HISTORY MARVEL OF FLORENCE

BAPTISTERY OF SAN GIOVANNI
Dedicated to John the Baptist, this
building was consecrated in 1059
and completed in the 1100s. Andrea
Pisano’s bronze doors were added
in the 14th century. A century later,
the design competition for another
set of elaborate doors was won
by Lorenzo Ghiberti. His rival in
the competition was Brunelleschi,
future builder of the dome.
PIETRO CANALI/FOTOTECA 9X12

































































































NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC HISTORY 49

SOARING




MASTERPIECES







Through the ages, the engineering of one great
dome has influenced that of the next. The

Pantheon’s lightweight honeycomb dome and
the Hagia Sophia dome, which is supported on

pendentives, have influenced the architecture
of very different places and styles. The dome of

Florence’s cathedral mixes elements of both these
designs and innovates with the double-shell and

stone-chain solution, reaching dimensions never
seen before. Not even the dome of St. Peter’s,

which Michelangelo designed about a century

later, was able to match it.
Hagia Sophia, Istanbul
FERNANDO BAPTISTA/NGS
The enormous dome, built in
the sixth century a.d., rises
over the central nave and
is supported by four huge
pendentives that rest on four
large pillars.




Pantheon, Rome
The rotunda is formed of five
rows of coffers that decrease in
size and is topped with an oculus
almost 30 feet across. It was built
in the second century a.d.

St. Peter’s
Basilica, Rome
Michelangelo, who was
Cathedral of Santa Maria capomaestro, began
del Fiore, Florence constructing the dome in
The dome of Florence’s landmark 1547. His protégé Giacomo
basilica was begun by Filippo della Porta finished it in 1590.
Brunelleschi in 1420 and finished
in 1471, when the lantern atop it
was placed.




































Taj Mahal, Agra
This gem of Mughal architecture
was built by Emperor Shah Jahan
in Uttar Pradesh, northern India,

in the mid-17th century. The
dome was designed by Ottoman
architect Ismail Khan.

design, but was it feasible? In 1418, once the base
of the dome was finished, the Opera del Duomo
launched a competition to find an architect who
would make the dome a reality.


Winning the Contest

Known to his friends as “Pippo,” Filippo
Brunelleschi was born in Florence in 1377 and
spent his childhood in the family home opposite
the construction site where the cathedral was
gradually taking form. Perhaps growing up in
the shadow of the unfinished Santa Maria del
Fiore, and seeing Fioravante’s domed maquette

inside, inspired Brunelleschi to puzzle out how
such an ambitious dome could be built.
Gaining renown as a goldsmith and sculptor,
in 1401 Brunelleschi entered an architectural
BRUNELLESCHI AND THE EGG
contest to create new doors for Florence’s Bap-
Filippo Brunelleschi demonstrating his
tistery of San Giovanni, the octagonal building project’s viability to the members of

that stands alongside the cathedral. The chal- the Opera del Duomo. Oil painting by
lenge: A set of doors even more magnificent Giuseppe Fattori, 19th century. Palazzo
than those designed some 70 years earlier by Pitti, Florence
AKG/ALBUM
Andrea Pisano. On that occasion, Brunelleschi
lost to Lorenzo Ghiberti. Defeated, he moved
to Rome with his friend Donatello, and for the
next 15 years he immersed himself in the study Construction Timeline
of ancient Roman architecture. It is said that he FERNANDO BAPTISTA/NGS 1150–1170
Roof and lantern of the
rediscovered the principles of linear perspective baptistery is completed
next to the old cathedral
developed by the Greeks and Romans. of Santa Reparata
Brunelleschi returned to Florence between
ROMANESQUE GOTHIC
1416 and 1417. When the contest for designing
the dome was announced in 1418, Brunelle schi
was already one of the favorites, along with his
great rival Ghiberti. The proposals that were
submitted all had to stick closely to Fioravante’s

design. What the judges were really looking for
was what engineering system the competing
architects could come up with to support the
huge dome while it was under construction.
Some proposals envisaged wooden props sup-
porting the walls of the dome while it was going
up. Another alternative was to fill the transept
with sand to create a mound on which the dome

would rest during construction, a solution the
Opera del Duomo rejected. Brunelleschi, mean-
while, offered a startling and radical proposal:
He claimed that he would build the vast dome
without using any support systems at all.
This idea caused a sensation; no one could
grasp how it would work. Although Brunelleschi

refused to reveal the engineering details, he was


52 MAY/JUNE 2022

1296 1359 1420–1436 1471
Construction of Giotto’s Bell Tower The dome Construction of the
 
the new cathedral is completed is built lantern is
begins completed


RENAISSANCE

1377 1402 1418 1446
Brunelleschi is Brunelleschi Brunelleschi participates in the Brunelleschi
born in Florence goes to Rome contest to design the dome dies



TOP SECRET




Thinking Ahead BRUNELLESCHI made it clear that he would not the Opera required the contestants to reveal

A fresco in the Spanish reveal his architectural secrets. Only a few of their techniques to the public, which Brunelleschi
Chapel of the Santa the capomaestro’s own sketches have survived. refused to do. He argued instead that whichever
The other surviving drawings that give a glimpse contestant managed to stand an egg upright on a
Maria Novella church
in Florence was painted of his ingenuity were made by collaborators marble table should be granted the commission.
in 1355, 65 years before such as Taccola and Bonaccorso Ghiberti Brunelleschi watched as all the other contestants
work on the dome at (grandson of Brunelleschi’s rival Lorenzo). These failed. When it was his turn, he rapped the bottom
Santa Maria del Fiore fellow architects got to see the machines used of the egg sharply onto the table, breaking the
began. Even so, artist during construction and made sketches of the lower shell and leaving the upper part erect as
Andrea di Bonaiuto mechanisms in operation. But how exactly they if it were a small dome. When those watching
depicts the finished were devised remains unclear. Brunelleschi was protested that his trick made the challenge easy,
cathedral, complete so secretive that he even hid the dome’s design Brunelleschi pointed out that in the same way, if
with dome. details from the Opera del Duomo. A story is told he revealed his design tactics for the dome, they
ALAMY/ACI. that in the course of the 1418 dome competition, would then go ahead and build it without him.

CHANGING DESIGNS
In 1587 Francis I, Grand Duke of Tuscany, gave
orders for the cathedral’s original facade to be
stripped, on the grounds that it had become out-
dated. The facade remained bare until 1887, when
it was completely rebuilt in the neo-Gothic style,
following a design by Emilio de Fabris that was
close to Giotto’s original vision for the cathedral.
JUSTIN FOULKES/FOTOTECA 9X12



such a respected architect and had performed so
well on other projects for the wool guild that he
clinched the commission. In 1420 his audacious
design was approved on condition that he share

the plans with his rival Ghiberti.


