SSF 1033 DIGITAL BOOKLET

l earning unit 8

MMOWAVOLEMNA

MEYENSNITA

MALAYSIAN WOMEN KEY CONCEPTS
MOVEMENT

1. 2.
All Malaya All Women’s
Council of Joint Action Society

Action (AWAM)
(AMCJA)
4.
3. Khatijah
International
Women’s Day Sidek

ALL MALAYA COUNCIL OF
JOINT ACTION(AMCJA)

The Pan Malayan Council of Joint Action (PMCJA) was formed
after the announcement of the establishment constitution and
independent of Federation of Malaya by the British. In August 1947,
the PMCJA has changed their name to All Malayan Council of Joint
Action (AMCJA). In February 1947, the Pusat Tenaga Rakyat
(PUTERA) joined AMCJA.
Combination of AMCJA and PUTERA has produced a new
constitution called The People’s Constitution in order to take place
the Federation Constitution in October 1947.
Before the World War 2. The Angkatan Wanita Sedar (AWAS)
dominated the whole country by some radical Malay women. Later,
the AWAS joined PUTERA-AMCJA to wipe out the colonial
Japanese, the English colony and the Communist of Malaya. They
are activist but banned by British Colonial Government in 1948.

ALL WOMEN’S ACTION
SOCIETY (AWAM)

The All-Women’s Action Society (AWAM) was established in 1985.
The role of AWAM is to priorities women victims in gender-based
violence. The AWAM is a non-profit organization and giving free
guide to any women in Malaysia that got treated harshly.
Malaysia federal constitution did not concern about sexual
harassment and gender discrimination in workplace. Hence, the
“women issues” were not as important as other news in public
matters.
The Joint Action Group (JAG) and Violence Against Women
(VAW) has combined together formed (JAG-VAW). The purpose of
combination is to highlight the “women issues” in Malaysia such as
women stereotype, rape, sexual harassment, and the sex industry.

INTERNATIONAL
WOMEN’S DAY

The International Women’s Day also called as IWD. The IWD held
on every year 8th of March from 1911. The main point of IWD is to
celebrate the accomplishment of women in every aspect. This day
also marked the gender equality.

KHATIJAH SIDEK

Che Khadijah binti Mohd Sidek. Also known as Khatijah Sidek, was
born in 1918 in Pariaman, West Sumatera, Indonesia. Khatijah Sidek is
one of the women that fight for women’s right in Malaysia in the early
days.
She used to be a teacher in Japanese occupation in 1942 in Indonesia
for 6 months. She even active in many associations that claim anti-
Japanese. She ever changed her name to Aminah and disguise a police
officer to escape the Japanese army because of her involvement in
radical association.
She came to Malaysia after the independent of Indonesia. Dahari Ali
and Haji Abdullah Senggora invite Khatijah Sidek to Malay Peninsula
at the time just to scatter the politic situation and she also want to
have good relationship among the women. In Malay Peninsula, she
married to a man called DE. Hamzah Taib, leader of Lembaga
Kesatuan Melayu Johor (LKMJ). Her radical action attract attention
from the British and she has been sent into prison.

KHATIJAH SIDEK

After she leaves the prison, she formed a group called Ketua Kaum Ibu
Persatuan Melayu Semenanjung (PERMAS). Tunku Abdul Rahman
asked Khatijah Sidek to join Kaum Ibu UMNO but was not accepted by
majority members in Kaum Ibu UMNO.
Her effort in UMNO was significant. She manage to encourage more
than 10000 members to join UMNO. After the retirement of former
leader Kaum Ibu UMNO, she got chosen as the new leader.
Her action and claims special rights for women caused discarded from
UMNO in 1956. She was considered as radical at the moment. In 1971,
she returns to UMNO, and got vice chairman of Wanita UMNO and
able to continue contribute to UMNO.

l earning unit9

LABOUR MOVEMENT

TITLE KEY CONCEPTS

1. 2.
Beginning of the left The Left During the

in malaya Japanese
Occupation

3. 4.
The Left – 1950s The People’s
Constitution

Proposals

BEGINNING OF THE LEFT
IN MALAYA

The rise of left movements in Malaya before WWII was largely
based on communal sentiments
The spread of communist ideology enhanced the idea of the left
for struggle against the inequality, backwardness, oppression,
and to achieve independence for Malaya.
The Malay left began with the Islah (reform) movement which
refer to Kaum Muda against Kaum Tua.
Capitalism (via European Colonialism) together with Chinese
and Indian labour, brought major changes in the Malayan
economy as tin and rubber industry became prominent in
Malaya that created the labour movement.

