Ancient Greece: an Illustrated History

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ANCIENT GREECE
logographers are counted among Attica’s
best-known orators, even though they
never spoke during Athenian legal ses-
sions; not being citizens of Athens, they
were not allowed to do so. One of the
most famous litigators of the late fifth
century BCE was Lysias (c. 459–380
BCE), who was a metic, or foreigner
residing in Athens.
Lysias was a native of Syracuse. His
father acquired such fame as a manufac-
turer of armor and shields that Pericles
invited him to settle in Athens. After
their father’s death, Lysias and his elder
brother moved to Thurii, the Athenian
colony in southern Italy, where Lysias
learned the art of rhetoric and eloquence
from a distinguished orator. After the
failure of the Athenian campaign in
Sicily, the brothers returned to Athens,
where they earned a fortune from the
sale of weapons before the end of the
Peloponnesian War.
Following the defeat of Athens and
the installation of the Thirty Tyrants, the
new government instituted a ruthless
purge of anyone suspected of democrat-
ic sympathies. Scores of people were sent
into exile or condemned to death.
Lysias’s brother was executed, but Lysias
This 18th-century- the situation, preferred to recognize the himself managed to escape from the city
CE drawing of an new government. and join the conspirators who were plan-
ancient Greek bust ning to restore democracy. After the
depicts the Athenian The orators Thirty Tyrants were defeated, Lysias
orator Lysias. He After democracy was restored in Athens returned to Athens. In a major trial, he
was an adversary of in 403 BCE, the city saw a period in prosecuted Eratosthenes, one of the
the Thirty Tyrants, which great orators became highly influ- Thirty who had survived, for the murder
who ruled Athens ential in meetings of the public assembly. of his brother. Due to the trial’s political
after the end of the These orators were for the most part background, it attracted a large audience.
Peloponnesian War. legal experts who were accustomed to In his speech, Lysias outlined the
arguing a case in the law courts. Because, crimes that Eratosthenes had committed,
in theory, anyone accused of a crime in together with his role in the Thirty
Athens had to argue his own defense, Tyrants’ reign of terror. Lysias’s words
many orators made money by writing touched on matters that were fresh in the
speeches for their clients to read in court. memory of everyone. His indictment of
Orators who wrote speeches for the oligarchs’ crimes aided the recovery
other public speakers were known as process that saw democracy reestablish
logographers or storywriters. Several itself in Athens.


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THE PELOPONNESIAN WAR






















































Spartan imperialism effect, this meant that Athenian imperial- Agesilaus II, shown
Although Athens had won back its free- ism, as manifested in its domination of on the right in this
dom, Sparta remained the overlord of all the Delian League and its demands for 18th-century-CE
Greece, which had some catastrophic annual tribute, had simply been replaced illustration, was king
consequences. Sparta’s victory in the by Spartan imperialism. of Sparta in the
Peloponnesian War had been achieved In 399 BCE, a new king was chosen fourth century BCE.
with the help of Persian financial aid, and in Sparta. Agesilaus II (c. 444–360 BCE) He conducted
in return, the Ionian Greek cities in distinguished himself by his forthright- several successful
Anatolia had to cede their autonomy to ness and piety and proved to be a major campaigns against
Persia once more. Sparta made other statesman and general. One of his first the Persians.
cities protectorates and forced them to projects after becoming king was to go
pay large sums of money in tribute. In to the aid of the pro-Sparta Greek cities


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ANCIENT GREECE
In 387 BCE, Persia switched sides
and signed its own peace treaty with
Sparta. Under the terms of this settle-
ment, which was called the Peace of
Antalcidas (or the King’s Peace), all the
Greek cities in Anatolia were ceded to
Persia, while the city-states of mainland
Greece and the Aegean islands became
autonomous. This treaty put an end to
Spartan imperialist ambitions and left
Athens free to develop its position as a
commercial and cultural center.

The rise of Thebes
The early fourth century BCE
saw a new power arise.
Thebes, a large city on the
plain of Boeotia in central
Greece, was known for the
excellence of its army.
Under the strong leadership
of the charismatic and ambi-
tious Epaminondas (c. 410–362
BCE),Thebes was to achieve pre-
eminence in Greece for at least a
short time.
In 382 BCE, despite the terms of the
King’s Peace, Sparta attacked and occu-
The Athenian orator in Anatolia.They were being harassed by pied Thebes.Thebes sought and received
Demosthenes, Persian forces, so in 396 BCE, he took a the support of Athens, and in 379 BCE,
depicted in this bust, large force to the coast of Anatolia to halt the Spartans were driven out. However, a
warned his fellow Persian raids. He campaigned around the full-scale war had started. Epaminondas
Athenians of the Bosporus and the Meander River for the was appointed army commander in 371
threat posed by following two years. His success on the BCE. He introduced new infantry tactics
Philip II. battlefield was an indication of the that brought spectacular results at the
decline of the Persian Empire. Battle of Leuctra, fought the same year. It
was traditional for hoplite commanders
The Corinthian War to put their strongest and most experi-
On the mainland,a new threat to Sparta’s enced soldiers on the right of their for-
dominance was looming. In 395 BCE, mations (to stop phalanxes from drifting
the cities of Athens, Argos, Corinth, and to the right as soldiers sought protection
Thebes formed, with Persian support, an behind their comrades’ shields). At
alliance against Sparta. Several battles Leuctra, Epaminondas attacked in mass
were fought between Sparta and the on the left. This surprise move allowed
coalition before Agesilaus was recalled him to overwhelm the opposition.
from Anatolia to help deal with the situ- After annihilating the Spartans at
ation.The conflict, called the Corinthian Leuctra, Epaminondas invaded the
War, lasted eight years. Peloponnese and annexed the regions of