Sabotage and Success
That same year a memorandum was drawn
up listing the project’s structural principles.
Brunelleschi confirmed the dome would have
a double shell, and he included the dimensions
of the structural rings. He stressed once again
that he would build it without any external sup-

port, but exactly how remained unclear. Today
no documentation survives that explicitly ex-
plains his engineering behind the dome. Much
of what is known comes through observation
and analysis of the finished work.
Early on in the construction of the dome,

the disappointed Ghiberti and his faction used
various stratagems to sabotage Brunelleschi’s
proposal. They accused him of deviating from
Fioravante’s original project and of committing
structural errors in the building work. They even
grew so desperate that they complained that the
dome’s design made the cathedral interior too
dark. None of these controversies succeeded in
holding back the project, though. After the base

of the dome reached the agreed-upon height
in 1426, approval was granted for the work to
continue without any supporting structures.
In 1429 cracks caused by the weight of the
dome were beginning to appear in the cathedral,
but Brunelleschi fixed them with reinforcements
of iron and wood. Slowly, layer by layer, the dome

rose, with no need of any scaffolding. Drawing
on his experience, Brunelleschi designed hoists
to facilitate the work. These involved innovative
uses of cogs and shafts, and they were equipped
with various speeds and a reversible gear. Years
later, Brunelleschi’s devices would be studed and
sketched by another brilliant Renaissance mind,
Leonardo da Vinci.






Brunelleschi had a radical

proposal: He would build

the dome without using any

support systems at all.



56 MAY/JUNE 2022

INTERIOR
DECORATION

Dating to the
16th century, the
polychrome marble
floor of Santa Maria
del Fiore is the work
of the architects
Baccio d’Agnolo and
Francesco da Sangallo.
PIETRO CANALI/FOTOTECA 9X12

Through the 1430s, construction was ham-
pered by cash flow problems, wage cuts, and a
shortage of building materials. But Brunelleschi
struggled on and in 1436 was vindicated. The

magnificent dome was completed successfully,
and Pope Eugenius IV consecrated the cathedral.
Brunelleschi, however, was not given carte
blanche in designing the lantern that would fin-
ish the mighty work. Once again a competition
was held, and once again Brunelleschi’s design
won out over that of his rivals. Drawing on his
brilliance as a sculptor, he carved a model from
chestnut wood, but he died in 1446 before it

could be placed. His design for the lantern was
finally completed and placed over the dome in
1471, topped with a copper sphere—the Palla—
designed by Andrea del Verrocchio.
In the 16th century work continued on the
cathedral, including the spectacular interior

decoration of the dome, a stunning rendering of
the Last Judgment begun by Giorgio Vasari. The
facade of the cathedral was left unfinished and
was dismantled in 1587. Three centuries later, it
was rebuilt in a neo-Gothic design that sought to
revive the stylistic principles originally proposed
by Giotto in the 14th century.
Fifteenth-century Italian architect and
polymath Leon Battista Alberti marveled at

Brunelleschi’s grand achievement:


Whoever would be envious enough to deny
praise to the architect Pippo, seeing such a
structure towering over the skies? It is wide
enough to cast its shadow over all the Tus-
can people, made as it is without any beam

or wooden supports. It is hard to believe that
this was done at this time when nothing of
the kind was ever to be seen in antiquity.


According to historical tradition, Filippo
Brunelleschi was buried under the cathedral.
The tradition, it turned out, was true: In 1972
his tomb was found in the crypt, in the shadow

of his own gravity-defying dome.

ARCHITECTURAL HISTORIAN MANUEL SAGA IS A PHD FELLOW
OF THE POLITECNICO DI TORINO (TURIN), ITALY.


Learn more


Brunelleschi’s Dome: How a Renaissance Genius Reinvented
Architecture. Ross King, Bloomsbury USA, 2013.


58 MAY/JUNE 2022

INTERIOR FRESCOES
Giorgio Vasari was
commissioned by
Cosimo de’ Medici to
decorate the inside
of the dome. The
frescoes, which depict
the Last Judgment,
were completed by
Federico Zuccaro in
1579, after Vasari’s
death.
GUIDO BAVIERA/FOTOTECA 9X12

Radius of the dome 1 4 2 3 Diameter: 180 feet Because of the effects of gravity, the base of a dome tends to splay outward. To reduce this tension, Brunelleschi connected the inner and outer vaults with solid vertical brick arches. The joints are rein-





Strong Skeleton forced with horizontal rings.



fifth), in which a line four-fifths the length of the
Gothic dimensions of the quinto acuto (pointed
of Neri di Fioravante, who envisaged a pointed
dome. The eight arcs that reach from the base
Brunelleschi’s construction follows the design
diameter of the base is used to create the arc.
The octagonal base, separated by stone ribs
at its vertices, was not built precisely, and
of the dome to a point follow the classical
there are some irregularities in its radii.







Gravity



Geometry







374 feet above the ground Lantern 4 4









Construction Dates 1471 3 3 Oculus Level 4
















1436






to mark the beginning of construction
IN TUSCANY
of bread, melon, and Trebbiano wine
climbed up onto the drum of the yet-
to-be-built dome of Santa Maria del
landscape, they enjoyed a breakfast
BREAKFAST
Fiore. Looking out over the Tuscan
Brick Plaster
stonemasons, and other workers
On August 7, 1420, laborers,
Tiles




on the dome itself. FERNANDO BAPTISTA/NGS The design The dome of Santa Maria del Fiore rises on 1 an octagonal drum built in stone and penetrated by a large circular window on each of its faces. Between the base and the top, there are 2 four rings or “chains” of sandstone reinforced with iron, which together with another series of wooden bands compress the whole and prevent it from splaying out at the bottom. The dome is crowned 3 by an oculus and 4 a lantern whose construction was completed in 1471, 35 years after the rest of the dome. Hidden Details Several million bric

Sideways thrust



















Vertical brick arch



Staircase




















Wooden belt


Stone belt










2 2





Level 3 Outer cap Inner cap




Level 2 Level 1








1 1
























1426


1422

LOOK! NO PROPS



THE IDEA OF BUILDING the dome without arrangement of bricks that anchored each new
a wooden structure to support it during ring of bricks into the ring below it, preventing
the construction process was an unusual the pieces from falling off in the process. A third
technical challenge in 15th-century Florence. strategy placed the stone blocks and bricks so

Brunelleschi figured that by employing the they were not totally horizontal, but gradually
correct techniques, he could construct a inclined toward the interior of the dome. This
building capable of bearing its own weight strategy, though apparently risky, maximizes the
without collapsing. He used four main strategies surface friction between the different layers of
to achieve this. First, both the inner and outer the construction and prevents the interior pieces
domes are divided into two sections. 1 The from dislodging, because they have nowhere to
lower section of each is built in stone and rises lean. Finally, Brunelleschi’s fourth strategy built
from the drum to approximately 47.5 feet high. interior ribs to connect the inner and outer layers
The upper section is made of brick. Its thickness of the dome, as well as vertical brick and stone
tapers as it rises to reduce the load on the lower arches that form a kind of cagework locking the
rings. The next strategy 2 used a herringbone whole structure together.














