 138
Banjul Charter of Human and People's Rights 112
banking
international investment banks 271–2
‘soft law’ regulation of 280
Basel Committee on Banking Supervision 280
Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their
Disposal 1989 258
Belgium and the principle of universality 95
benefits principle 269
Benvenisti, Eyal 214
bilateral investment treaties 277
Biological Weapons Convention 210
Bogotá Declaration 250
Brussels Convention on Jurisdiction and the Enforcement of Judgments in Civil and Commercial
Matters 1968 268
Buergenthal, Thomas 300
bureaucratic inertia 10
canals 235, 237
see also seas, regulation of
Central American Court of Justice (CJAC) 144
cession as way of acquiring territory 78
Chemical Weapons Convention 210
Chicago Convention on International Civil Aviation 1944 246, 247, 248
civil and political rights 109–11
civil society as source of international law 21
civil wars 207–8
civilians and combatants, distinction between 205
Clausewitz, Carl von 187
climate change 259–60
collective rights 115–17
collective security 170–6
colonialism 6–8, 72
decolonization 81
combatants and civilians, distinction between 205
command responsibility 227
Commission on Sustainable Development 264
Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS) 250
companies, nationality of 157
compensation 131, 159
for expropriation 277–8
competencies and jurisdiction 105
compliance with international law, reasons for 9–12
conciliation, third parties’ role in 142
concurrent jurisdiction 97–8
conferences/meetings of the parties (COPs/MOPs) 263
conferred powers of international organizations 98
conflict, armed; see armed conflict, law of; force, use of
consent-based system, international law as 21, 24, 30–1, 42–3
consent given by states and responsibility 130
consequentialism 310–11
constitutive theory of recognition 73
constructivist approach to international relations 16
contiguous zone 238–9
continental shelf 235–6, 240–1, 244
sovereignty over 32–4
see also seas, regulation of
continuity of statehood 80
Convention against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances 229–30
Convention against Transnational Organized Crime 230
Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS) 1974 236
Convention on Access to Information, Public Participation in Decision-making and Access to
Justice in Environmental Matters 262–3
Convention on Consular Relations 1963 150–1
Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (CISG) 269
Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution 258
Convention on the Law of the Non-Navigational Uses of International Watercourses 1997 262
Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) 235–6, 239–40, 241, 242–4, 260–1
Convention on the Opening of Hostilities 188–9
Convention on the Recognition and Enforcement of Foreign Arbitral Awards 268
Convention on the Suppression of Unlawful Seizure of Aircraft 248
countermeasures 168–70
courts and tribunals
ad hoc tribunals 223
Badinter Commission 144
Central American Court of Justice (CJAC) 144
development of adjudication by 140
dispute settlement
adjudication 142
arbitration 142–4
international organizations, referral to 142
negotiation 141–2
International Court of Justice (ICJ)
actio popularis 160–1
admissibility of complaints 154–7
advisory opinions, request for 161–2
automatic reservation 152–3
chambers 147
compensation 159
currency of disputes 154–5
debate over role of 163–4
decisions by 146–7
diplomatic protection 155
erga omnes principle 161
exhaustion of local remedies 155–6
forum prorogatum 153–4
interim measures of protection 157–8
judges of 145
judicial review, power of 163
jurisdiction 148–54, 158
jurisdictional clauses in treaties 150–1
nationality of complaints 156–7
non-appearance of parties 159–60
optional clause jurisdiction 151–3
PCIJ as predecessor 145, 153
requirement to submit disputes to 149–50
separate/dissenting opinions 147
settlements 159
special agreements (compromis) 148–9
states as only possible parties 147
states not under jurisdiction 154
third parties, involvement of 160–1
transferred jurisdiction 153
International Criminal Court (ICC)
admissibility conditions 222
creation of 221
jurisdiction of 221–3
legality, adherence to 222
symbolic value 223
US concerns over 222
Iran-USA Claims Tribunal 144
Permanent Court of Arbitration 143
Permanent Court of International Justice (PCIJ) 144, 145
regional 144–5
see also domestic courts and international law
criminal law, international
abduction 232–3
ad hoc tribunals 223
aggression, defining 225–6
command responsibility 227
compared to humanitarian law 219
crimes against humanity 220–1, 224–5
criminal intent 225
deportation 232
double criminality, principle of 230
drugs trade 229–30
emergence under international law 9
extradition 230–1, 232
genocide 224
globalization of 17–18
individual responsibility 226–8
International Criminal Court (ICC)
admissibility conditions 222
creation of 221
first judgment 223
jurisdiction of 221–3
legality, adherence to 222
reframing of activities as criminal 229