THE LEFT DURING THE
JAPANESE OCCUPATION

In order to overthrow the Japanese, the MCP had formed the
Malayan People’s Anti-Japanese Army (MPAJA) and The British
supported this movement.
Pasukan Pembela Tanah Air (PETA) which was formed by
Ibrahim Yaacob continued their cooperation with the MCP.
In conclusion, the cooperation between both groups started
cooperation between the races in Malaya cause both have
common goals.

THE LEFT – 1950S

A united Malaya including Singapore
A popularly elected Central Government and popularly elected
State councils
A citizenship granting equal rights to all who made Malaya their
permanent home and the object of their undivided loyalty
Malay to be the official language
A national flag and a national anthem
Melayu (Malay) to be the title of any proposed citizenship and
nationality in Malaya

THE PEOPLE’S
CONSTITUTION PROPOSALS

End of the war brought hardship to the living condition in
Malaya.
The economic and social conditions of workers had not
improved despite the restoration of civilian government.
The employers more interested in restoring their businesses and
their profits.
Signs of dissatisfaction - walkout of 7000 dockworkers in
Tanjung Pagar (1945)
Labour strikes occur - in Malaya such as in Ipoh, Seremban,
Johor Bharu, Kluang etc.

le arning unit10

SHTIUSDMTEAONLRTAYY

MSOOIFVAENTMHEENT

TITLE KEY CONCEPTS

1. 2.
The Fajar The Student
Generation of Movement in the
University Malaya in
Singapore 1970s

3.
Islamic and ethnic-

based student
movements

THE FAJAR GENERATION
OF UNIVERSITY MALAYA
IN SINGAPORE

The University Socialist Club (USC) and its organ Fajar were a
leading voice advocating the cause of the constitutional struggle
for freedom and independence in peninsular Malaya and
Singapore.
In May 1954, the British colonial government arrested the entire
editorial board of Fajar and charged them with sedition.
The monthly periodical continued to be published until it was
banned in February 1963, following the massive wave of politiclal
arrests codenamed Operation Cold Store.
This collection of essays provides a timely documentation and
narrative of the personalities who contributed to the struggle for
freedom and independence in both countries.

THE STUDENT
MOVEMENT IN THE 1970S

In order to control the students, the government introduced the
University And University College Act, 1971.
This brought protests and demonstrations by students.
Demonstrations led to clashes between students and the police
and many student leaders were arrested.
I. Tasik Utara (1974)
· The formation of Barisan Nasional lessened opposition against the
government.
· At this point, students took opportunity to became new pressure
group to champion the poor people.
· This happened when the squatters in Tasik Utara promised land
before election but later received notice of eviction.
· When their call to stop the demolition fell onto deaf ears, the
squatters contacted UMSU but the protest against the demolition
lead by Hishamudin Rais failed.

· When demands for the release of student leaders failed, students
took to the streets of Kuala Lumpur.
· Clashes led to demonstration in campus and occupation of the
University of Malaya Administration Building but end with UMSU
got suspended by the Government.
II. Baling
· The Baling Protests linked to inflation (1974).
· Demonstration by the people of Baling to urged government to
lower the price of food and other necessities.
· Students also staged the demonstration at the Selangor Club.
· They not only conveyed the voice from Baling but also demanded
the govt. to punish the corrupt ministers and chief ministers.
· Owing to tear gas attacked the students retreated to the National
Mosque.
· The Mosque also not safe by the tear gas attacked, therefore some
had withdrawn to campus.

III. International Issues
· Students were also involved in international issues.
· Support for the Pattani Liberation Movement Persatuan Mahasiswa
Islam Universiti Malaya (PMIUM) - demo against visiting Thai Prime
Minister (June 1971)
· Arab-Israel conflict (1973), Malaysian students opposed US Govt’s
support for Israel.