Inner
cap


60°
Vertical bricks
At the top, the wall reaches a
2
maximum angle of 60 degrees 2

Vertical bricks are arranged at
an angle to the center















Opus Spicatum
The herringbone brickwork (in Latin, opus

spicatum) is a technique that has been used
since ancient times for decorative purposes.
Likely placement Brunelleschi, however, also exploited
Brick
of scaffolding
it for a structural purpose. The oblique
Stone herringbone arches of vertically placed
1 bricks divide the horizontal brick rings into
1
bookended segments and anchor each ring
to the one beneath. Once a horizontal ring
was finished, new herringbone bricks were
placed for the next layers to tessellate with.
FERNANDO BAPTISTA/NGS

The Lantern

In 1436 the cathedral was finally
consecrated. But there remained the
challenge of designing a lantern to filter light
entering the oculus at the top of the dome.
Brunelleschi won the design competition.
Antonio di Manetto Ciaccheri was put
in charge of the work after Brunelleschi’s
death. The lantern echoes the octagonal
design of the dome itself and its eight
pilasters are aligned with the ribs of the
dome. The drawing to the right is from a
Renaissance Florentine workshop.
BELOW AND RIGHT: SCALA, FLORENCE





























































Cranes SCALA, FLORENCE
Brunelleschi created various machines to address
the complex challenges of building the dome
of Florence’s cathedral. These machines were
then used in other civil and military contexts.
The cranes and hoists he designed incorporated
complex animal-draft gears and locking systems Carga
that prevented the huge sandstone blocks from
falling. To construct the lantern, smaller versions
of these machines were required that could be

powered by humans. They carried precision
mechanisms that allowed the large square-cut
stones (ashlars) to be positioned correctly.
FERNANDO BAPTISTA/NGS

PYRAMIDS IN THE JUNGLE

The Great Palace (left) and the Temple of
the Inscriptions stand surrounded by the
mighty Lacandón Jungle in the Mexican
state of Chiapas. The image shows one
section of the remarkable city-state whose
rise began under its greatest leader, the
seventh-century ajaw Pakal the Great.
DANNY LEHMAN/GETTY IMAGES

PALENQUE












MAYA CITY OF THE GODS







As Palenque rose in the seventh century, so too did its elegant

stepped pyramids. Overseen by Pakal the Great, the city’s

distinctive architectural style exalted its Maya gods, whose


actions permeated every aspect of Palenque life.





EDITORS OF NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC

NORTH
AMERICA
Map
Area Chichén Itzá Itzá or Tikal, the fine detail and elegance of
Mayapán
SOUTH Tulum its architecture has stunned visitors since its
AMERICA Uxmal
Jaina seventh-century heyday. The slender walls of
its monuments were once coated with a layer
Yu c a t á n of stucco and painted with brilliant reds and

P e n i n s u l a
G u l f o f blues. Although these colors have long faded,
M e x i c o Palenque’s ornate friezes and stonework en-
dured. So too has its rich repository of inscrip-
Comalcalco tions, most notably on the panels in the city’s
largest stepped pyramid, known as the Temple
Palenque Calakmul of the Inscriptions.
Naranjo
Piedras Tikal As historians sift through Palenque’s vi-
Negras
Toniná Yaxchilán Gulf of sual treasures and decode the intricacies of its
Honduras glyphs, they have learned how the city’s ruling
dynasty, architecture, and faith were all bound
together. They reflected the beliefs of the wider
Extent of the Quiriguá Maya world while also proclaiming Palenque’s
Maya civilization
(7th & 8th centuries) Copán own distinctive religious traditions and gods.
Kaminaljuyú
City Origins
P A C I F I C
“Maya” is a 20th-century term for the civiliza-
O C E A N
tion that flourished across southern Mexico’s
Yucatán Peninsula and modern-day Guatemala,
Belize, Honduras, and El Salvador. It flourished
during what scholars called its Classic period,
CLASSIC eep in the jungle in Mexico’s state from a.d. 250 to 900. Maya civilization was
CULTURE of Chiapas stands the ruins of a hegemonic and consisted of numerous, inde-
From a.d. 250-900, Maya city known today as pendent power centers unified by common lan-
Maya culture thrived Palenque. Surrounded by a thick guages, calendars, and a system of writing, as
across the Yucatán
Peninsula (above). D canopy of cedar and mahogany, well as religious rituals and customs. Palenque
Although linked by some 1,500 individual structures make up the belonged to this network. Despite these con-
language and religion, ancient complex, whose center is dominated by nections, these cities often were in conflict with
Maya cities frequently a palace and ringed by temples. each other. Palenque was no exception.
clashed..
Although Palenque is relative- The name Palenque comes from a Spanish
GRADUAL MAPS/NG MAPS
ly small compared with other word meaning “stockade.” The name was ini-
Maya sites such as Chichén tially given by 16th-century Spanish settlers to
a nearby town, which over time became associ-
JADE DEATH MASK OF PAKAL THE GREAT, ated with the ruins themselves. Today, some
SEVENTH CENTURY. NATIONAL MUSEUM
OF ANTHROPOLOGY, MEXICO CITY historians believe the people of Palenque may
CLICK ALPS/AWL IMAGES have known the city as Lakamha, a Maya word










THE CITY First century b.c.


PAKAL The first agricultural
community develops in
Palenque; inhabitants
BUILT combine farming with
hunting and fishing.

BOOK IN STONE

Topped with its distinctive
Maya-style roof comb, the
Temple of the Inscriptions was
built in the late seventh century.
Its inscriptions, including the
second longest Maya glyphic
text ever found, provide
historians with a source of rich
information on Palenque.
CEM CANBAY/AGE FOTOSTOCK




















































































Fifth century a.d. Sixth century Seventh century Eighth century
Palenque’s dynasty Instability takes hold. Late Under Pakal the Great, Palenque’s power
of rulers (ajaws) is in the century, incursions Palenque becomes a major begins to wane. It will
established in a.d. 431. by forces from the Maya regional power. The Great be abandoned, and the
The city is still a relatively city of Calakmul devastate Palace and Temple of the jungle will enshroud the
small regional player. Palenque. Inscriptions are built. city.