speciality, principle of 230–1
state responsibility 227–8
superior orders 227
symbolic value 223
trafficking, people and arms 230
transboundary police cooperation 228–30
truth commissions 223–4
US concerns over 222
war crimes 225
war crimes trials 219–21
criminal responsibility of states 133–4
critical approach to international law 19–20
cultural, social and economic rights 109–11
currency of disputes 154–5
customary law
acceptance as law 30, 32
accepted as law 28–9
article 38 ICJ definition 26
basis of 26
consent 30–1
continental shelf, sovereignty over 32–4
example of making 32–4
general practice 26–8, 30
immoral acts 31–2
modern custom 31–2
persistent objections 30–1
cyberwarfare 211
De Búrca, Gráinne 300
decolonization 81
death penalty, extradition and 231
declarative theory of recognition 73
deep seabed 242–3
see also seas, regulation of
delimitation, maritime 243–6
deportation 232
development, economic 281–3
Dewey, John 317
dictatorships, end of 216
diplomatic privileges and immunity 103–5
direct effect 291–5, 298
discovery as way of acquiring territory 77
dispute settlement
adjudication 142
arbitration 142–4
international organizations, referral to 142
investment disputes 278–9
negotiation 141–2
see also courts and tribunals
dispute settlement understanding (DSU) 274
dissolution of states 81, 118
distress and state responsibility 130
disuse of treaties 63
domestic courts and international law
avoidance strategies 301–2
confusion, as source of 287
direct effect 291–5, 298
dualism 289–90, 294, 295, 296–7, 299
new 299–301
early separation of 288
European Union (EU) 297–9
incorporation of international law 295–7
matters not always relevant 287–8
monism 290, 294, 296–7, 299
private cause of action 296–7
rights as main issue 288
as source of confusion 287
start of relationship 288–9
state as decision-maker on 290–1
threat to international law 303
double criminality, principle of 230
Drago–Porter Convention 188
drones, use of 211
drugs and terror, wars against 216–17
drugs trade 229–30
dual nationality 119
dualism between domestic courts and international law 289–90, 294, 295, 296–7, 299
new 299–301
Dutch East India Company 5
economic, social and cultural rights 109–11
economics, law and, approach to international relations 15–16
economy, global; see global economy
effects doctrine 96
Eichmann, Adolf 138, 232
emancipatory potential of international law 14
embassies as inviolable 104
emissions trading 265
England as maritime power in sixteenth and seventeenth centuries 7–8
environmental protection
climate change 259–60
compliance procedures 264–5
conferences/meetings of the parties (COPs/MOPs) 263
Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) 260–1
as debated field 252
developed/developing nations 252
early cases 253–5
emergence of law 253
emissions trading 265
fishing 261–2
fragmentation of 258
hazardous wastes 258
importance of 265
innovation in 265
institutionalization 263–4
international organizations 85
investment in 271
as laboratory for law 253
marine environment 260–2
native lands 89
oil pollution 260
organic pollutants 258–9
overall regime, lack of 257
ozone layer regime 259
participation in activities 262–3
precautionary principle 257
proceduralization 263
reliance on procedural notions 255
responsibility for damages under agreements 127–8
states rarely the culprit 252
sustainable development 264
waterways 262
whaling 261–2
wildlife 257–8
see also seas, regulation of
equidistance rule 244–5
erga omnes principle 132–3, 161
estoppel 154
ethics
global 309–11
and international law 18–19
virtue 311–13
ethnic minorities
protection of 108
rights of 116–17
Europe
creation of state system 5
prior to seventeenth century 4–5
European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR) 110, 111
addition of rights through protocols 112
courts’ interpretations 112
exceptions allowed 111–12
extraterritorial jurisdiction 96–7
right to rights 120
rights under 111
European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) 111
margin of appreciation doctrine 114–15
reservations to treaties 51
European Union (EU)
air traffic agreements 247–8
Badinter Commission 76
compliance with humanitarian law 212
domestic courts and law of 297–9
recognition of states, guidelines for 76
Evans, Malcolm D. 241
exclusive economic zones (EEZ) 239–40, 244
exhaustion of local remedies 155–6
expropriation 277–8
extradition 98, 230–1, 232
extraterritorial jurisdiction 96–7, 106
Financial Action Task Force (FATF) 281
financial institutions, global 270–2
financial sector, soft regulation of 280–1
fishing
environmental protection 261–2
and exclusive economic zones (EEZs) 239–40
see also seas, regulation of
flag-state jurisdiction 241
flight bans 173
force, use of
abolition of war, early steps towards 188–9
Atlantic Charter 1941 189–90
end of armed conflict 201–2
end of as achievement 202
humanitarian interventions 196–7, 198
ICJ cases involving 191–2
just/unjust wars 187
by non-state actors 194–5
peace treaties 201–2
prohibition of in UN Charter 190–2