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THE PELOPONNESIAN WAR
Arcadia and Messenia, freeing them from die? No, he is merely ill.And his illness is
the yoke of Sparta. At a stroke, Thebes of no account, because even if Philip
ended Sparta’s dominance in Greece and This coin bears the should die, your sluggishness would
took first place among the Greek city- features of the cause another Philip to rise up.” In
states. However, the time of triumph for Macedonian king spite of the fact that the advancing
Thebes was short-lived. Alarmed by the Philip II. Philip’s Macedonian armies were uncomfortably
emergence of this new rival, Sparta and victory over a close to the borders of Attica, the Greek
Athens joined forces against the com- combined Greek city-states did not react.
mon enemy in 369 BCE. The new army at Chaeronea Demosthenes’ opponent was the ora-
alliance engaged with the Theban army changed the tor Aeschines, who was acting as the
at the Battle of Mantinea in 362 BCE. Mediterranean spokesman for the pro-Macedonian
Although the battle was indecisive, world. party in the assembly. This party was
Epaminondas was killed, which put in favor of a negotiated settlement
an end to the decade of glory with Philip. However, although
enjoyed by Thebes. Aeschines twice visited the
Macedonian court, he had
Macedonia no success. In the end,
During the decade of Demosthenes succeed-
Theban dominance ed in marginalizing
(371–362 BCE), two the pro-Macedonian
Macedonian princes movement and then
had been held as pushed for an alliance
hostages in Thebes. with Thebes. How-
In 359 BCE, one of ever, the alliance
these princes became came too late, and
Philip II, king of it was not strong
Macedon. Macedon enough to stop Philip
lay just to the north of and the Macedonian
Thessaly, and during army.
Philip’s reign, it became a
powerful state. The great Chaeronea
Athenian orator Demosthenes On August 7, 338 BCE, Philip
understood that there was great of Macedon, with an army of
danger lurking in the kingdom of 30,000 foot soldiers and 2,000 cavalry,
Macedon and the wild surrounding defeated the smaller army of the Greek
region, and he incessantly warned the allies near Chaeronea on the plain of
Athenian people of the threat of Philip. Boeotia. This battle gave Macedonia
According to Demosthenes, Philip “was complete hegemony in Greece. Philip’s
willing to sacrifice everything to gain young son Alexander played a key role in
fame and glory.” the Macedonians’ victory. As Alexander
In his now famous oratories against the Great, he would later change the
Philip of Macedon (called the Philippics), Greek world beyond all recognition.
Demosthenes spoke out with increasing
vehemence against the danger posed by See also:
this military usurper from the north. The Age of Pericles (page 110) • The Birth
When a rumor spread in Athens that of Drama (page 88) • Macedon and Alexander
Philip was seriously ill, Demosthenes the Great (page 154) • Sparta and Athens
railed at his fellow citizens: “Did Philip (page 52)


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MACEDON AND


ALEXANDER THE GREAT





lexander the Great was one of the greatest military leaders
TIME LINE
Athat the world has ever known. Building on the great military

356 BCE successes of his father, Philip II, Alexander created an empire that
Alexander the Great covered the entire eastern Mediterranean world.
born in Pella,
Macedonia.
The young Macedonian king Alexander goes on to describe how Alexander was
336 BCE
crossed the Dardanelles in 334 BCE. He an avid reader and would go to bed with
Alexander ascends was scarcely 22 years old, and his aim was a copy of the Iliad, which he would place
to throne of
Macedonia following to conquer Persia and the whole of Asia. next to his dagger under his headrest. On
assassination of By the time he succumbed to fever at age his Asian campaign, he ordered his treas-
father, Philip II. 33, he had succeeded in moving the urer Harpalus to send him books.Among
frontier of his empire 3,000 miles (4,800 the works that he received were
334 BCE
km) east to the borders of India, subdu- Philistus’s history of Sicily and the plays
Alexander crosses
Dardanelles to begin ing tens of millions of people along the of Euripides, Sophocles, and Aeschylus.
campaign of way. However, his empire was to be Alexander was only 14 years old
conquest in short-lived—within a few years of his when he got his first taste of power and
Anatolia; defeats
Persian army at death, his generals had divided the vast command. When his father went away
Granicus River. territory among themselves. on campaign and left him in charge of
Macedon, Alexander successfully fought
332 BCE
Early life off an attack by a tribe of Thracians.Two
City of Tyre finally
seized by Alexander Alexander was born in 356 BCE in Pella, years later, at the age of 16, he was given
after seven-month the capital of Macedonia. He was the son a command at the Battle of Chaeronea,
siege; later that of Macedonia’s king Philip II (ruled where the Macedonians defeated the
year, Alexander 359–336 BCE) and Olympias, a princess Greek forces.
founds city of
Alexandria near of Epirus,whom Philip had met when he
Nile Delta was being initiated into the local religious Ascent to the throne
in Egypt. mysteries of the island of Samothrace. Philip II was assassinated in the summer
When Alexander reached his teens,Philip of 336 BCE.The reason has never been
326 BCE
sent for the Athenian philosopher clearly established.The Persians may have
Macedonian army
defeats Indian force Aristotle to teach his son rhetoric, philos- been behind it, or even Alexander him-
at Hydaspes to ophy, literature, and science. Alexander self, who was not on the best of terms
expand Alexander’s seems to have been an attentive student, with his father.Whatever the truth of the
empire to and he remained in touch with Aristotle matter, Alexander ascended the throne
Indus Valley.
for the rest of his life. and had the alleged conspirators sum-
323 BCE According to the Greek biographer marily executed.
Alexander dies Plutarch, Alexander inherited a love of Before his assassination, Philip had
from fever.
medicine from his tutor.The king would been preparing to invade Anatolia (pres-
prescribe treatment and medication to ent-day Turkey) via the Dardanelles.
his friends when they were ill. Plutarch Alexander was anxious to continue this


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MACEDON AND ALEXANDER THE GREAT


























































mission against the region’s Persian-held father), although he could not count on This statue depicts
cities, but before he could embark on the the support of the Greek city-states Alexander the
campaign, he had to deal with troubles south of Thermopylae. Great on horseback.
closer to home. In Thessaly, leaders of an The following year,Alexander crossed Alexander’s
independence movement had taken over the northern border to quell rebellious Companion cavalry
the government. Alexander threw them Thracians.The successful campaign lasted was a key
out and reasserted Macedonian rule. By for five months and took him as far as the component of
the end of the summer, Alexander had Danube River. On his return, he took his army.
been elected leader of the Corinthian only a week to subdue yet another rebel-
League (a military alliance created by his lion, this time by the Illyrians.


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ANCIENT GREECE
This medallion bears a depiction of Philip II
of Macedonia, the father of Alexander the
Great. Philip greatly enlarged his kingdom
through a series of military campaigns in the
early years of his reign.