ISLAMIC AND ETHNIC-BASED
STUDENT MOVEMENTS

Student movements in Malaysia can be traced back to the
influence of Islamic movements in Middle East and South Asia.
Foreign students and the reform influence of Pan Islamic
movements led Malay students to organize themselves in student
organizations.
Malay and Indonesian students formed several welfare and
Islamic associations such as Jami’ah Al-Khairiah (Egypt),
Talabah Indonesia Malaya Association (Saudi Arabia) and
Indonesia-Malaya Association (India).

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SECRET SOCIETIES

TITLE KEY CONCEPTS

Early Triads and Secret Societies in Malaya and Singapore
PART 1

1.
The Mother of all

Triads

2.
The Trippiest
Orientation Camp
Ever - Rituals

3.
Deconstructing
Signs And Codes

THE MOTHER OF ALL TRIADS

天地会The Tian Di Hui () – literally Heaven Earth Society –

founded in Fujian is thought to be the first triad ever formed.

According to Chinese beliefs, its name reflects the harmonious

relationships between Heaven, Earth, and Man.

Tian Di Hui has been known under a variety of names

throughout history, including Three Dots Society, Three Unities

Society, and even Pure Water Society. Obviously, some members

missed the memo.

There are numerous legends surrounding the founding of Tian

Di Hui, but they all follow the same pattern:

- His senior officials, however, became extremely jealous and

falsely accused the monks of treason. Kangxi, alarmed, ordered

the annihilation of the monks. In the dead of night, his men set

fire to the Shaolin monastery, killing all but five people who

managed to flee and survive the fighting. They encountered

divine omens along the way, prompting them to form a society to

overthrow the Qing dynasty.

There was a bright red glow in the sky on the day they formed,

洪which inspired them to change their surnames to Hong ( ),
红which sounds like the Mandarin character for'red' ( ). These

five monks went on to found Tian Di Hui's five sub-lodges.

THE TRIPPIEST ORIENTATION
CAMP EVER - RITUALS

The Tsung Sin Kongsi
Membership Certificate

Ah Kow jios you to the kongsi's Kai Xiang Tang – the initiation
ceremony – one week into your new life here. You follow him
into a pepper and gambier plantation in the dead of night, where
an elaborate system of gates and symbolic items is set up.
You're instructed to roll up your left pant leg and right sleeve,
and to wear grass sandals instead of shoes. A white-clad man
leads you through three gates: The Hong Gate, the Hall of Loyalty
and Righteousness , and the Hall of the City of Willows . You
follow suit, answering trick questions and reciting tediously long
oaths each time.

The journey comes to an end at the Red Flower Pavilion (), where
your finger is pricked and your blood is mixed with chicken
blood, rice wine, and sugar.Then they will say by the man in
white: "Drink and become our sworn blood brother.” Finally, you
are given a membership certificate, which you are instructed to
keep safe with your life.
The Tsung Sin Kongsi membership certificate shown below
includes a numerical puzzle at the top of the inner octagon –
these symbols represent numbers that add up to 15 horizontally,
vertically, or diagonally.
Members of the Triad took their oaths very seriously; breaking
any of them meant impending horror involving, more often than
not, the loss of certain body parts. Here are a few examples:
1. A brother's first duty is to honour his parents. It is forbidden to
abuse his brothers and parents, and if he is so disgraceful as to break
this law, he must be drowned in the ocean, his flesh floating on the
surface of the waters, and his bones buried in the ocean bed within a
month.
2. If a brother enters the home of another brother, he must be
served tea and rice. If any brother fails to do so, may he perish by
spitting blood in the street.

DECONSTRUCTING SIGNS
AND CODES

Ah Kow teaches you the intricacies of secrecy as you begin your

work in the secret society. You notice that your membership

certificates resemble trade receipts, complete with stamps, in

order to avoid unnecessary suspicion from the outside world.

You also learn a unique set of hand signs for your secret society,

which allows you to openly communicate with your members.

Ah Kow will occasionally pass you a hidden message on a piece

of cloth that can only be revealed by folding it in a specific way.

顺天行道 川大丁首Chinese characters were disguised by omitting specific strokes
(for example, became became). In place of

words, numbers were used – 3-8-21 was used to represent the

triad name Hong (). The character deconstructs into (3), (8),

(20), and (21). (1).