rescue of nationals abroad 195–6
self-defence 192–6, 200
within states 191
terrorism 198–201
threat of, prohibition of 190–1
war and peace as fluid conditions 187, 203
see also armed conflict, law of
Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act 1976 (US) 101
forum non conveniens 302–3
forum prorogatum 153–4
Framework Convention on Climate Change 259
freedom of the seas 5, 6, 8
see also seas, regulation of
freshwater resources 262
functionalism 85
G20 meetings 280
Galtung, Johan 316
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) 272–4, 292–3
General Assembly of the United Nations, role of 176–7
see also United Nations
general practice 26–8, 30
general principles of law
applicability to variety of settings 34
distinguished from rules 34
not adopted or legislated 34–5
seen as ‘custom lite’ 35
general savings clause 206
Geneva Conventions 205, 206–7, 208, 215
protocols to 204
Geneva law 204
genocide 224, 231, 309
Genocide Convention 48–9, 95–6, 116, 150, 224, 231
geostationary orbits of satellites 250
global economy
bilateral investment treaties 277
compensation for expropriation 277–8
democratic input as lacking in areas 283–4
developing nations, difficult position of 281–2
development 281–3
dispute settlement understanding (DSU) 274
economic instability as cause of World War II 270
economics as behind much law 266
expropriation 277–8
financial institutions 270–2
free trading routes 5, 8
international law partly not appropriate 283
International Monetary Fund (IMF) 270–1
investment banks, international 271–2
investment protection 276–9
Millennium Development Goals 283
New International Economic Order 282
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) 280
private international law 267–9
relation to international law 8–9
‘soft law’ 279–81
taxation 269–70
World Bank 270–1, 310
World Trade Organization (WTO) 272–6
global ethics 309–11
global governance
control over public authority 306–7
criminal law 17–18
exercise of 305
extraterritorial jurisdiction 96–7, 106
and international law 17–18, 304–5
migration 17
problematic issues 305–6
and sources of international law 37–9
virtue ethics 311–13
globalization
criminal law 17–18
and international law 16–17
see also global economy; global governance
governance
global
control over public authority 306–7
criminal law 17–18
exercise of 305
extraterritorial jurisdiction 96–7, 106
and international law 17–18, 304–5
migration 17
problematic issues 305–6
and sources of international law 37–9
virtue ethics 311–13
network 38, 40
post-conflict governance 215–16
government of states 71
governments, recognition of 73–4
Grotius, Hugo 5, 6, 7, 8, 234–5, 237, 266
groundwaters 262
see also seas, regulation of
groups
humans as members of 108–9
rights of 115–18
hacking 211
Hague law 204
Hague Peace Conferences 188–9
Hague Regulations 1907 214–15
Hart, H. L. A. 165
hazardous wastes 258
heads of state, immunity of 102–3
Henkin, Louis 10
high seas 235, 241–2, 247
see also seas, regulation of
hijacking 248
history of international law
colonialism 6–8
criminal law 9
emerging topics by nineteenth century 9
prior to seventeenth century 4–5
seventeenth century 4–6
treaties 41–2
Holland as maritime power in sixteenth and seventeenth centuries 7–8
Holy See 89
honesty 313
hot pursuit, right of on the high seas 241–2
Huber, Max 23
human rights
balancing of 114
Banjul Charter of Human and People's Rights 112
civil and political/economic, social and cultural 109–11
emergence of 109–11
ethics and international law 18
European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR) 110, 111
addition of rights through protocols 112
courts’ interpretations 112
exceptions allowed 111–12
extraterritorial jurisdiction 96–7
right to rights 120
rights under 111
European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) 111
reservations to treaties 51
extraterritorial jurisdiction 96–7
institutionalization of 111–13
Inter-American Court of Human Rights 112
margin of appreciation doctrine 114–15
migrants 121–2
proceduralization of rights 115
refugees 120–2
sanctions against individuals 180–1
and sovereign immunities 102
United Nations’ role 113
universality, principle of 94–6
humanitarian interventions 196–7, 198
humanitarian law, international 204–7, 219
ideas about international law 3–4
immunity
diplomatic 103–5
heads of state 102–3
sovereign 100–2
imperialism 6–8
implied powers doctrine 58, 98–100
inadimplenti non est adimplendum principle 12, 166–7
indigenous peoples
rights of 116–17
as subjects of international law 89
indirect expropriation 277
individuals
acts by and state responsibility 128–9
difference made by in on legal structures 312–13
group rights 115–17
groups, humans as members of 108–9
human rights
application of 113–15
balancing of 114
civil and political/economic, social and cultural 109–11
emergence of 109–11
institutionalization of 111–13
margin of appreciation doctrine 114–15
labour rights 122
migrants 121–2
minorities, protection of 108
nationality 118–20
as objects of international law 107