After he put down the Illyrian rebel-
lion, Alexander was forced to confront
yet another insurrection, one by the city
of Thebes, located on the plain of
Boeotia.The revolt, supported by a num-
ber of other Greek cities, was incited by
the orator Demosthenes and funded by
Persian gold.The rebels spread the rumor
that Alexander was dead and then
attacked the Macedonian garrison occu-
pying the citadel. Hearing this news,
Alexander moved his army rapidly
southward in forced marches. One
morning, the Thebans were alarmed to
see that the king they had presumed dead
was outside their walls.The Macedonians
took the city by storm,razing it and spar-



PHILIP OF MACEDON


Philip of Macedon, the father of Alexander, was incorporated equipment for siege warfare, such
born around 382 BCE, the third son of King as catapults and siege towers.
Amyntas of Macedonia.When his brother
Perdiccas was killed in a battle against the With his revitalized army, Philip embarked on a
Illyrians in 359 BCE, Philip became king at 20-year campaign of warfare and diplomacy that
around the age of 23. Philip was a shrewd was to make him master of the Greek world. In
diplomat and an inspired military commander 357 BCE, he married Olympias, a princess of
who was to transform his hitherto insignificant Epirus, and a year later, she bore him a son
kingdom into the most powerful Greek state. whom they named Alexander. In 338 BCE, having
subjugated all his non-Greek neighbors, Philip
At that time, Macedon was beset by enemies, invaded mainland Greece and defeated the
and one of Philip’s priorities on acceding to the combined forces of Athens and Thebes at the
throne was to reorganize his army into a more Battle of Chaeronea. Once Greece was his,
efficient fighting force. He introduced rigorous Philip planned to invade Anatolia and conquer
new training and refined the phalanx formation. the Persian-held cities. However, before his
Under Philip, the soldiers that made up the preparations were much advanced, Philip was
phalanx were armed with metal-tipped pikes assassinated, leaving the throne of Macedon and
around 16 feet (4.9 m) long. He also the conquest of Persia to his son,Alexander.






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MACEDON AND ALEXANDER THE GREAT
THE PHALANX



uch of the deadly efficiency of Alexander’s was effective only on level ground and was
Marmy depended on the phalanx, which had vulnerable on its flanks, which had to be protect-
been restyled by his father, Philip II of Macedon. ed by cavalry or light infantry such as slingers. For
The phalanx was made up of around 9,000 this reason, the usual function of the phalanx was
infantrymen, often drawn up in 256-man squares, defensive—while it stood its ground as the enemy
16 men wide and 16 men deep.The weapon of attacked, the cavalry could harass their adver-
the phalanx was the sarissa, a long, heavy pike that saries on the flanks.
measured around 16 feet (4.9 m).These weapons
were held horizontally by the first few rows, The phalanx was a flexible unit that could, if
making a wall of sharp points that stretched 10 necessary, assume different shapes—such as a
feet (3 m) or more ahead of the advancing square, a rectangle, or even a wedge or arrow-
phalanx. Because the infantry of opposing armies head shape. Because the sarissa required both
tended to be armed with spears no more than hands to hold it, each soldier wore his circular
8 feet (2.4 m) long, the Macedonian phalanx had shield on a neckstrap.When in battle, the shield
an immediate advantage. was brought around to the front of the body.
Each soldier also wore a helmet and greaves.
An advancing phalanx presented a deadly wall of
metal spikes and was a formidable fighting force. This artist’s illustration depicts a Macedonian
While the sarissas of the leading rows were phalanx about to engage with the enemy.The front
inflicting damage on their opponents, casualties three rows of the square hold their pikes horizontally.
within the phalanx were immediately replaced by The soldiers in the rows farther back hold them at an
men from the rear. However, a moving phalanx angle, ready to replace any fallen comrades.





































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ANCIENT GREECE
THE EMPIRE OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT


THRACE Black Sea
MACEDON Caspian
Pella The Dardanelles BACTRIA
Thermopylae Granicus Gordium Sea
River SOGDIANA
PHRYGIA
Thebes Sardis
ANATOLIA Hydaspes
PARTHIA
Issus MEDIA
Gaugamela
SYRIA
Mediterranean Sea
Tyre
Babylon
Susa
Alexandria Jerusalem Pasagardae
Gaza Persepolis

EGYPT Red Sea Persian Gulf













ing only the temples and the house of Macedonians among the infantry, but at
KEY
the famous Greek poet Pindar. Of the least half of the footsoldiers were merce-
Empire of surviving inhabitants, some 8,000 were naries drawn from the rest of the Greek
Alexander at its sold into slavery.The speed and severity world, from Thrace, and from regions
greatest extent
of this retaliation left such an impression farther north.
Major battle on the other rebellious Greek cities that Alexander was also surrounded by his
they surrendered almost immediately personal retinue, called the hetairoi,or
and were treated with comparative Companions. This hetairoi squadron of
leniency by Alexander. 1,500 men was mainly drawn from the
Macedonian aristocracy. They answered
Into Asia directly to Alexander and, wherever he
Leaving his general Antipater as regent of was and whatever he did,his hetairoi were
Macedonia and Greece, Alexander was always near.The king regarded the mem-
free to embark on the long-delayed Asian bers as his friends and allowed them lib-
campaign. He set out with a formidable erties not granted to others.
army that comprised 30,000 foot soldiers Alexander did not have much diffi-
and some 5,000 horsemen.These cavalry culty in assembling his army. Since the
units were the core units of the force and peace forged by him and his father in
were composed mainly of Macedonians Greece, there had been a much reduced
and Thessalians. There were also many demand for mercenaries. Serving as a


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MACEDON AND ALEXANDER THE GREAT
mercenary was a popular occupation. Macedonians adapted it by using far
Although the soldier had to provide his longer spears than their predecessors. If
own equipment, military service provid- the formation became confused, all was
ed pay and a share of any booty won. lost; it was impossible to restore the orig-
Mercenaries were accustomed to serving inal order in the heat of battle. Generally,
on the side that offered the greatest the phalanx was able to resist a frontal
reward. Many Greek soldiers had already attack by cavalry but not one from the
crossed the Aegean Sea to join Persian side. For this reason, the phalanx was
troop contingents. In every one of his always placed at the center of the battle
battles against the Persians, Alexander formation, with the cavalry and more
faced opposing Greek mercenaries. mobile infantry at its flanks. Alexander
Many of them defected to his army—not exploited the flexibility of this army to
through patriotism, but because they great advantage, and it brought him vic-
expected higher earnings. tory after victory.
Alexander’s Companions, the army’s
elite horsemen, were highly skilled riders The Battle of Granicus River
and were armed with lances and short In the spring of 334 BCE,Alexander led Alexander (left, on
swords.They trained intensively so their his army of 35,000 Macedonians and horseback) leads his
horses would be manageable in battle. Greeks across the Dardanelles and into forces against those
Alexander almost invariably led the Anatolia. At the Granicus River in of Darius III (in
charge of his Companion cavalry him- northwestern Anatolia, he attacked an chariot) at the
self, and these attacks generally inflicted army of 40,000 Persians and Greeks. Battle of Issus.This
great damage on the enemy. Alexander won the battle and reputedly Roman mosaic was
The main foot soldiers were used in a lost only 110 soldiers of his own. The found in the city
phalanx (see box, page 157), a formation road to Anatolia lay open. of Pompeii and
that had been in use long before the time The victory at Granicus River had a dates to the fourth
of Philip and Alexander. However, the serious effect on Persian morale. When century BCE.











































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ANCIENT GREECE
Alexander Cuts
the Gordian Knot,
by Jean-Simon
Berhtélemy, dates to
either the late 18th
or early 19th
century CE.An
ancient prophecy
foretold that anyone
who undid the knot
would rule Asia.


