THE PALENQUE CROSS GROUP

1 EMPLE OF THE CROSS
T
2 EMPLE OF THE FOLIATED CROSS
T
COMPLEX 3 EMPLE OF THE SUN
T
4 EMPLE XIX
T
5 EMPLE XX
T
The city was structured around the

palace, a large central building, which
was the seat of power of the ruling

dynasty. Around it stood dynastic
mausoleums and temples dedicated

to the great deities.

ILUSTRATION: TRASANCOS 3D












2
2


1
1
3
3
























6
6


N



±




11


12


13

NORTHWESTERN ZONE NORTHERN ZONE
G
6 REAT PALACE [ EMPLE X
T
11
T
T
7 EMPLE OF THE INSCRIPTIONS [ EMPLE OF THE COUNT
12
N
T
8 OMB OF THE RED QUEEN (TEMPLE XIII) [ ORTH GROUP
13
9 EMPLE OF THE SKULL
T
T
[ EMPLE XI
10








4
4




5
5























7
7






8
8


9
9




10

BUILDERS OF

PALENQUE





PAIN’S CHARLES III commissioned a
survey of Palenque by Antonio del
Río and artist Ricardo Almendáriz
Sin 1784. At that time, the Span-
iards could not conceive that indigenous
peoples were capable of creating such
marvels, and del Río misguidedly con-
cluded that the Phoenicians or Romans
“pursued their conquests even to this
country, where they remained long enough
to enable the Indian tribes to imitate their
ideas.” In 1840 American J.L. Stephens and
English artist Frederick Catherwood vis-
ited the site, and they concluded that the
writings in the Temple of the Inscriptions
matched those they had seen at Copán.
Their theory that these and other sites
formed part of an extensive, indigenous
civilization helped pave the way for the
Maya studies of the 20th century and the
decipherment of Maya glyphs.








ROYAL SEAT related to rivers, and reflecting the place’s abun- and drive the agriculture on which the city de-
In 1832 Jean-Frédéric dant sources of water. pended. It was the ajaw’s role to intercede with
Waldeck sketched a Palenque’s first inhabitants likely settled the gods to help protect and feed his people.
relief from Palenque
(above) depicting a the site around the first century b.c. As the Around a.d. 431, Palenque’s ruling dynasty
seated ruler adorned city grew, it prospered enough to later assert was founded by a leader named K’uk’ B’alam I.
with jewelry on a its influence over other peoples in the region. Palenque would reach new heights a couple
jaguar throne. Palenque grew wealthy from trade as well as centuries later in the seventh century when its
BRIDGEMAN/ACI from tributes collected from subjugated cities. greatest ajaw—Pakal the Great—came to power.
Like other Maya cities, Palenque Known as K’inich Janaab’ Pakal (meaning “sun
was ruled by an official known as an face shield”), he became ajaw when only a child,

ajaw. The position has been compared and his mother, Lady Sak K’uk’, ruled as regent
to a king, but many scholars liken it until he came of age. He held power from 615
more to that of a powerful governor until his death in 683 at about 80 years of age.
or lord. The title seems to have been During his reign, Pakal transformed Palenque
hereditary with power passing from from relative obscurity into a city that rivaled
fathers to sons. other great Maya cities such as Tikal.
The ajaw served as a link between
the gods and the people. Glyphic in- Palaces and Temples

scriptions found at Palenque revealed Pakal’s city was divided into two areas: a cen-
that the people believed the gods con- tral public area—the Great Plaza, surrounded
trolled the weather. The city’s mysteri- by monuments—and a separate residential
ous mist and storms could both disrupt zone. The sophisticated city had aqueducts,
public squares, and recreational ball courts.

CERAMIC CENSER FEATURING AN EFFIGY OF AN Civil power was focused on the Great Palace.
UNKNOWN DIGNITARY, A.D. 600-900. MUSEO Other structures had stood on the same site
REGIONAL DE CHIAPAS
AKG/ALBUM in previous eras, but this soaring structure,

STANDING TALL

During his reign as ajaw,
Pakal built the Great
Palace at Palenque. His
son, K’inich Kan B’alam,
added its most distinctive
feature, this four-story
tower, in the early 700s.
W. SKRYPCZAK/ALAMY/ACI

4
4









































2
2
























































DEATH AND THE 1952 DISCOVERY by Mexican ar- (above) is made from a single piece

chaeologist Alberto Ruz of Pakal’s
of limestone that weighs about seven
burial chamber below the Temple of tons. Decorated with an intricate re-
REBIRTH the Inscriptions revolutionized his- lief, the lid is now considered one of

torians’ understanding of Palenque
the great treasures of universal art.
and the Maya. Pakal’s sarcophagus lid There are several interpretations of the

3
3












1
1






































SARCOPHAGUS LID
FEATURING A RENDERING
OF THE POSSIBLE
COLORS USED WHEN IT
WAS CREATED IN THE
SEVENTH CENTURY
FOR PAKAL’S TOMB.
NATIONAL MUSEUM
OF ANTHROPOLOGY,
MEXICO CITY
ILLUSTRATION: TRASANCOS 3D





scene on the lid, but most scholars falling down the tree into the under- are 4 adornments representing the sky
agree that the central figure depicts world, while others have posited that and celestial objects, as well as Pakal’s
1 Pakal transformed into the god he is preparing to ascend it. Beneath ancestors. Through this impressive lid,
of maize, fertility, and abundance. Pakal is the 3 Earth Monster, from Pakal wanted to leave a record of the
Behind him is the 2 Maya World which Pakal may be emerging as he prosperity that his dynasty had brought

Tree; some scholars believe Pakal is is reborn. Around the edges of the lid to the city.


NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC HISTORY 73

THE STEPS LEADING UP
TO THE TEMPLE OF THE
CROSS CAN BE SEEN IN
THE FOREGROUND. THE
GRAND PALACE AND
ITS TOWER RISE IN THE
BACKGROUND. had “thrown down” the principal deities of the
DIEGO GRANDI/ALAMY/ACI
city, but Pakal restored the gods, returning them
to their rightful places of worship. Pakal con-
structs a narrative that placed him at the center

as a savior who restored divine order to the city
and its people.
The deities that Pakal restored were three
gods closely bound to Palenque’s identity.
Known as the Palenque Triad, scholars have
dubbed them GI, GII, and GIII. Their exact na-
ture is complex, each with multiple functions
and often interrelated to other Maya gods wor-
shipped in other cities.