recognition of states, impact of 75
refugees 120–2
responsibilities of 136–8
responsibility under criminal law 226–8
sanctions against 179–81
self-determination 117–18
slavery, abolition of 108
stateless people 120–2
as subjects of international law 68, 123
victims, humans as 108–9
war crimes trials 219–21
innocent passage 238
insurance industry, ‘soft law’ regulation of 281
insurrectional movements, responsibility of 129
intellectual property and native lands 89
Inter-American Court of Human Rights 112
Inter Caetera papal bull 7
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 263–4
interim measures of protection 157–8
interim obligation 47–8
internal waters 235, 237, 254
see also seas, regulation of
International Accountancy Standards Boards 281
International Air Transport Association (IATA) 247
International Centre for the Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID) 276–7
International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) 247
International Court of Justice (ICJ)
actio popularis 160–1
admissibility of complaints 154–7
advisory opinions, request for 161–2
automatic reservation 152–3
chambers 147
compensation 159
currency of disputes 154–5
debate over role of 163–4
decisions by 146–7
definition of customary law in article 38 ICJ 26
diplomatic protection 155
environmental protection cases 255–7
erga omnes principle 161
exhaustion of local remedies 155–6
force, case involving 191–2
forum prorogatum 153–4
interim measures of protection 157–8
judges of 145
judicial review, power of 163
jurisdiction 148–54, 158
jurisdictional clauses in treaties 150–1
maritime delimitation 243–6
nationality of complaints 156–7
non-appearance of parties 159–60
optional clause jurisdiction 151–3
PCIJ as predecessor 145, 153
requirement to submit disputes to 149–50
separate/dissenting opinions 147
settlements 159
source of international law, article 38(1) as 24–5
special agreements (compromis) 148–9
states as only possible parties 147
states not under jurisdiction 154
third parties, involvement of 160–1
transferred jurisdiction 153
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) 1966 293
International Criminal Court (ICC)
admissibility conditions 222
creation of 221
jurisdiction of 221–3
legality, adherence to 222
symbolic value 223
US concerns over 222
International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR), Statute of 103
International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY), Statute of 103
International Labour Organization (ILO) 122
international law
compliance with, reasons for 9–12
as consent-based 21, 24
critical approach to 19–20
emancipatory potential of 14
as epiphenomenal, argument against 315
and ethics 18–19
external phenomena, difficulty with 317
and the global economy 8–9
and global governance 17–18
and globalization 16–17
good reputation of states, need for 11
ideas and assumptions about 3–4
and international relations theory 14–16
legitimacy 11, 15
limits to expectations of 315–17
as natural law/positivism compromise 13, 24
as necessary for international relations 3
no sovereign authority 9–10
not omnipotent 316
as political 13–14
political agreement, dependency on 315–16
political philosophy, interest in 14
primary/secondary rules of 125, 137
private 267–9
private/public 3
reciprocity 10–11
sanctions 11
source of 12–14
theories 12–14
transboundary issues as beyond 316
see also history of international law; sources of international law
International Law Commission (ILC) 262
reservations to treaties 51–2
responsibility of international organizations 135–6
state responsibility, rules on 125–6
International Maritime Organization (IMO) 236–7
International Monetary Fund (IMF) 270–1
International Organization of Securities Commissions (IOSCO) 281
international organizations
administrative organs 86
Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS) 250
compliance with humanitarian law 211–13
conferred powers of 98
environmental protection 85
executive organs 86
functional basis of 98
functionalism 85
immunity of officials of 104–5
implied powers doctrine 98–100
International Maritime Organization (IMO) 236–7
International Telecommunications Union (ITU) 250–1
jurisdiction of 105
Permanent Court of Arbitration 143
plenary organs 86
powers of 98–100
referral to in dispute settlements 142
responsibility of 134–6
sanctions against 179
as sources of international law 21, 37–8
as subjects of international law 67, 84–8
Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties with or between International Organizations
1986 41–2
international relations
capacity of states to enter into 72
constructivist approach 16
international law as necessary for 3
law and economics approach 15–16
liberal institutionalism 15
rationality of states 15–16
self interest of states 14–15
theory 14–16
International Seabed Authority 243
international straits 238
see also seas, regulation of
International Telecommunications Union (ITU) 250–1
invalidity of treaties 58–62
investment banks, international 271–2
investment protection 276–9