SECRET KEY CONCEPTS
SOCIETES

Secrets of the early triads in Singapore: Part 2

1. 2.
Anti-Catholics riot The Road To A Split
Head Is Paved With
(1851)
Good Intentions
3.
Secret societies and

other state

ANTI-CATHOLICS RIOT (1851)

In February of 1851, The last five days have been a bloodbath.
Many secret society members have been converting to
Catholicism for quite some time now, resulting in a significantly
reduced membership in the kongsis. The Ghee Hin Hoe () was
the hardest hit. Their leaders were enraged.
Furthermore, there were rumours that Catholic plantation
owners were smuggling opium into their plantations, posing a
direct threat to secret societies' opium businesses.
The unrest resulted in a 5-day massacre that killed 500 people
and destroyed 28 pepper and gambier plantations.
Finally, thanks to mediation, both parties agreed on a $1,500
settlement, and some rioters were imprisoned.

THE ROAD TO A SPLIT HEAD IS
PAVED WITH GOOD
INTENTIONS

William Pickering, Protector of the Chinese

As secret societies gained notoriety for their riots and unrest,
William Pickering was appointed Chinese Protector in 1877,
owing to his knowledge of Chinese customs and language.
Pickering served as a liaison between the British government and
the Chinese immigrant community. Because of his good
relationship with the Chinese, their problems were brought to
the government, avoiding the bloodbaths that occurred when
secret societies handled matters.
Pickering's responsibilities also included preventing new coolies
from becoming victims of coolie trafficking and rescuing
prostitutes from brothels. While that was all well and good, his
actions inevitably enraged the secret societies, who saw his good
intentions as an intrusion into their lucrative businesses.
In 1887, a triad member allegedly attempted to murder Pickering
by flinging an axe at his head. The assassination attempt failed,
but it forced him to retire early in 1888

SECRET SOCIETIES AND
OTHER STATE

Selangor Civil War, (1867–73)
- A series of conflicts for control of tin-rich districts in Selangor,
initially between Malay chiefs but later involving Chinese secret
societies. Following the disputed recognition of Abdul Samad as
sultan in 1860, Malay chiefs gradually became divided into two
camps—generally, lower-river chiefs versus upper-river chiefs. The
main issue was the lucrative collection of tin export duties. Raja
Mahdi, the exiled son of the previous ruler of Klang (now Kelang),
seized and held the prosperous town of Klang for two years, with the
tacit approval of dissident upper-river chiefs. When the sultan
granted favours to his son-in-law Zia-ud-din, brother of the sultan of
Kedah, he further alienated the dissident chiefs, and fighting erupted.

- Chinese tin miners in the Selangor and Klang valleys began feuding
over control of the mines at this point. The miners were mostly
members of the Ghee Hin and Hai San secret societies, which were
looking for allies among the Malay chiefs. As a result, by 1870, the
Chinese had taken opposing sides in the civil war: the Ghee Hin
sided with Raja Mahdi's forces, while the Hai San sided with Zia-ud-
din. By late 1873, Zia-ud-din had defeated Mahdi and his supporters,
thanks to British assistance, a Pahang army, and Chinese allies. The
war caused economic disruption and the loss of mining i nvestments,
paving the way for British control to be expanded in 1874.
- https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hai-San

Ghee Hin - Chinese secret society
- Ghee Hin was a Chinese secret society that flourished in Malaya
during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Many Chinese
migrated to Malaya during the 1800s, bringing their secret societies
with them. In Penang, the Ghee Hin had a strong branch
organisation. Its members were mostly Cantonese speakers from
southern China. The Ghee Hin was a semilegal society that was
governed internally through oath taking, ceremonies based on
Chinese cosmology and philosophy, and harsh penalties for breaking
the society's rules.
- https://www.britannica.com/topic/Ghee-Hin

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TEHDEUCSSAYCTSHI

TOOEONMLIANNGD

EDUCATION AND KEY CONCEPTS
THE SCHOOLING
SYSTEM

1. 2.
The Beginning of Vernacular
education and
Education English education

3.
The impact of
education upon
Malaysian society

THE BEGINNING OF
EDUCATION

Education, as opposed to various nonformal and informal
socialisation methods, is a discipline concerned with methods of
teaching and learning in schools or school-like settings (e.g.,
rural development projects and education through parent-child
relationships).
The transmission of a society's values and accumulated
knowledge can be defined as education. Education is intended to
guide them through the process of learning a culture, moulding
their behaviour into adult behaviours, and directing them toward
their eventual role in society.However, as societies become more
complex, necessitating the development of more selective and
efficient cultural transmission methods. For example, Formal
education—the school and the specialist known as the teacher.