Three more structures in Palenque were
erected to strengthen ties with the gods. Pakal’s
son and heir, K’inich Kan B’alam (which means
“shining snake jaguar”) began work on a new
ritual landscape south of the palace and temple
complex built by his father. Known collectively

as the Cross Group, the complex was built in
the eighth century. It consists of the Temple
of the Cross, the Temple of the Foliated Cross,
and the Temple of the Sun. The complex’s name
comes from the resemblance of temple motifs
to a cross. In fact, they are iterations of the Maya
dominated by its four-story tower, was built World Tree, a central connecting factor in Maya
in Pakal’s time. cosmology.
The impressive Temple of the Inscriptions Each of the three temples is connected to a god

was begun during Pakal’s reign. This remarkable in the Palenque triad: The Temple of the Cross
stepped pyramid is a classic example of is associated with GI, the Temple of the Foli-
Maya architecture, featuring nine dis- ated Cross with GII, and the Temple of the Sun
tinct levels crowned by a temple with an with GIII. Of these gods, it is perhaps GII that
iconic Maya roof comb at the top. The is best understood by archaeologists thanks
building’s greatest treasures, perhaps, are to inscriptions, images on censors discovered
the detailed glyphs and images inscribed on in the Temple of the Foliated Cross, and reliefs.

its walls. These markings record the history of His name is Unen K’awiil, the “infant,” associ-
Palenque and its people, providing valuable in- ated with maize and rain. Inscriptions bind the
sight into the culture, beliefs, rituals, and the “infant” GII to the idea of dynastic fertility, and
worldview of Palenque’s residents. to the legitimacy of Palenque’s rulers.
One account depicts a destructive invasion
carried out before Pakal’s time. The forces of Temples and Tombs
Calakmul (Kaan), a Maya city deep in the jungle The first Europeans to see these ruins gazed on
of the Petén basin to the east, attacked the city. them in the 1600s. They were amazed by their

The accounts describe the onslaught in dramatic beauty; in the subsequent centuries, more visi-
terms, recounting the widespread destruction tors traveled to Palenque to observe these build-
that swept through the city. ings and record their magnificent artworks.
The inscriptions recount how the Calakmul The first modern archaeological studies be-
gan in the 20th century. The work of Mexican

OBSIDIAN AX PERHAPS REPRESENTING AN AJAW . IN PALENQUE SUCH archaeologist Alberto Ruz was among the most
OBJECTS WERE DEPOSITED IN THE FOUNDATIONS OF BUILDINGS OR
PLACED IN TOMBS. A.D. 600-900. PRIVATE COLLECTION important. Working in the 1950s, he made a sig-
AKG/ALBUM nificant find in the Temple of the Inscriptions.


74 MAY/JUNE 2022

COLORS OF PALENQUE
A vivid stucco relief from Temple
XIX at Palenque depicts K’inich
Janaab’ Pakal II (also known as
Upakal K’inich), who ruled the
city in the late eighth century.
Museo de Palenque, Mexico
TRAVELPIX/ALAMY

DIVINE ATTIRE

The elaborate stone
sarcophagus lid
of Pakal the Great
depicts the ruler
adorned in the
garments of a god.
KENNETH GARRETT/NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC






QUEEN’S MASK He recorded that a chamber, located at the low- to falter. By 900 Palenque would be empty, be-
A broken malachite est part of the temple, “resembled an abandoned lieved to be part of what scholars call the Maya
mask found in the tomb chapel. Across the walls stucco figures processed collapse, an as yet unexplained abandonment of
of the “Red Queen” in relief. The floor . . . was almost entirely filled the great urban centers of the empire. Palenque’s
(below) is now believed
to have belonged to with a great carved stone slab.” The body under buildings would stand strong as their vivid col-
Pakal’s consort. Museo the slab, covered with a jade death mask wearing ors faded over time.
de Palenque, Mexico a penetrating gaze, was identified as Pakal, laid Uncovered centuries later, Palenque’s monu-
ALAMY/ACI to rest there after his death in 683. ments continue to proclaim their people’s past
The magnificent sarcophagus lid, in- glory. Archaeologists are continuing to explore
scribed with Maya glyphs, and elabo- these. In the 1990s a passageway hidden under

rate imagery centering on a crouched the stairs of Temple XIII was found to lead to an-
figure, became the source of widespread other tomb of a highborn woman, now known as
fascination. Mayanists assert the likely in- the “Red Queen.” She is now believed to be Lady
terpretation is that the figure is Pakal posed Tz’akbu Ajaw, Pakal’s queen consort.
before the Maya World Tree. In the tomb, A team of archaeologists, led by Arnoldo Gon-
his body was surrounded by jade objects, zalez, in 2016 announced the discovery of a water
whose green color symbolizes maize and tunnel under the Temple of the Inscriptions and
water, the materials on which Maya civili- Pakal’s tomb. They believe the tomb and pyra-

zation rested. Some of the tomb’s objects mid were deliberately placed on top of a spring
were dusted with cinnabar, an ore of so that the water would provide Pakal’s spirit a
oxidized mercury, whose red color way to travel to the underworld.
represents blood, life, and the af-
terlife.
Stability continued into the reign of Learn more
Pakal’s grandson and beyond, but by the mid-
Palenque: Eternal City of the Maya
800s, Palenque’s influence in the region started David Stuart and George Stuart, Thames & Hudson, 2008.

TEMPLE OF THE CROSS,
IMAGINED WITH ITS ORIGINAL
BRIGHT PAINT
ILLUSTRATION: TRASANCOS 3D

























































TEMPLES OF




SEA, EARTH,




AND SKY






THE TEMPLES of Palenque’s so-called Cross FLY HIGH
Group each represent a different tier of the Found on a tomb
Maya cosmos and one of the city’s three ma- altar, this clay figure
jor deities. The Temple of the Cross (above) may represent
a high official of
is sacred to the triad member known as GI
Palenque or its ajaw.
and to the realm of ocean. The Temple of
It wears a helmet
the Foliated Cross was dedicated to GII, in the likeness of
known as Unen K’awiil, associated with the a bird. Powerful
earthly realm of rain, crops, and the rulers of figures in Palenque
Palenque. As its name suggests, the Temple were known to
impersonate birds,
of the Sun was linked with the heavens, and
perhaps to associate
its GIII god is associated with the Sun Jaguar themselves with the
deity, and war. gods of the sky.
BRIDGEMAN/ACI

UP THE HILL

Looking over the lush expanses
of Palenque, the Great Palace
is distinguished by its sturdy
watchtower (left). The Temple
of the Cross (upper right) sits
at the top of a long flight of
steps. Its builders used the hilly
terrain to give the structure a
natural sense of height.
MACDUFF EVERTON/NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC



Cut from a sheer cliff face around 2,000 years ago,


30 caves in India are home to sacred spaces

adorned with awe-inspiring works of

ancient Buddhist art.