Alexander’s army approached the Persian legend. According to Greek mythology,
government center of Sardis, which had Gordius, a Phrygian peasant, had been
long been able to withstand attack, the made king because he fulfilled a prophe-
governor walked out through the gate to cy that said that the first person to enter
surrender. One by one, the Greek the town driving a wagon must be made
colonies of Ionia fell to Macedonian ruler. The grateful king dedicated his
hands, and it took Alexander barely a wagon to Zeus, tying it with a complex
year to subdue the whole of Anatolia. knot in a grove in the god’s temple.The
After the Persian king Xerxes died in knot was so difficult that no one could
424 BCE, the kingdom of Persia had undo it—it was said that anyone who
gone into decline. Under a succession of could untie it would rule all of Asia.
ineffective kings, the provincial gover- When he was told this story, Alexander
nors had divided Persia into a large num- unsheathed his sword and simply sliced
ber of semi-independent principalities. through the knot. This act gave rise to
Artaxerxes, king of Persia from 358 to the expression “cutting the Gordian
338 BCE, had restored his authority in knot,” meaning to find a swift and imag-
the cities of Susa and Persepolis with inative solution to a difficult problem.
brutal force, so it is possible that many For this act, Alexander was rewarded
Persians regarded Alexander’s arrival as with enough booty to cover his cam-
a liberation. paign expenses.
Carrying on south to Syria, the
The Gordian knot Macedonians encountered a large
On his route of conquest, Alexander Persian army, commanded by King
passed through Gordium (the capital of Darius III himself. At the ensuing Battle
Phrygia), which was home to an ancient of Issus, the Persians outnumbered the


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Macedonians by almost two to one, yet MACEDON AND ALEXANDER THE GREAT
that he already had whatever Darius
the result was a catastrophic defeat for could offer and that he would marry his
the Persians. When Alexander and his daughter regardless of her father’s per-
cavalry penetrated the Persian infantry, mission. Alexander also said that he
Darius turned and fled, with much of his would come to take what he considered
army following. Alexander captured his, but not immediately.
Darius’s wife, mother, and children, who Alexander continued down the
had been left behind in the Persian Mediterranean coast to the fortress at
army’s camp. However, Alexander Gaza,which also offered resistance.It took
ordered that they be treated with the a long siege before the city was taken, and
respect normally accorded to royalty. He because Alexander was injured in the
was already beginning to make efforts course of the siege, he exacted a terrible
to placate conquered peoples in revenge. Jerusalem, however, surren-
order to build a socially inte- dered without a single blow
grated empire. being exchanged—the high
priest came out in full
Phoenicia regalia to welcome the
After the Battle of conqueror and his army.
Issus, Alexander car-
ried on down the Egypt
coast of Syria and Later that same year,
Phoenicia. His object 332 BCE, Alexander
was to capture all led his army across the
of the ports of the Sinai Peninsula and
eastern Mediterra- into Egypt, where the
nean, thereby cutting Persian governor sur-
the Persians off from rendered without a fight.
their naval bases. Alex- Alexander was welcomed
ander encountered little everywhere as a liberator,
resistance; only the well- and he was installed as the new
fortified Phoenician seaport of pharaoh.Alexander founded a new
Tyre put up a fight. Although its city on the coast next to the mouth of
rulers were willing to acknowledge This silver coin, the Nile River. Named Alexandria, the
Alexander as king, they were not pre- which bears a city was destined to become the commer-
pared to let him and his army enter the portrait of cial and cultural center of the Greek world
island on which the city lay.A prolonged Alexander, was (see box, page 162).
siege of seven months followed,but final- issued during the During the summer of 331 BCE,
ly, in 332 BCE,Alexander seized the city reign of Seleucus I, Alexander made a pilgrimage to the ora-
and razed it in a bloodbath. Any surviv- several decades cle of Amon-Re,the Egyptian god of the
ing citizens, including all the women and after the death sun, at the Siwa Oasis in the Libyan
children, were sold into slavery. of Alexander. desert. Around this time, Alexander had
After the fall of Tyre, Darius offered begun to entertain the notion that he
all his lands up to the Euphrates River, was descended from the gods, and the
his daughter in marriage, and a large Egyptians, who had made him their
dowry in exchange for peace with pharaoh, did not attempt to dissuade him
Alexander. As a guarantee of his good from the idea;all Egyptian pharaohs were
intentions, Darius offered to send his son considered to be the sons of Amon-Re.
as a hostage. However,Alexander replied The oracle apparently confirmed his


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ANCIENT GREECE
THE CITY OF ALEXANDRIA



ounded by Alexander the Great in 332 BCE, harbors made it an important center for
FAlexandria was designed to be a model city Mediterranean trade.Alexandria exported various
that would reflect the splendor of its founder. It products manufactured by Alexandrian craftspeo-
was probably originally conceived as a military ple, including linen, papyrus, and precious metal-
stronghold and naval base, but it rapidly became work. It was also an important transit port for
the trading and administrative center of Egypt Egyptian grain and wares from India,Arabia, and
under the Greeks. Situated on the Mediterranean even more distant countries.These wares arrived
coast just west of the Nile Delta, it extended for by way of the Red Sea and the caravan routes.
around 4 miles (6.5 km) along the coast and
around 1 to 2 miles (2–3 km) inland. Its streets Within 100 years of its founding,Alexandria had
were laid out in a grid pattern, with two wide become the leading city of the world and the
main avenues where many of the most important center of Greek cultural life. Its great library
commercial and cultural buildings were found.At housed hundreds of thousands of books and
its southern end, an isthmus projected into the attracted many scholars and poets, including
Mediterranean Sea and separated two great har- Theocritus,Apollonius, and Callimachus.Another
bors. In 280 BCE, a lighthouse around 460 feet great center of learning and research was the
(140 m) high was built at the mouth of one of the Museum, next to the royal palace of the
harbors. It has since disappeared, but in its time, Ptolemies.The Museum was both a temple of the
the lighthouse was counted as one of the seven Muses and a research institute where scholars
wonders of the world. and artists could devote themselves to learning at
the ruler’s expense.
After Alexander’s death in 323 BCE, the city came
under the control of the Egyptian Ptolemaic Alexandria, shown in this undated modern illustration,
dynasty and continued to flourish. Its two big was perfectly situated for trade.


