Iran-USA Claims Tribunal 144
islands 245
see also seas, regulation of
Jackson, John 299–300
Jay Treaty 142–3
judges of the International Court of Justice 145
judicial review, power of ICJ of 163
jurisdiction
automatic reservation 152–3
clauses in treaties 150–1
and competencies 105
concurrent 97–8
diplomatic privileges and immunity 103–5
extraterritorial 96–7, 106
five principles of 91–2
nationality 93
passive personality 93
protection 93
territoriality 92
universality 92, 94, 96
heads of state 102–3
implied powers doctrine 98–100
interim measures of protection 158
International Court of Justice (ICJ) 148–54
International Criminal Court (ICC) 221–3
international organizations 98–100, 105
optional clause jurisdiction 151–3
powers of international organizations 98–100
reservations to treaties 150
sovereign immunities 100–2
taxation 269–70
transferred jurisdiction 153
jus cogens rules 24, 60–2
jus post bellum 215–16
Kellogg–Briand Pact 189
Kelsen, Hans 290
Kennedy, David 13
Keohane, Robert O. 15
Kosovo 75–6
Kostenniemi, Martti 13, 133
Kyoto Protocol 259–60
labour rights 122
lakes 235, 237
see also seas, regulation of
landlocked states and exclusive economic zones (EEZs) 239–40
law and economics approach to international relations 15–16
Law of Transboundary Aquifers 262
League of Nations Covenant 170–1, 189
leasing as way of acquiring territory 78–9
legal system
bureaucratic inertia 10
good reputation of states, need for 11
legitimacy 11
no sovereign authority 9–10
reasons for compliance with 9–12
reciprocity 10–11
sanctions 11
legitimacy 11, 15
liability
of air craft carriers 247
damage caused by space objects 127, 249–50
distinguished from responsibility 124–5
liberal institutionalism 15
Libya, UN action in 173
Lieber Instructions 205
local remedies, exhaustion of 155–6
Lockerbie incident 248
Lugano Convention 1988 268
Machiavelli, Niccolo 213
manifest violation 59–60
margin of appreciation doctrine 114–15
marine environment 260–2
see also seas, regulation of
maritime delimitation 243–6
see also seas, regulation of
maritime zones 235–6
see also seas, regulation of
MARPOL Convention (International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from
Ships) 237
Martens clause 206
mediation, third parties’ role in 141–2
meetings/conferences of the parties (MOPs/COPs) 263
memoranda of understanding (MoU) 44–5
mercenaries 213
merging of states 81
migrants, human rights of 121–2
migration, globalization of 17
military necessity, proportionality and 208–9
Millennium Development Goals 283
mining of the deep sea-bed 242–3
minorities, protection of 108
missions, diplomatic, as inviolable 104
monism 290, 294, 296–7, 299
Montevideo Convention 70–3
Montreal Convention 1999 247
Montreal Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts against the Safety of Civil Aviation
1971 198–9
Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer 1987 259
nationality
of companies 157
of complaints to ICJ 156–7
dual nationality 119
principle of 93
nationality discrimination, principle of 104
natural law thinking 6, 12–13, 24
natural resources of the sea
boundary limitations 246
continental shelf 240–1
deep sea-bed 242–3
exclusive economic zone (EEZ) 239–40
see also seas, regulation of
necessity and state responsibility 130–1
negotiation 141–2
network governance 38, 40
New International Economic Order 282
New York Convention on the Recognition and Enforcement of Foreign Arbitral Awards 268
nineteenth century 9
non-appearance of parties 159–60
non-governmental organizations (NGOs)
as source of international law 21
as subjects of international law 68–9, 88–9
see also international organizations
non-refoulement, prohibition of 121
non-state actors
armed conflict, law of 207
force, use of 194–5
normative statements 38–9
norms and jus cogens rules 60–2
North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) 196
compliance with humanitarian law 212–13
Northwest Atlantic Fisheries Organization (NAFO) 261
nuclear weapons
advisory opinion on use of 161–2
use of 210–11, 255
Nuremberg trials 220–1
objective regimes 57
obligations, rights and, in deciding subjects of international law 68
occupation 214–15
OECD Paris Convention on Third Party Liability in the Field of Nuclear Energy 128
oil concessions 277
oil pollution 260
On the Law of War and Peace (Grotius) 5, 6
O’Neill, Onora 311
opinio juris (acceptance as law) 28–9, 30, 32
optional clause jurisdiction 151–3
orders, superior 227
organic pollutants 258–9
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) 280
outer space, regulation of
boundary with airspace 248–9
Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS) 250
early UN resolutions 249
global awareness 251
importance of 234
liability for damage 249–50
satellites
broadcasting by 250
geostationary orbits of 250
International Telecommunications Union (ITU) 250–1
liability for damage by 127, 249–50
remote sensing by 250
overall control test 128–9
Owen, Robert 316
ozone layer regime 259
pacta sunt servanda rule 41
Palermo Convention 230