- History of Education in Malaysia
The earliest forms of education in Malaysia were Sekolah Pondok
(literally, Hut school), Madrasah, and other Islamic schools.
The British colonial government was largely responsible for the
establishment of secular schools in Malaysia. Many of Malaysia's
first schools were established in the Straits Settlements of
Penang, Malacca, and Singapore. The Penang Free School,
founded in 1816, is Malaya's oldest English-language school,
followed by Malacca High School, St. Xavier's Institution, King
Edward VII School (Taiping), and Anglo Chinese School, Klang.
Many English-language schools are regarded as highly
prestigious.
The British colonial government initially did not provide Malay-
language secondary schools, forcing those who had previously
studied in Malay to adjust to an English-language education. As a
result of this issue, many Malays have decided not to continue
their education.
Richard O. Winstedt, a British historian, worked to improve
Malay education and was instrumental in establishing Sultan
Idris Training College, which produced Malay teachers. In 1905,
Richard James Wilkinson assisted in the establishment of the
Malay College Kuala Kangsar, which aimed to educate the Malay
elite.
Primary Education - compulsory, and multilingual public schools,
private schools, and home educators coexist
Secondary Education - Although secondary education is divided
into two phases, there is no designated middle school period.
Students write for their lower certificate of education after
completing the first three years of general education. Following
that, they will spend two years in either the arts or the sciences,
based on their personal preferences and teacher
recommendations.
Tertiary Education - The University

VERNACULAR EDUCATION
AND ENGLISH EDUCATION

The vernacular schools were established specifically for
Malaysia's Chinese and Indian ethnic and cultural communities.
This educational system was established in order to promote the
languages and cultural values of these communities.Mandarin or
Tamil is the medium of instruction in vernacular schools.
However, Bahasa Malaysia and English language are required
subjects.
In the year 1921, the first Malay school was established in Glugor,
Penang. However, this school's accomplishments are not
something to be proud of. In 1856, Singapore saw the
establishment of two schools: Teluk Belanga Malay School and
Kampung Gelam Malay School. Malay College Kuala Kangsar
(MCKK) was founded in 1905. The establishment of this College
is significant in understanding the dualism policy in British
colonial education for Malays.

In the late 17th and early 18th centuries, Chinese immigrants
arrived in Malaya. With the arrival of the Chinese, Chinese
schools were able to be established in Malaya for this generation
of newcomers. The development of Chinese education in Malaya
is inextricably linked to the region's economic factors. Members
of the London missionary established the first Chinese school in
Malaya in 1915. The Chinese school established in Malaya
follows the same model as schools in mainland China. The
establishment of Chinese schools in Malaya was not regarded
favourably by British colonialists.
Following the establishment of the Penang Free School in 1816,
the establishment of Tamil Vernacular schools in Malaya
(Malaysia) began. The arrival of Indian immigrants, particularly
those to work on plantations, has resulted in the establishment
of Tamil schools. The establishment of the Tamil Vernacular
School is dependent on their employer or the Missionary
Association's efforts. The Christian missionary group in
Singapore
Despite the evolution of the Malaysian education system, English
is still taught as a compulsory language in schools.
Communicative language teaching is a method of involving
students in interaction and meaningful communication.
The establishment of English schools in Malaya precedes that of
vernacular schools. English education was first introduced in
Malaya in 1816, with the establishment of the Penang Free
School. The school curriculum is based on the curriculum of the
Grammar School of Great Britain in order to produce Lower

THE IMPACT OF EDUCATION
UPON MALAYSIAN SOCIETY

The Malay education system, which was introduced through the
Malay Vernacular School, is only at the elementary level. The
Malay Vernacular School, part of the British Education Policy for
Malays, had frozen the Malays by keeping them within the
confines of modern economic activity. This British Education
Policy has stifled Malays' aspirations by limiting Malays'
opportunities to develop their talents. The vast majority of
Malays are also cut off from the rapid socioeconomic changes
that are taking place in their lives. (Abu Zahari, 1980, p.18).
.