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divine lineage, and MACEDON AND ALEXANDER THE GREAT
because the Greeks iden-
tified Amon-Re with
Zeus, Alexander pro-
claimed himself to be a
son of Zeus.The Greeks
had no difficulty with
this concept, involving as
it did a young king with
military achievements so
remarkable as to appear
superhuman. Divine or
not, Alexander was a
great man, and most
Greeks and Egyptians
were happy to treat him
as a god.

The Battle of Gaugamela This relief sculpture Susa (which held the treasury of the
Once he had secured the Mediterranean depicts the Persian Persian Empire), the capital Persepolis,
coast (he had also captured Cyrene, king Darius I. and Pasagardae. The splendid palace at
capital of the kingdom of Cyrenaica Darius’s great Persepolis, built by Darius I as a symbol
on the north African coast), Alexander palace at Persepolis of the might and wealth of the Persian
turned his attention north and east. was destroyed Empire, was looted by the army and set
In the late summer of 331 BCE, he by Alexander. on fire by Alexander, possibly in a fit of
retraced his steps across the Sinai drunkenness. It burned to the ground.
Peninsula and then proceeded up Alexander was lord of all Persia—
through Palestine to Babylon. He had Darius had essentially forfeited the
with him an army of 40,000 infantry and
7,000 cavalry, and after crossing the
Euphrates and Tigris rivers, Alexander A PORTRAIT OF ALEXANDER
found Darius waiting for him with a far
larger army.
The two forces engaged near the Alexander was of medium height, with fair hair and a
town of Gaugamela in northern pale complexion. He grew up believing he would achieve
Mesopotamia on October 1, 331 BCE. greatness (his mother encouraged him to believe he was
In spite of the disparity in numbers, and not actually Philip’s son but a son of the god Zeus), and
the fact that the Persian army included from an early age, he yearned to explore the world. He
an Indian contingent with elephants, the excelled at all martial skills but was not keen on any
Macedonians were again victorious, other sports apart from hunting. He became a heavy
although they suffered heavy losses. drinker and was capable of ungovernable rages and
Once again, Darius fled from the battle- great cruelty. He had a lifelong passionate relationship
field, taking refuge in the mountains to with Hephaestion, a young Macedonian aristocrat, and
the northeast. when Hephaestion died of a fever in 324 BCE,
Alexander turned south and entered Alexander was prostrated with grief. He organized a
Babylon, which surrendered without a stunningly expensive royal funeral in Babylon for his
fight. From there, he continued eastward friend and built an extravagant monument to him.
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ANCIENT GREECE
throne. In the summer of 330 BCE, Battle of Hydaspes was fought in torren-
Darius was murdered at the instigation of tial monsoon rains, and Alexander was
a group of satraps (local governors). One once again victorious.He captured Porus
of them—Bessus—then proclaimed and made him the local governor under
himself king. Alexander branded the Macedonian rule.
satraps as regicides and usurpers, but Despite their successes, Alexander’s
Bessus unleashed a popular war, forcing troops had begun to grow unhappy with
the Macedonians and the Persians into their lot. It was rumored that they still
yet another conflict.Bessus was eventual- had far to go, even that Alexander’s aim
ly betrayed, taken by Alexander, and exe- was to conquer the whole world. In the
cuted as a traitor. fall of 326 BCE, the troops mutinied and
refused to proceed any further.They had
Central Asia and India been on campaign for eight years and
In 329 BCE,Alexander set out on a new wanted to go home. Alexander was
campaign to complete his conquest of forced to compromise;he could not con-
Alexander the Great the eastern Persian Empire, including the tinue without an army. He abandoned
and Hephaestion provinces of western India. Over the fol- the idea of conquering the rest of India.
hunt a lion in this lowing two years, he broke the last traces Instead, he had a fleet built and sailed
contemporary of resistance in central Asia,extending his down the Indus River
mosaic from the realm to encompass Media and Parthia Alexander reached the mouth of the
Macedonian (present-day Iran, Afghanistan, and river in 325 BCE. From there, the fleet
palace at Pella. Baluchistan) and Bactria and Sogdiana continued by sea to the Persian Gulf,
Hephaestion was a (present-day Turkmenistan). while Alexander and the army marched
boyhood friend In 327 BCE, Alexander led his army west by land along the arid coastline.The
of Alexander’s who over the dangerous pass through the fleet was supposed to sail parallel to the
served with him on Hindu Kush mountains to reach the army’s line of travel, to keep it supplied
many of his Indus Valley. There, in 326 BCE, he with food and water, but because the
campaigns; he was encountered the Indian king Porus, ships were unable to sail close to land
also possibly whose considerable army contained a against the prevailing winds, the army
his lover. mighty contingent of elephants. The was forced to forage for supplies.Because






































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the army needed a daily supply of
190,000 gallons (720,000 l) of water
and 250 tons (225 tonnes)
of cereals to survive,
many troops perished.
Alexander lost more
men on this march than
in he did in all his battles
combined.

Uniting the empire
In 324 BCE, Alexander re-
turned to Susa to attend to
affairs of state. In an effort to
reconcile the conquered and the
conquerors, he organized a funeral
for Darius (the last of the
Achaemenids) so that he was
buried with his forefathers with
due ceremony. Alexander adopted
Persian customs, wearing the vest-
ments and insignia of the “king of
kings” on all ceremonial occasions.
He arranged a mass marriage
ceremony of Macedonian men
with Persian wives, at which
he himself married Barsine,
the daughter of Darius.
He also appointed Persians
to important offices and
drafted thousands of young
Persians into his army.
These actions showed that Alexander The so-called Final days
intended to create a mixed Macedonian- Alexander In the spring of 323 BCE, Alexander
Persian elite that would hold his empire sarcophagus is transferred to Babylon, where he took
together, but they resulted in consider- decorated with up his quarters in the palace of
able tension between Alexander and his scenes from the Nebuchadnezzar. Soon after his arrival,
Macedonian entourage, particularly his emperor’s life, even Alexander came down with a fever, an
hetairoi. When the new Persian troops though it does not illness that was probably aggravated by
were called up at the same time that actually contain heavy drinking. He died ten days later,
Macedonian veterans were dismissed, the his body.The on June 10. He was 33 years old.
veterans mutinied. However, Alexander sarcophagus was Alexander bequeathed his empire “to the
still had enough influence to effect a made in the fourth strongest,” thereby setting off a power
reconciliation with the rebels. At a cele- century BCE. struggle that was to last for 50 years.
bratory banquet for the entire army,
he openly prayed to the gods for “unity See also:
and equally shared rule” between After Alexander (page 166) • The Greek
Macedonians and Persians. Legacy (page 174)