EDITORS OF NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC

CARVED IN TIME
The Buddhist cave temples near
Ajanta in India were cut out of the
cliffs above the Waghora River
between the second century b.c.
and sixth century a.d. Filled with
Buddhist-themed paintings and
reliefs, they have been a UNESCO
World Heritage site since 1983.
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ELEPHANT long a horseshoe-shaped cliff sculptures, shrines (stupas), monasteries, prayer
ENTRYWAY above the Waghora River in cen- halls, and inscriptions created over centuries

Carved circa the late tral India, a cadre of British soldiers exemplify masterpieces of early Buddhist art
fifth century a.d., set out in 1819 hoping to bag a ti- and the creative achievements of classical India
a pair of carefully A ger. Their hunting party stumbled under the influential Gupta dynasty. And yet,
carved stone
elephants (above) upon something surprising: a network of man- surprisingly, only a few local residents knew of
flank an entrance to made caves ingeniously and dramatically cut into their majestic splendor.
Ajanta Cave 16. the rock. The beauty of the stonework was just
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a hint to what awaited inside those stone halls. Geologic Origins
The interiors of the caves, home to bats and About 66 million years ago, a hundred thousand
familiar to local tribes but otherwise unknown or more years before the so-called Chicxulub
to the rest of the world for roughly 14 centuries, impact (the asteroid collision credited with the
revealed a singularly astonishing collection of extinction of the dinosaurs), one of the larg-
religious art. The immense murals, rock-cut est volcanic eruptions in history began flooding
CARVED
IN 2nd century b.c. a.d. 320 5th century a.d. 1819
The Gupta dynasty is
The first Buddhist
A second wave of
The Western world
STONE temples are excavated founded and will rule for construction begins at learns of the Ajanta
Caves’ existence, and
Ajanta but will end when
more than 200 years, a
at Ajanta during the
rule of the Satavahana “golden age” in India’s Gupta power declines in outside study of the
dynasty. history. the sixth century. site begins.
82 MAY/JUNE 2022

DIVINE VISIONS
Buddhas and bodhisattvas
adorn the ceiling of Cave 10,
one of the oldest at Ajanta.
The cave dates to the first
century b.c., but much of its
artwork was created centuries
later in the a.d. 400s.
MAURICE JOSEPH/ALAMY
M A U R I C E J O S E P H / A L A M Y

Select spiritual site
Sumtsek temple Gupta Empire India’s
(Alchi) Vakataka Empire
India (present-day boundary)
C H I N A
H Golden Age
PAKISTAN I
M
New Delhi A L AJANTA’S FIRST CAVES were excavated
NEPAL A Y A around the second and first centuries b.c.,
BHUTAN
but the majority of these marvelous
temples were built during a golden age

I N D I A BANGLADESH in India when the arts and sciences, ar-
chitecture, and religion all flowered. Two
Kolkata
(Calcutta) dynasties played important roles in the
MYANMAR
(BURMA) creation of the caves: the Gupta dynasty,
Ajanta caves
(Ajanta) which controlled northern, central, and
parts of southern India between a.d. 320
Mumbai and 550; and the Vakataka dynasty in the
(Bombay)
western Deccan region. Under the rule of
Arabian
Badami caves Bay of Bengal the Vakataka king Harishena during the
Sea
(Badami) late fifth century, an intense period of con-
struction of new temples began at Ajanta.
The names of Harishena and his ministers,
Talagirishvara temple
(Panamalai) as well as the lands under their control,
Brihadishvara temple can be found throughout the excavated
NG MAPS
Mattancherry Palace (Thanjavur) 0 mi 400 caves.
(Kochi)
0 km 400
SRI LANKA





India’s Deccan Plateau with roughly 135,000 who ruled a large swath of central India in the
cubic miles of lava. When the dust settled and mid-fifth century a.d. At one time, several hun-
the lava cooled, the entire region was covered in dred monks were living in the caves.

a layer of igneous basalt. The period of Ajanta as a thriving religious
Many of India’s major dynasties would arise and artistic center appears to coincide with the
on this plateau. Their rock carvings and inscrip- reign of Harishena, who died in 478. By the sev-
tions offer some of the best records of these ear- enth century, the monastery began to empty, the
ly societies. Near the ancient town of Ajanta, caves were abandoned, and Ajanta’s beautiful
roughly 30 caves carved by humans perforate paintings fell into obscurity. Buddhism would
the sweep of a dark basaltic rock face. Their fa- gradually disappear from India, the country of

cades are unexpectedly grand, with paintings, its birth; by the end of the 13th century, its holy
pillars, and statuary reminiscent of the sculpted places were either destroyed or abandoned in the
temples in the ancient city of Petra in Jordan and wake of invasions from Muslim armies.
the frescoes of Pompeii.
The lavishness of the Ajanta complex reflects Monastic Splendor
its royal patronage. Although some of the cave Most of Ajanta’s caves were designed as prayer
temples date to the second and first centu- halls (chaityas) and living quarters (viharas). They
ries b.c., most of them were carved during the feature central chambers lined with columns

reign of a Vakataka emperor named Harishena, that open into a shrine where a statue of the
Buddha still sits. Along the outer corridors,
doorways open to monks’ cells, bare except for

Near the ancient town of Ajanta, roughly stone beds.
For the most part, the architectural mood is
30 caves carved by humans perforate the solemn, reverential—but the walls are adorned

sweep of a dark basaltic rock face. with something almost otherworldly. The

most elaborate of the caves were designed for


84 MAY/JUNE 2022

SACRED SPACES

India’s Ajanta Caves contain
some of the world’s oldest
and most breathtaking
Buddhist art, including
carved shrines surrounded
by beautiful paintings on
the walls and ceilings.
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LIVING COLORS

Many of the cave walls in
Ajanta were covered with
depictions of the Buddha’s
previous lives. In Cave 1, a well-
preserved painting shows a king
taking a ritual bath after having
renounced worldly possessions
to pursue a spiritual life.

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STONE enlightenment, and many of their walls were Padmapani stands as guardian, offering a vision
SLEEPER covered with inspirational paintings. of peace to all who enter.