Paris Convention on Third Party Liability in the Field of Nuclear Energy 128
passive personality, principle of 93
peace treaties 60, 201–2
peacebuilding role of United Nations 178
peacekeeping role of UN 176–9
Pellet, Alain 51–2
people trafficking 230
peremptory norms and jus cogens rules 60–2
Permanent Court of Arbitration 143, 188
Permanent Court of International Justice (PCIJ) 144, 145, 153, 254
permissive system, international law as 22–3
persistent objections 30–1
piracy 242
police cooperation across boundaries 228–30
political and civil rights 109–11
political decision, principle of 55
political philosophy, interest in 14
‘political questions’ doctrine 302
politics
agreement, international law as dependent on 315–16
international law as political 13–14, 307–9
pollution; see environmental protection; seas, regulation of
pope, end of secular power of 5
population of states 70
Portugal
decline of as maritime power 7–8
division of world with Spain 7
positivism 6, 13, 24
post-conflict governance 215–16
Power, Michael 312
powers of international organizations 98–100
preemptive self-defence 193
precautionary principle 257
presumption of binding force 39
primary rules of international law 125, 137
private acts and state responsibility 128–9
private cause of action 294, 296–7
private international law 3, 267–9
private military companies 213–14
proceduralization of rights 115
Programme on International Student Assessment (PISA) 280
proportionality and military necessity 208–9
prosperous nations, meetings of 280
protection, principle of 93
public international law 3
ratification of treaties 46–7
amendments to treaties 58
rationality of states 15–16
Rawls, John 34
reframing of activities as criminal 229
rebus sic stantibus doctrine 64–5
reciprocity 10–11, 151, 230
recognition of states 72–6, 90
Refugee Convention 1951 120–1
refugees, human rights of 120–2
regional organizations, sanctions against 179
regulatory takings 277
religion, end of secular power of pope 5
remote sensing by satellites 250
Renan, Ernest 118
reparation for injury 131–2
reprisals
and countermeasures 168–70
as motive for compliance 11
rescue of nationals abroad 195–6
reservations to treaties 48–9, 52, 150
responsibility
accountability as hot topic 139
change in 138
command 227
distinguished from liability and accountability 124–5
of individuals 136–8
insurrectional movements 129
international organizations 134–6
overall control test 128–9
primary/secondary rules of international law 125
to protect (R2P) 197–8
reflection, avenues for in 138–9
shared 137–8
special regimes, differences in 125–6
state
ability of any state to invoke 132–3
and acts by individuals 128–9
attribution 126–7
bilateral obligations 132
circumstances precluding wrongfulness 129–31
codification of 125–6
consent given to acts 130
consequences of 131–2
criminal law 227–8
criminal responsibility 133–4
distress 130
erga omnes obligations 132
ILC rules 125–6
inability of states to act 130
internationally wrongful acts 127–8
necessity 130–1
to protect oppressed people 197–8
reparation for injury 131–2
terrorist acts 200
unresolved issues 139
restitution 131
retorsion 11, 168
revision of treaties 57–8
rights
in deciding subjects of international law 68
group rights 115–17
labour rights 122
of nationality 119–20
right to rights 120–2
stateless people 120–2
see also human rights
rivers 235, 237, 254, 262
see also seas, regulation of
R2P
see also responsibility, to protect
Rwandan genocide 309
safety in the air, regulation of 247
sanctions
centralized, ambition for 166
collective security 170–6
inadimplenti non est adimplendum principle 166–7
against individuals 179–81
international law as lacking 165
against international/regional organizations 179
limits to UN Security Council 181–2
as motive for compliance 11
over-eagerness of UN 182–3
reprisals and countermeasures 168–70
responses qualifying as 165–6
retorsion 168
smart/targeted 179–81
UN General Assembly, role of 176–7
Sarbanes–Oxley Act 281
satellites
broadcasting by 250
geostationary orbits of 250
International Telecommunications Union (ITU) 250–1
liability for damages caused by 127, 249–50
remote sensing by 250
satisfaction 131–2
Schabas, William A. 222
seas, regulation of
3/12 mile zones 238
compromise between freedom and jurisdiction 234–5
contiguous zone 238–9
continental shelf 240–1, 244
Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) 235–6, 239–40, 241, 242–4
deep seabed 242–3
equidistance rule 244–5
exclusive economic zone (EEZ) 239–40, 244
flag-state jurisdiction 241
freedom of the seas 5, 6, 8
high seas 235, 241–2, 247
hot pursuit, right of 241–2
importance of 234
innocent passage 238
interest in the seas 237–8
internal waters 235, 237, 254
International Maritime Organization (IMO) 236–7
International Seabed Authority 243
international straits 238
islands 245
marine environment 260–2
maritime delimitation 243–6
maritime zones 235–6
natural resources 239–41, 242–3, 246
piracy 242
prohibited activities 241–2
soil and subsoil beneath 235–6
territorial seas 235, 238
