Pragmatics
(Lecture on Language Education
and Linguistic Information I)
Introduction
D. Y. Oshima
Second Semester, AY 2011‐2012
DICOM‐GSID‐Nagoya University
What is pragmatics?
• It is difficult to define pragmatics.
• ‘The received wisdom is that “pragmatics”
simply cannot be coherently defined.’
(Ariel, M. 2010. Defining Pragmatics)
What is pragmatics?
• A working definition:
• Pragmatics is the systematic study of meaning by
virtue of, or dependent on, the use of language.
• The central topics of inquiry of pragmatics include
implicature, presupposition, speech acts, and
deixis.
What is pragmatics?
• Major criteria:
• literal vs. inferred
• code vs. inference
• grammatical vs. extragrammatical
• truth‐conditional vs. non‐truth‐conditional
• context independent vs. context dependent
• a list‐of‐topics definition; big‐tent pragmatics
(broad church pragmatics); family resemblance
What is pragmatics?
• One way to split the field of pragmatics:
• what you know before hearing something.
(“beforehand” pragmatics)
• what you know after hearing something.
(“afterwards” pragmatics)
1. The guy I mentioned is dangerous.
A history of pragmatics
• Philosophers in the 1930s: Morris, Carnap,
Peirce, etc.
• Morris’ three‐fold division of semiotics
• syntax: deals with relation between signs
• semantics: deals with relation between signs and
their denotations
• pragmatics: deals with relation between signs and
their users/interpreters
A history of pragmatics
• Analytic philosophy in the 1950s & 1960s
• ideal language philosophy: Montague, Lewis,
Davidson, etc.
• ordinary language philosophy: Austin, Grice,
Searle, etc.
A history of pragmatics
• The ‘pragmatic turn’ in the late 1960s and
1970s:
• generative semantics: Katz, Ross, Lakoff, etc.
• Works by Horn, Fillmore, Gazder, etc.
• Levinson’s (1983) Pragmatics
• ‘pragmatic wastebasket’
A history of pragmatics
• Anglo‐American school:
• Pragmatics is a core component of a theory of language,
on a par with phonology, syntax, and semantics.
• Focus is on topics emerging from the traditional concerns
of analytic philosophy and theoretical linguistics.
• European Continental school:
• ‘Pragmatics constitutes a general functional (i.e.
cognitive, social and cultural) perspective on linguistic
phenomena in relation to their usage in the form of
behavior’ (Verschuren 1999)
Some prominent names
• Functionalists: Mira Ariel, Charles Fillmore,
Jeanette Gundel, Susumu Kuno, George
Lakoff, Ellen Prince, Jerrold Sadock, Sandra
Thompson, etc.
• Neo‐Griceans: Stephen Levinson, Lawrence
Horn, Yan Huang, etc.
• Relevance theorists: Dan Sperber, Deirdre
Wilson, Robyn Carston, etc.
Why pragmatics?
• Linguistic underdeterminacy: gap between
what is coded & what is conveyed.
1. You and you, and not you, stand up!
2. The authorities barred the anti‐globalization
demonstrators because they {advocated/feared}
violence.
3. John is looking for glasses.
4. They are cooking apples.
Why pragmatics?
Darryl: .. What does that have to do with heaven
and hell in the book.
Pamela: ... Well,
... I’m just sort of reiterating.
... I could read you some.
Darryl: [No].
Pamela: [I] mean is that allowed?
Darryl: ... No I don’t want to hear anything out of
the book with,
... chapter called heaven and hell.
Why pragmatics?
Pamela: You don’t.
Darryl : .. No.
Nkay.
Pamela: Well then let’s then talk about [our
vacation].
Darryl: [I’m gonna be] closed‐minded about it
Pamela: (TSK) ... Oh dear.
[from Santa Barbara Corpus]
Why pragmatics?
• Simplification of semantics and syntax
• Occam’s razor: Entities must not be multiplied
beyond necessity.
• Modified Occam’s razor (by Grice): Senses or
dictionary entries must not proliferate.
Why pragmatics?
1. Mary has two children.
a) Mary has at least two children.
b) Mary has exactly two children.
(i): Mary has at least two children. (entailment)
(ii): Mary doesn’t have more than two children.
(implicature)
(i) & (ii): Mary has exactly two children.
Why pragmatics?
2. {Some/most} students failed the exam.
(i): The number of students who failed the exam
exceeded X. (entailment)
(ii): Not all students failed the exam. (implicature)
(i) & (ii): {Some/most} but not all students failed the
exam.
Why pragmatics?
• Chomsky’s binding conditions:
A. An anaphor must be bound in a local domain.
B. A pronominal must be free in a local domain.
C. An r‐expression is free.
1. Bach1 adored himself1.
2. Bach1 adored him2.
3. Bach1 adored Bach2.
Sentence, utterance, proposition
• Sentence: a syntactic unit; a well‐formed
string of words put together according to the
grammatical rules
• Utterance: the use of a particular piece of
language, by a particular speaker, on a
particular occasion
1. Hello!
2. A coffee, please.
3. John has already left.
4. John has already left. I will too, in a moment.
Sentence, utterance, proposition
• sentence‐meaning ≈ proposition
• utterance‐meaning (speaker’s meaning): what
a speaker intends to convey by making an
utterance
Sentence, utterance, proposition
• Propositional content
1. Liszt criticized Chopin.
2. Chopin was criticized by Liszt.
3. It is Liszt who criticized Chopin.
4. Did Liszt criticize Chopin?
• Propositional character vs. propositional
content.
1. ‘I respect you’ + c = ‘(x) respects (y)’
Context
• Context: Features of the setting in which
linguistic signs are used
• physical context: identities of the interlocutors,
spatio‐temporal setting of utterance,
accompanying gestures
• linguistic context: surrounding discourse
1. Who gave the waiter a large tip? – Helen.
2. A man came in. He was tall.
• real‐world knowledge context: common ground
(communal or personal)
Truth, truth condition, entailment
• Truth value: A sentence is either true or false
(in a given world).
• S is true (in w) = the truth value of S (relative to w) is 1.
• S is false (in w) = the truth value of S (relative to w) is 0.
• Truth conditions: The conditions that the
world must meet for a sentence to be true.
• S is true (in w) iff p holds (in w).
• S is true in w iff w œ p.
Truth, truth condition, entailment
• entailment: Sentence S1 entails sentence S2 if
and only if the truth of S1 guarantees the truth
of S2.
• contradiction, equivalence
Assignment
• pp.18‐19: Problems 2, 4, 5.