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AFTER


ALEXANDER





fter the death of Alexander in 323 BCE, several empires rose
TIME LINE
A to prominence.The Ptolemaic dynasty took control of Egypt,

323 BCE the Antigonids rose to power in Macedonia, and the Seleucids took
Alexander the Great over the area that had formerly belonged to the Persians.
dies, leaving power
vacuum.
When Alexander the Great died at age dered. After the 13-year-old Alexander
322 BCE
33 in 323 BCE, he left behind a power met a similar fate in 310 BCE, there was
Antipater crushes vacuum.The ensuing struggle among his no longer any lawful successor to stand
Aetolian rebels
at Battle of generals was to result in the eventual in the way of the diadochs’ ambitions.
Crannon. breakup of his mighty empire into three
main kingdoms. Ptolemy and Egypt
306 BCE
One of the kingdoms that was to emerge
Antigonus and The age of the diadochs from the breakup of Alexander’s empire
son Demetrius
Poliorcetes declare Alexander’s first wife, Roxana, did not was a new, Greek-influenced Egypt,
themselves joint give birth to their son, also called ruled by the diadoch Ptolemy (c.
kings and successors Alexander, until four weeks after the 367–283 BCE). Ptolemy came from an
of Alexander.
king’s death.The only other person with aristocratic Macedonian family and had
any claim to the throne was the 35-year- grown up in the court of Philip II,
305 BCE
old Aridaeus,an illegitimate son of Philip becoming a friend of the king’s young
Ptolemy proclaims
himself king II, who was rumored to suffer from both son, Alexander. When Alexander
of Egypt. physical and mental illness. Nevertheless, embarked on his Asian campaign,
both the newborn Alexander and his Ptolemy accompanied him as a general
281 BCE
uncle Aridaeus were immediately invest- in his army. Ptolemy was later appointed
Seleucus’s victory ed with imperial titles—Alexander IV satrap (governor) of Egypt.
at Battle of
Corupedium secures and Philip III. Since neither of them was After Alexander’s death, Ptolemy was
him Anatolia. in a position to exercise power,it fell into confirmed as diadoch in charge of Egypt
the hands of the imperial regent, and Libya, and he used the position as a
235 BCE
Perdiccas, who divided the empire power base. For almost 20 years, he bat-
Cleomenes III among the commanders of Alexander’s tled the other diadochs, consolidating
becomes king of
Sparta. army. These commanders are known as and expanding his realm. He successfully
the diadochoi (successors), or diadochs. fended off invasions of Egypt and the
165 BCE For a time, while each diadoch island of Rhodes and annexed Cyprus,
Having recaptured attempted to secure for himself as much Palestine, and Cyrenaica. In 305 BCE, he
Jerusalem from land and wealth as possible, a precarious proclaimed himself king of Egypt, taking
Seleucids, Judas unity was preserved in the empire, but the title Ptolemy I.
Maccabaeus restores
Jewish rites to the diadochs soon fell into open conflict.
temple. Years of war ensued, many of them This Roman wall painting depicts Antigonus
marked by the formation of fresh coali- Gonatas, who helped establish the Antigonid
tions. In 317 BCE, Aridaeus was mur- dynasty in Macedonia.


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ANCIENT GREECE
culture. The new king built a famous
library and museum that attracted and
supported Greek scholars and artists from
all over the Greek world.
Ptolemy I died around 283 BCE,
having established a dynasty that was to
rule Egypt until the arrival of the
Romans in 32 BCE.

Antigonus and son
Antigonus was another important
general in Alexander’s army. He
was nicknamed Monophthalmos
(One-Eye), the result of his hav-
ing lost an eye in battle.Antigonus
was already an old man—almost
60 years old—at the time of
Alexander’s death. For the previous
10 years, he had been governor of the
recently conquered Phrygia, ruling the
territory while the king went on to
other conquests.
In 321 BCE, having been made
commander in chief in Asia, Antigonus
joined forces with his son Demetrius
Poliorcetes (Taker of Cities),so-called for
his skill in laying sieges. Together they
This coin bears the Taking up residence in his capital city, hoped to preserve the unity of the
portrait of Ptolemy I. Alexandria, Ptolemy set about expanding empire, but they almost immediately
A former general in the might and wealth of his kingdom.He found themselves in conflict with the
Alexander’s army, improved the administrative system and other diadochs. Initially, they were very
Ptolemy crowned established a system of land registration successful in battle, and in 306 BCE, they
himself king of to simplify the collection of taxes. He proclaimed themselves joint kings as
Egypt in 305 BCE. also expanded Alexandria itself, making Alexander’s successors, ruling a huge
it the largest Greek settlement in the region centered around western Asia
known world. Five years later, in 301 BCE,
Ptolemy succeeded in having his Antigonus and Demetrius were forced to
friend Alexander’s body brought to defend their territory against a coalition
Egypt. Although it was known that of the other diadochs (now also calling
Alexander would have preferred the themselves kings) at the Battle of Ipsus.
Siwa Oasis as his final resting place, the Antigonus, now 80, was killed, but
funeral took place in Alexandria. The Demetrius escaped to Greece.There, he
body was placed in a golden coffin and succeeded in conquering Macedonia and
given divine honors. much of mainland Greece, but in 286
In 285 BCE, Ptolemy abdicated in BCE, while on a campaign in Anatolia,
favor of his son, Ptolemy II. It was he was captured and imprisoned by the
Ptolemy II who was to make Alexandria diadoch Seleucus. Demetrius died in
an unparalleled center of learning and prison in 283 BCE.