The Colonial Education System did, in fact, have some
ramifications for society and the nation. Colonial Education
established four school systems, namely the Malay Vernacular
School, the Chinese Vernacular School, the Tamil Vernacular
School, and the English School, but there is no overarching
philosophy or National Education Policy. There is no uniform
policy regarding the use of Language, Curriculum Content,
Textbooks, Teacher Training, and Exam. (Abdullah Sani and
P.Kumar 1990, p.18)
British Colonial Education has also fostered a sense of racism or
racist feelings. Because each type of school is dedicated to a
specific race, the schools are separated geographically and based
on population distribution.(Abdullah Sani & P.Kumar, 1990, p.5)

le arning unit13

CONMSATLOIAFT


YUSTIIAON

CONSTITUTION OF KEY CONCEPTS
MALAYSIA

1.
Constitution

2.
Equality

3.
Rights

CONSTITUTION

The basic principles and laws of a nation, state, or social group
that determine the powers and duties of the government and
guarantee certain rights to the people in it.
The constitution is the highest source of law in the country. Its
existence is to coordinate the governance of a country. Other
than that, the constitution also serves as a guideline for the
creation of laws, either on the side of the government or the
people. The constitution also aims to provide assurance and
protection to the people. The Federal constitution of Malaysia
touches on various aspects of governance such as freedom of
rights, the powers and status of Yang di-Pertuan Agong, the
privileges of the Malay rulers and special rights of the Malays,
the issue of Bahasa Melayu, religion, citizenship, judiciary and
many more

EQUALITY

All persons are equal before the law and entitled to the equal
protection of the law.
There shall be no discrimination against citizens on the ground only
of religion, race, descent or place of birth in any law or in the
appointment to any office or employment under a public authority.
This Article does not invalidate or prohibit-
(a)any provision regulating personal law;
(b)any provision or practice restricting office or employment
connected with the affairs of any religion, or of an institution
managed by a group professing any religion, to persons professing
that religion;
(c)any provision for the protection, well-being or advancement of the
aboriginal peoples of the Malay Peninsula (including the reservation
of land) or the reservation to aborigines of a reasonable proportion of
suitable positions in the public service;
(d)any provision prescribing residence in a State or part of a State as
a qualification for election or appointment to any authority having
jurisdiction only in that State or part, or for voting in such an election;
(e)any provision of a Constitution of a State, being or corresponding
to a provision in force immediately before Merdeka Day;
(f)any provision restricting enlistment in the Malay Regiment to
Malays.

RIGHTS

The property interest possessed under law or custom and
agreement in an intangible thing especially of a literary and
artistic nature.
As mentioned is the Article 12 of the Federation Constitution
every religious group has the right to establish and maintain
institutions for the education of children in its own religion, and
there shall be no discrimination on the ground only of religion in
any law relating to such institutions or in the administration of
any such law; but it shall be lawful for the Federation or a State
to establish or maintain or assist in establishing or maintaining
Islamic institutions or provide or assist in providing instruction
in the religion of Islam and incur such expenditure as may be
necessary for the purpose.

le arning unit14

THE WAY FORWARD

THE WAY KEY CONCEPTS
FORWARD
2.
1. Social History, Unity
Social History and
and Diversity
Politics

3.
Social History and

Economics

SOCIAL HISTORY AND
POLITICS

British Colonization in Malaya 1874 – 1957
Colonial rule reorganized local life
British rule brought intense changes, transforming the various
states socially and economically
Malaya only solution was peaceful solution which the
negotiations was led by Tunku Abdul Rahman

SOCIAL HISTORY, UNITY AND
DIVERSITY

The May 13 incident of 1969 served as an emphatic warning to
both leaders and the people of Malaysia to be in solidarity so that
they could live together in peace and harmony
The declaration of the Rukun Negara on 31 August 1970 after the
May 13 riots of 1969 proves that the government realizes that the
focus of national development prior to this had placed too much
importance only on the physical aspects.
The government has embarked on efforts to build a single
Malaysian race that was united, and to instill patriotic feelings

SOCIAL HISTORY AND
ECONOMICS

Historian interested in the evolution of the economy because of
the light it threw on the structure and changes in society, and
more especially on the relationship between classes and social
group
The most fundamental out of all varieties of history because it
was the foundation of society
The predominance of economic over the social in this
combination because it was partly owing to a view of economic
theory which refused to isolate the economic from social,
institutional and other elements.

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