transit passage 238
secession 80, 118
secondary rules of international law 125, 137
securities markets, ‘soft law’ regulation of 281
Security Council, United Nations; see United Nations
self-defence, use of force for 192–6, 200
self-determination 117–18
self interest of states 14–15
settlements by International Court of Justice (ICJ) 159
seventeenth century 4–6
shared responsibility 137–8
shipping
flag-state jurisdiction 241
International Maritime Organization (IMO) 236–7
see also seas, regulation of
signature on treaties 46–7
Singer, Peter 310–11
single-tax principle 269
slavery 8, 108
smart sanctions 179–81
social, economic and cultural rights 109–11
‘soft law’ 38, 279–81
soil and subsoil beneath the sea 235–6
sources of international law
article 38(1), Statute of the ICJ 24–5
civil society 21
customary law
acceptance as law 30, 32
accepted as law 28–9
article 38 ICJ definition 26
basis of 26
consent 30–1
continental shelf, sovereignty over 32–4
example of making 32–4
general practice 26–8, 30
immoral acts 31–2
modern custom 31–2
persistent objections 30–1
general principles of law 34–5
in global governance context 37–9
international organizations 21, 37–8
jus cogens rules 24
law-making as replacing sources doctrine 40
listing of instruments 21
non-governmental organizations (NGOs) 21
normative statements 38–9
permissive system, international law as 22–3
positivism 24
presumption of binding force 39
‘soft law’ 38
treaties 25–6
unilateral declarations 35–7
South Africa's Truth and Reconciliation Commission 223
South Sudan 75
sovereign immunities 100–2
sovereignty
of overseas territories under colonialism 7
of states 69
space law
boundary with airspace 248–9
Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS) 250
early UN resolutions 249
global awareness 251
importance of 234
liability for damage 249–50
satellites
broadcasting by 250
geostationary orbits of 250
International Telecommunications Union (ITU) 250–1
liability for damage by 127, 249–50
remote sensing by 250
Spain
decline of as maritime power 7–8
division of world with Portugal 7
special agreements (compromis) 148–9
speciality, principle of 230–1
state system
acts/statements as general practice 28
creation of in Europe 5
good reputation, need for 11
rationality of states 15–16
reservations to treaties 48–52
self interest of states 14–15
statehood
changes to 80–4
continuity of 80
stateless people, rights of 120–2
states
acquisition of territory 76–9
applicability of treaties to 55
capacity to enter into international relations 72
changes to 80–4
continuity of statehood 80
criteria for statehood 70–2
decolonization 81
dissolution of 81, 118
domestic courts and international law 290–1
force, use of within 191
government of 71
heads of state, immunity of 102–3
landlocked, and exclusive economic zones (EEZs) 239–40
merging of 81
population of 70
recognition of 72–6, 90
responsibility
ability of any state to invoke 132–3
and acts by individuals 128–9
attribution 126–7
circumstances precluding wrongfulness 129–31
consent given to acts 130
consequences of 131–2
criminal law 227–8
criminal responsibility 133–4
distress 130
erga omnes obligations 132
inability of states to act 130
internationally wrongful acts 127–8
necessity 130–1
to protect oppressed people 197–8
reparation for injury 131–2
terrorist acts 200
secession 80
self-defence, use of force for 192–6
sovereign immunities 100–2
sponsorship of deep seabed mining 243
state-building 215–16
as subjects of international law 67
criteria for statehood 70–2
dominance of 69–70
sovereignty 69
succession of and treaties 81–2
territory of 70–1, 89–90
Statute of the International Court of Justice; see International Court of Justice
Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants 2001 258–9
Straddling Fish Stock Convention 1995 241, 261
straits, international 238
subjects of international law
acquisition of territory 76–9
changes to statehood 80–4
continuity of statehood 80
Holy See 89
indigenous peoples 89
individuals as 68, 123
international organizations as 67, 84–8
internationalized territory 79–80
limited status 69
non-governmental organizations (NGOs) 88–9
political, social or economic groups as 68–9
rights and obligations 68
states as 67
criteria for statehood 70–2
dominance of 69–70
recognition of states 72–6, 90
sovereignty 69
territory as property 89–90
United Nations 87–8
Suez Canal 177
Suez Canal Treaty 237
superior orders 227
surface waters 262
suspension of treaties 62–5
sustainable development 264
systemic integration, principle of 56
targeted sanctions 179–81
taxation 269–70
termination of treaties 62–5, 166–7
territorial seas 235, 238
territoriality, principle of 92
territory
acquisition of 76–9
internationalized 79–80
ownership of and oil and gas reserves 8–9
as property 89–90
of states and recognition of state 70–1, 89–90
terrorism 194–5, 198–201, 216–17, 231–2
Terrorism Financing Convention 1999 98, 199
third parties
in dispute settlement 141–2
involvement of in ICJ cases 160–1
trading
free routes 5, 8