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THE HELLENISTIC WORLD IN 270 BCE AFTER ALEXANDER






Black Sea Caspian
MACEDON Sea

Pergamum PHRYGIA ANATOLIA
Corupedium BACTRIA
Athens
Sardis Ipsus
Sparta
PARTHIA
Antioch
CYPRUS
Mediterranean Sea
Babylon
Susa
LIBYA Alexandria
Jerusalem




EGYPT Red Sea Persian Gulf










Demetrius’s son, Antigonus Gonatas, young king on his Persian campaign and, KEY
regained possession of the Macedonian after Alexander’s death, was appointed
throne around 272 BCE, and his descen- governor of Babylon. Seleucid kingdom
dants—the Antigonids—remained in Having secured Babylon and the
Ptolemaic kingdom
power until the Romans put an end to regions farther east, Seleucus gradually
their dynasty. expanded his influence to the west. In Macedonian
kingdom
Syria, he built himself a new capital city,
The Seleucids Antioch, which was to become the most Major battle
The Seleucid Empire was the largest of important metropolis in Asia. In 281
the kingdoms that resulted from the divi- BCE, Seleucus met the diadoch
sion of Alexander’s domains. It was Lysimachus at the Battle of Corupedium
founded by Seleucus, one of the near Sardis and defeated him, thereby
diadochs who rose to power after securing Anatolia for himself. Because
Alexander’s death. Born around 358 Lysimachus (who was killed in the fight-
BCE, Seleucus was, like Ptolemy, the son ing) had been the king of Macedonia,
of a Macedonian aristocrat. He was Seleucus tried to secure that territory.
roughly the same age as Alexander and However, before he could achieve this
probably his friend. He accompanied the aim, he was assassinated.


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Pompey’s Pillar, built
in the third century JUDAS MACCABAEUS
CE, is one of the
most famous
monuments in The most famous opponent of the with the order. In 167 BCE,
Alexandria. Seleucids is probably the Jewish Mattathias fled to the mountains
Alexandria was guerrilla fighter Judas Maccabaeus. with a loyal band of Jews, initiating a
the capital of Palestine was seized from the lengthy revolt against the Seleucids.
Egypt during the Ptolemies by the Seleucid king After he died, his son Judas
Ptolemaic period. Antiochus III in 198 BCE. In 168 Maccabaeus (The Hammer) took
BCE,Antiochus IV outlawed Judaism, command of the rebellion, defeating
ordering the worship of Greek gods much larger Syrian armies in 166
and persecuting anyone who and 165 BCE and capturing
remained true to the Jewish religion Jerusalem. He restored Jewish rites
and culture. to the temple in Jerusalem in
December 165 BCE, an event that
Mattathias, patriarch of the priestly is commemorated by the Jewish
Hasmonaean family, objected to this festival of Hanukkah. For the next
edict and killed both a government 80 years, the Jews in Syria were
official and a Jew who had complied virtually an independent nation.




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Seleucus had carved out an enor- AFTER ALEXANDER
mous empire, one that almost rivaled
Alexander’s in size. He was succeeded by
his son, Antiochus I. The Seleucid
dynasty was to survive for more than two
hundred years.
The people who lived within the
boundaries of the Seleucid Empire spoke
many languages and adhered to many
different ways of life. The empire never
became truly integrated, and under
Seleucus’s successors, it gradually crum-
bled away. In central Asia, Bactria made
itself virtually independent, while in
northern Persia, the warlike Parthians
roamed at will, ultimately conquering
many of the eastern provinces. Other
usurpers set up their own kingdoms in
imperial territory. One such state was
Pergamum, on the Aegean coast, which
rebelled against Seleucid rule to become
the leading city of Anatolia and an
important hub of Greek culture.
Antipater and the Lamian War
Antipater (c. 397–319 BCE) was a trust-
ed friend of Philip II and Alexander the
Great.When Alexander embarked on his
Persian campaign, Antipater was left
behind to act as his regent in Macedonia
and Greece. As soon as news of This bust depicts the Demosthenes, and the Athenian assem-
Alexander’s death reached Greece in 323 diadoch Seleucus I. bly condemned the rebels to death.
BCE, Athens and several other states In the decades Demosthenes managed to escape to the
rebelled.The insurrection was spurred on following Alexander island of Calauria, where he took poison
by the oratory of Demosthenes, who had the Great’s death, rather than surrender.
long led Athenian opposition to Seleucus gained Antipater’s next battle was with his
Macedonia. Antipater acted promptly to control of much of own countryman, the Macedonian gen-
put down the revolt. the eastern part of eral Partakes, who challenged his author-
The conflict between Antipater and Alexander’s empire. ity. Antipater won this struggle easily—
the Greek states was called the Lamian Partakes was killed in 321 BCE.Antipater
War.The Athenians were backed by the was then confirmed as supreme regent of
Aetolian League, an alliance based in the Macedonia and charged with the care of
mountainous region of Aetolia. At first, Alexander’s children. On Antipater’s
the rebels were successful, but Antipater death in 319 BCE, the regency passed to
eventually crushed them at the Battle of Polypechon, but he was swiftly replaced
Crannon in 322 BCE. by Antipater’s son Cassander, who seized
Antipater demanded that the Athenians control. Continued infighting between
hand over the rebel leaders, including the diadochs led eventually to Antigonus


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ANCIENT GREECE
Gonatas becoming the king of Judas Maccabaeus led a Jewish rebellion
Macedon in 272 BCE. He against the Seleucid Empire,
established a dynasty that capturing the city of Jerusalem.
was to last for more than a
hundred years. in the east in the period
By the early third between the death of
century BCE, there- Alexander and the
fore, Alexander’s en- beginning of the
tire empire had been Christian era.
broadly divided into Alexander had
three much smaller founded cities as far
empires. Macedonia away as Uzbekistan
was ruled by the and Kashmir, leaving
Antigonid dynasty, the new cities as
solidly established in small, isolated islands
their homeland. Outside of Greek civilization in
Macedonia, their position an enormous sea of local
was less strong, but their culture. However, the new
sphere of influence extended Greek cities were not modeled
from present-day Bulgaria to the on the old idea of a city-state ruled by
Peloponnese. Egypt was ruled by the its citizens.That concept had no place in
Ptolemies, who gradually relinquished Alexander’s empire; these cities were
their possessions beyond its borders.The ruled by a distant king. Greek was gener-
Seleucid dynasty held the region that had ally used as the common language in
originally stretched from the Aegean Sea large parts of the Hellenistic empires,
in the west to the Indus River in the east. without wholly replacing Aramaic,
However, over the years, the eastern which had played a similar role in the
boundary was gradually eroded and Persian Empire. In spite of this unity of
receded westward.Although the diadoch language, Greek culture had little effect
dynasties lived in continual conflict, on the indigenous population. In most
no one empire was able to achieve cases, the Greeks and the native inhabi-
dominance. The division of power tants existed side by side,with little inter-
remained unsettled until the advent of action between them.
the Rome Empire. Although the old Greek gods were
worshipped in the new Greek cities, they
Hellenism faced fierce competition from the non-
The campaigns of Alexander the Great Greek gods that surrounded them. Many
had far-reaching consequences that were of these other gods were messianic (sav-
not only political but also social and cul- iors or deliverers) with cults of an ecstat-
tural. In his epic progress of conquest ic nature. Similar Greek cults, especially
across Asia, he had established many new Dionysiac cults, also flourished at this
cities and populated them with Greek time. The cult of the ruler derived
veterans from his army. Those cities strength from the popularity of the mes-
became oases of Greek language and cul- sianic gods: often, he too was regarded as
ture in the middle of an Oriental culture, a savior or messiah.
which gave rise to the concept of The Greeks did not automatically
Hellenism, a term used to describe the adopt foreign gods—the gods first had to
unprecedented spread of Greek culture be adapted to Greek tastes, which was