Sculpted in the late Only fragments of a majority of the murals Statues of bodhisattvas greet visitors to the
fifth or early sixth have survived the centuries. Enough remain to caves, just as they must have welcomed the
century, a reclining summon the sensual and spiritual atmosphere pilgrims, monks, and merchants who passed
Buddha (above) is one that infused these temples. All of known cre- through Ajanta during its heyday. On the walls
of the richly detailed
sculptures adorning ation appears to have paraded across their walls. are intricately composed murals that tell stories,
Cave 26 in Ajanta. There are images of the Buddha and of bodhi- called Jatakas, from the many past lives of the
MAHAUX PHOTOGRAPHY/GETTY
M A H A U X P H O T O G R A P H Y / G E T T Y sattvas—other enlightened beings. There are Buddha. Other works depict incidents from the
princes and princesses, merchants, beggars, mu- life of the historical Buddha, Siddhartha Gau-

sicians, servants, lovers, soldiers, and holy men. tama, an Indian prince who lived a thousand
Elephants, monkeys, buffalo, geese, horses, and years earlier.
even ants join the human throng. Trees bloom, The paintings serve as illustrated classics,
lotus blossoms open, vines curl and reach. fifth-century style, meant to awaken devotion
One of the most enchanting murals depicts and heighten spiritual awareness through the act
the beatific figure of a bodhisattva who rep- of seeing. For most visitors today, the tales are
resents infinite compassion, Padmapani (also arcane—and yet the sensation of watching the
´
known as Avalokitesvara) holding a lotus. Ap- images emerge from the dark in all their grace
pearing near the entrance of one of the shrines, and beauty links then and now.


Preservation Efforts

All of known creation appears to have In modern times, the world has slowly redis-
covered the sublime power of the paintings.
paraded across their walls. There are National Geographic photographer Volkmar

images of the Buddha and of bodhisattvas. Wentzel visited Ajanta and neighboring Ellora

on his 1946-47 journey across India. He wanted


88 MAY/JUNE 2022

COMPASSIONATE
WELCOME

The life-size figure
of Padmapani, the
bodhisattva (one on the
path to enlightenment) of
compassion, has greeted
visitors to Cave 1 of Ajanta
since the fifth century.

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LIFE STORIES to photograph the frescoes with the new Ekta- isolated, extraordinary achievement. Recent

Throughout the Ajanta chrome color film, but the heat was so intense the studies have made it clear that the splendors of
Caves are paintings emulsion melted. Wentzel eventually had to ship Ajanta emerged from earlier trends, and their in-
of the Jataka tales, in ice from 100 miles away and used the shadowy fluence spread far and wide. Behl’s photographs
stories of the Buddha’s recesses of the cave as his darkroom. and films have documented how the caves’ art-
early incarnations in
human or animal form. The complex was named a UNESCO World work fits into broader Hellenic, Hindu, and Bud-
In Cave 17, elephants Heritage site in 1983, but an ill-advised attempt dhist traditions.
play a prominent role. at preservation by two Italian conservationists Developments in sacred imagery fed the ar-
MAHAUX PHOTOGRAPHY/GETTY
M A H A U X P H O T O G R A P H Y / G E T T Y covered many murals in varnish and then shel- tistic blossoming at Ajanta. This era was when
lac, which distorted the colors. Rajdeo Singh, the figure of the Buddha achieved an idealized,

the Archaeological Survey of India’s chief of perfected human form. At first, artists had re-
conservation, launched an intensive preserva- lied on symbols—footprints, a tree, an empty
tion campaign in 1999. Indian photographer and throne—to represent the historical Buddha, but
filmmaker Benoy Behl has been documenting followers wanted a more personal focus for their
the caves for decades and is still moved by the devotion. The likeness invented on the Indian
ancient composition: “It shows us the divine subcontinent in the first centuries a.d., with
part of ourselves.” lowered eyes and serene expression, became the
Despite the Ajanta paintings’ ethereal beauty, prototype for Buddhist imag-

they were once viewed as a “flash in a pan,” an es that spread across Asia. It
remains the indelible face of
the Buddha today.

During the artistic blossoming at Ajanta,
the figure of the Buddha achieved an *Portions of this article appear in Lost Cities,
Ancient Tombs, edited by Ann R. Williams.
idealized, perfected human form. Copyright © 2021 by National Geographic
Partners. Reprinted by permission of National
Geographic Partners.


90 MAY/JUNE 2022

CONTINUING
WORSHIP
Today, the Ajanta Caves
are one of the most popular
sites in India. The caves’
visions of Buddha draw a
wide variety of visitors, from
tourists to Buddhist monks.
NIKREATES/ALAMY

D I S C O V E R I E S















Time Capsule in





The South China Sea





The 1987 discovery of a 12th-century merchant ship and its cargo

opens a porthole on China as it looked to the sea for its riches.




he British firm voyage but sank soon after
Maritime Explo- leaving port. Eight centuries
ration was looking later, its discovery provides

for a Dutch East a fascinating snapshot into
T India Company the moment when China set
shipwreck in the South Chi- its sights on becoming a
na Sea in 1987 when it came great naval power.
across something more elu-
THE NANHAI NO. 1, with
sive: an intact merchant ves- Treasures of the Deep
much of its original cargo
sel from the 1100s. With the Divers could tell the sunken
in situ, is displayed in a
Chinese company Guangzhou ship must have been in the vast tank at the Maritime
Salvage, the team was trying The enemy forces to their early stages of its voyage be- Silk Road Museum of
to locate a ship belonging to north blocked the Southern cause a huge cargo was still Guangdong on Hailing
Island, China. The ship
the trading company that had Song from the overland Silk packed in the hold. It was
and its goods are kept
sunk in the 1700s. Instead, Trade routes that connected decided to name the wreck partly immersed in sea
in the waters between Hong with Central Asia and Eu- the Nanhai No. 1 because it water and silt to ensure its
preservation.
Kong and Hailing Island in rope. This artery had formed was the first such ship to be ALAMY/ACI
Guangdong Province, they the basis of the Song’s econ- discovered in the Nanhai,
found a 100-foot-long junk omy for centuries, but their the Chinese name for the
dated to the Southern Song new southern location gave South China Sea.
period of the 12th century. them access to extensive sea A six-foot-thick layer of
In 1125 the Song dynasty lanes that ran through the silt had preserved its wood-
lost control of northern Chi- South China Sea. The South- en hull and cargo, including in the silty waters. A lack of
na. The emperor retreated ern Song turned to ship- porcelain, Song-era coins, investment and suitable
south and soon set up a new building and pursued their and bars of silver. The team technology meant the Nan-
capital at Lin’an (today fortunes on the water. could tell there were a lot hai No. 1 remained on the

Hangzhou). Known as the In the late 12th century, a more goods aboard the ship, seafloor for two decades.
Southern Song, this state Song merchant ship laden but it would be nearly im- The site was monitored by
survived and even flourished. with goods set out for a possible to survey the wreck the Chinese Navy, who kept






RAISING 1987 2002 april 2007 december 2007

OF A A British-Chinese A plan to use a custom- The Nanhai No. 1 is The Nanhai No. 1 is
transferred to the
salvage operation
made metal cage to raise
successfully raised to the
WRECK discovers a 12th-century the ship, now named the surface using a 3,000- Maritime Silk Road
shipwreck and its cargo. Nanhai No. 1, is developed. ton steel cage. Museum of Guangdong.