see also (seas, regulation of)
World Trade Organization (WTO) 272–6
see also global economy
trafficking, people and arms 230
transboundary police cooperation 228–30
transferred jurisdiction 153
treaties
Antarctic Treaty 80
application of 54–7
bilateral investment treaties (BITs) 277
binding nature of 41
changes of circumstances 64–5
changes to 57–8
conclusion of 46–8
conflict between 55–6
consent 57
definition of treaty 43–4
differentiation within regimes 52
direct effect 291–5
as disagreements reduced to writings 65–6
disuse of 63
as dominant source of international law 25
forms and sizes of 25, 43–4
foundational principles 42–3
free consent of states to 42–3
as governed by international law 44
historical development of 41–2
inadimplenti non est adimplendum principle 166–7
incorporation of into domestic law 295–7
interim obligation 47–8
interpretation of 52–4, 58
Jay Treaty 142–3
jurisdictional clauses in 150–1
jus cogens rules 60–2
as kept in good faith 43
manifest violation 59–60
memorandum of understanding (MoU) 44–5
multiple objects and purpose of 49
and non-legally binding instruments 44–5
normative guidance 45
objective regimes 57
over time 55
pacta sunt servanda rule 41
peace 60, 201–2
private cause of action 294, 296–7
ratification of 46–7, 58
rebus sic stantibus doctrine 64–5
and recognition of states 74
reservations to 48–9, 52, 150
responsibilities under 127
revision of 57–8
rules regarding 25–6
a sets of bilateral relations 50
signature 46–7
succession of states 81–2
Suez Canal Treaty 237
termination/suspension of 62–5, 166–7
Treaty of Saragossa 7
Treaty of Tordesillas 7
Treaty of Versailles 60
US–Netherlands extradition treaty 231
validity/invalidity of 58–62
Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (VCLT) 1969 26, 41–2
Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties with or between International Organizations
1986 41–2
tribunals; see courts and tribunals
Triepel, Heinrich 289–90, 301
truth commissions 223–4
unilateral declarations
as binding 35
United Nations
aggression, acts of, defining 174–6
attack on South Korea by North Korea 172–3
collective recognition by 74
collective security 170–6
compliance with humanitarian law 212
conferred powers of international organizations 98
dispute settlement 140–1
Economic and Social Council 88
flight bans 173
General Assembly 87
General Assembly, role of 176–7
Human Rights Committee 51
human rights role 113
impartiality 178
importance of 87
inactivity over Rwandan genocide 309
International Court of Justice (ICJ) 88
Libya, action in 173
organs of 87
over-eagerness of regarding sanctions 182–3
peacebuilding 178
peacekeeping role 176–9
prohibition of force in Charter 190–2
sanctions against individuals 179–81
Secretariat 88
Security Council 87–8, 171–6
aggression, defining 226
limits to 181–2
self-defence under the Charter 192–3
space law 249
status of in USA 105
as subject of international law 87–8
Trusteeship Council 88
Uniting for Peace resolution 176–7
veto right of permanent members 172–3
United States
anti-trust law 96
concerns over International Criminal Court 222
Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act 1976 101
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR)1966 293
Uniting for Peace resolution 176–7
Universal Declaration of Human Rights 109–10
universality, principle of 92, 94, 96
USA–Netherlands extradition treaty 231
uti possidetis, principle of 76, 118
validity of treaties 58–62
Vattel, Emeric de 6, 27, 204–5, 288
Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations 1961 103
Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer 259
Vienna Convention on Succession of States in Respect of Treaties 1978 81, 82–3
Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (VCLT) 1969 26
amendment of treaties 57
application of treaties 54
article 18 47
article 20 49–51
article 30 55–6
Article 31 53–4
article 59 63
article 60 63–4
article 61 64
article 65, 66 66
articles 46–50 59
articles 51–53 59, 60
articles 35, 36 57
conceptual choices in 41–2
conclusion of treaties by heads of state 46
conflict between treaties 55, 56
definition of treaty 43–4
interpretation of treaties 53–4
reservations to treaties 48, 49–51
termination of treaties 63–4
validity of treaties 58–60
Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties with or between International Organizations
1986 41–2
virtue ethics 311–13
Visscher, Charles de 27–8
Vitoria 6
Walzer, Michael 218
war crimes 225
war crimes trials 219–21
wars
abolition of, early steps towards 188–9
against drugs and terror 216–17
just/unjust 187
and peace as fluid conditions 187, 203
see also armed conflict, law of; force, use of
wastes, hazardous 258
waterways 235, 237, 254, 262
weapons, banning of certain types 204, 209–11
Westphalia Peace 5
whaling 261–2
wildlife protection 257–8
whaling 261–2
World Bank 270–1, 310
World Trade Organization (WTO) 272–6, 293
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International Law by Jan Klabbers (z-lib.org)
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