92 MAY/JUNE 2022

D I S C O V E R I E S









































































SHIPS OF THE SONG



THE SOUTHERN SONG DYNASTY (a.d. 1127-1279)
rapidly developed its merchant navy after being
pushed out of northern China. It relied mainly on
junks, ships with a rectangular hull and steered
local fishermen away with Heavy concrete blocks
by a sternpost rudder. The Nanhai No. 1 follows
mis information of live World were then placed on the top
the typical proportions of a junk from this period.
War II–era bombs in the area. of the box to push its sides
A plan to raise the Nanhai down into the silt and below A REPLICA OF THE NANHAI NO. 1, BUILT IN 2014, ON A VISIT TO MACAO
MARITIME SILK ROAD MUSEUM OF GUANGDONG
No. 1 was developed in 2002; the bottom of the wreck.
it was put into action five Then divers threaded strong
years later. Open at the bot- beams through holes in the
tom, a 3,000-ton custom- sides of the box, creating a
made steel cage was lowered bottom to the cage. After the
over the wreckage site. Sen- concrete blocks were re-
sors had been placed along moved, the massive steel
the seafloor so that the box cage—with the Nanhai No. 1
could be carefully guided in- and the surrounding sedi-
to place without damaging ment now contained in-

any of the centuries-old side—was slowly raised to

material below. the surface.


NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC HISTORY 93

D I S C O V E R I E S






1. 3.




























2. 4.


























STAGES OF THE SALVAGE: 1. The steel cage is lowered around the wreck. 2. Concrete blocks on top push the box down into
the seafloor. 3. The wreck site and surrounding sediment is secured. 4. The box is raised by a semisubmersible boat.
MARITIME SILK ROAD MUSEUM GUANGDONG






In December 2007 the Nanhai No. 1 was placed in a waters in which the wreck thousands of objects from the
Nanhai No. 1 and its precious custom-made saltwater tank. was discovered. In these Nanhai No. 1, including 100
contents (weighing a total of Much of the cargo has not carefully monitored condi- gold artifacts and thousands
15,600 tons) were transferred been removed from the tions, archaeologists contin- of coins. Most of the 60,000
to the Maritime Silk Road junk’s hold. To prevent dete- ue to study the wreck. to 80,000 objects on the Nan-
Museum of Guangdong on rioration, silt and water cov- hai No. 1, however, are ceram-
Hailing Island, which had er the craft and its contents, The Roads of the Sea ics from the Southern Song.
been built specifically to and the tank is maintained at Over the years, archaeologists The sea lanes the Southern

house the wreck. There, the the same temperature of the have recovered tens of Song relied on are known by
historians as the Maritime
Silk Road. Emerging around
the same time as the rise of
THE WRECK OF THE NANHAI NO. 1 Rome in the West, the Mar-
ON THE SEABED BEFORE SALVAGE
MARITIME SILK ROAD MUSEUM GUANGDONG itime Silk Road linked Indo-
nesia and the Spice Islands,
India, the Arab world, and
the Greco-Roman world of
the Mediterranean.

It is likely that the Nanhai
No. 1 set sail from the port


94 MAY/JUNE 2022



D I S C O V E R I E S







Gold, Silver,

and Porcelain




Having just left port when it sank in the 1180s, the
Nanhai No. 1 was carrying a huge cargo—as many as
80,000 items. Many were ceramics, from the most 4.
affordable to some of the most luxurious. Thousands
of Song-era coins were also found in the cargo.
ALL IMAGES: MARITIME SILK ROAD MUSEUM GUANGDONG










2.











1.




5.
3.



1. Black Jian ware bowl 2. Bronze bracelets 3. Chinese bronze 4. Gold necklace 5. Green Lonquan
from the province of recovered soon after coins from the Song recovered soon after celadon ware plate
Fujian the 1987 discovery dynasty the 1987 discovery with a floral motif






of Guangzhou (also known as shown that a Chinese stone- helped fix the timing of the the world stage. By the time
Canton) on the Pearl Delta, ware with brown glaze was voyage. A ceramic jar among of the Nanhai No. 1’s raising
which, along with Quanzhou also in demand in Southeast the cargo goods was found to from the seabed in 2007, Chi-
and Xiamen, was one of Asia. Known as Cizao ware, bear a black-ink inscription na’s global economic impor-
southern China’s key ports. this is also found in the hold. on its underside that links its tance was beyond question.
To historians, the Nanhai Not all of the Nanhai No. 1 manufacture to the year 1183, The Belt and Road Initia-
No. 1 reveals the kinds of ob- goods, however, are consid- placing the trip in or after tive, a massive China-funded
jects carried by 12th-century ered luxury items. Its white the early 1180s. scheme launched in 2013 to

fleets. Its huge stock of ce- porcelain from Fujian was invest in infrastructure in
ramics included black Jian mass-produced and sold at Past and Future dozens of countries, is a
ware, closely associated with lower prices. In parallel to its historical im- conscious updating of both
the Song period, as well as The cargo also contained portance, the Nanhai No. 1 has the Silk Road and the Mari-
green Longquan celadon, around 10,000 coins. Many been a means for China’s time Silk Road. To many
noted for its carved lotus and bear symbols linked to the government to project the Chinese people, the Nanhai
other flower motifs. Celadon reign of Xiao Zong, the 11th country’s venerable history No. 1 reflects both the glories
items have been found across Song emperor who ruled as a naval and trading power. of China’s mercantile past as
Southeast Asia, suggesting from the 1160s to the late Its discovery in 1987 occurred well as its ambitious projects
that this is where the Nanhai 1180s and was a strong pro- just as the Cold War was end- for the future.

No. 1 was headed. ponent of ocean trade. ing—and as China was be-
Archaeological finds have A discovery made in 2018 ginning to play a new role on —Kexin Zhong


96 MAY/JUNE 2022

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To receive this special price and free shipping use offer code: ENDLESS119

1.800.556.7376 or visit ross-simons.com/endless

Item #881902