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AFTER ALEXANDER
done through a process of syncretism. zenship rights, and most of them were
Syncretism occurs when deities merge living below subsistence level. All the
by assuming one another’s characteris- wealth was in the hands of a select few.
tics. In this way, the Egyptian god Amon- In the last half of the third century
Re and the Syrian god Baal became BCE, when the situation was ripe for
identified with Zeus. revolution, a reforming leader emerged:
Cleomenes.
Cleomenes Cleomenes III became one of the
This statue depicts While changes were occurring in west- two kings of Sparta in 235 BCE. He was
the god Dionysus, ern Asia, social conditions were deterio- determined to introduce new policies to
who was widely rating on many parts of the Greek redress the inequalities in Spartan socie-
worshipped in the mainland. In Sparta, there were fewer ty. After ridding himself of his political
Hellenistic empires. than 1,000 Spartans left with full citi- enemies, he took the radical course of
canceling all debts and dividing the land
into equal parcels, which he distributed
among the citizens.At the same time, he
granted full citizenship to several thou-
sand of the perioikoi (original inhabi-
tants). The revolutionary ideas of
Cleomenes spread, and in many Greek
states, a cry arose for debts to be canceled
and land to be redistributed.
Cleomenes also attempted to restore
Sparta’s military prestige by going to war
with the Achaean League, an alliance of
city-states under the leadership of Aratus
of Sicyon. Aratus was deeply opposed to
the revolutionary ideas fanned by
Cleomenes, and in order to ensure his
success in battle against the Spartans, he
called on the help of Macedon.
Cleomenes was defeated, and his reforms
were dismantled. The king fled to
Alexandria, where he died in 219 BCE.
Roughly 20 years later, the radical
ideas of Cleomenes resurfaced during
the brutal reign of the Spartan tyrant
Nabis (ruled 207-192 BCE). Nabis rein-
troduced Cleomenes’ system, even going
so far as to free the slaves, but his rule
came to an end when he was betrayed by
his allies during a war against Rome. His
death marked the end of Sparta’s days as
a major power.


See also:
Macedon and Alexander the Great (page 154)
• Sparta and Athens (page 52)


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THE GREEK


LEGACY





he ancient Greeks made profound and far-reaching
TIME LINE
Tcontributions to the worlds of literature, science, and

332 BCE philosophy.Their discoveries and achievements became the
Alexander the Great building blocks for generations of later scholars and artists.
founds city of
Alexandria.
Many of the cultural achievements asso- building. They were overseen by the
c. 308 BCE
ciated with ancient Greece took place director and chief priest.
Zeno of Cyprus not in Greece itself but in the Greek out- Under Ptolemy’s son, Ptolemy II
begins giving
lectures in post of Alexandria in Egypt.The city was (ruled 285–246 BCE), Alexandria be-
Athens; his founded by Alexander the Great in 332 came renowned as a center of arts and a
teachings form BCE. When he left Egypt to go on a magnet for scholars and poets, whom
basis of school of campaign,Alexander left one of his gen- Ptolemy welcomed to his court. He
philosophy known
as Stoicism. erals, Ptolemy, in charge of the province. increased his financial support for the
On Alexander’s death in 323 BCE, Museum, which became a research cen-
c. 300 BCE
Ptolemy effectively became the ruler of ter for the natural sciences and mathe-
Ptolemy I expands Egypt. He crowned himself king of the matics as well as an academy for more lit-
Temple of the Muses
in Alexandria to country in 305 BCE. erary pursuits.
establish center From the very beginning of his reign, Most of the writers working at the
for arts and Ptolemy encouraged Greek scholars and Museum did not produce original work.
sciences; Euclid philosophers to congregate at his court Instead, they focused on collecting and
writes Elements.
in Alexandria. When Demetrius of preserving the literary works of the past.
c. 275 BCE Phaleron was banished from Athens, he The versions of Homer’s epic poems the
Aristarchus of took refuge in Alexandria and suggested Iliad and the Odyssey that exist today
Samos suggests that Ptolemy should establish a center of are essentially the work of Alexandrian
Earth orbits
around sun, study dedicated to the Muses (see box, scholars. The Museum’s archivists col-
instead of sun page 182).The center would allow schol- lected manuscripts of literary texts attrib-
orbiting around ars to pursue their studies in all the arts uted to Homer and then compiled them
Earth; radical and sciences. Ptolemy happily agreed to to produce new editions. Copies of these
theory rejected.
the idea. texts were widely sold and greatly prized
c. 250 BCE for their authenticity.
Aristotle studies The first museum The scholars also did invaluable work
at Museum in The Temple of the Muses was expanded in the area of textual criticism, a
Alexandria before to make it a true academy of literature discipline that had its beginnings in
returning to native
Syracuse; he and the sciences. The Greeks knew the Alexandria.After scrutinizing all available
formulates concept temple as the Mouseion, although it is manuscripts of a text, the scholars would
of specific gravity. now known as the Museum—the origin
of the word used today.Those who were This 15th-century-CE painting by Joos
appointed to work there became well- Van Gent depicts the astronomer Ptolemy
paid servants of the state and lived in the of Alexandria.


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publish their own version of an ancient of an idealized pastoral life.The Arcadian
work, together with annotation. Crucial landscape depicted by Theocritus was
to this process of textual criticism were filled with amorous shepherds and shep-
the resources provided by the great herdesses who frolicked to the sound of
Library of Alexandria, which contained melodious music.This view of the coun-
many thousands of handwritten scrolls— tryside was in complete contrast to the
a unique collection during that period archaic tradition of Arcadia, in which the
of history. countryside was rugged and inhabited by
fearsome mythological beasts. This new
Theocritus view of Arcadia found favor with the
The Museum also supported original citizens of Alexandria who, oppressed by
writers producing new works. One of the stench, noise, and crowds of city life,
these poets was the Greek Theocritus began to idealize life in the countryside.
(born c. 300 BCE), who became famous It is a view of Arcadia that was to be
in the third century BCE for his sophis- handed down from Theocritus to the
ticated verses that extolled the pleasures Roman poet Virgil, and from him to the


































This vase illustration
shows the Greek
hero Odysseus
with the blind
soothsayer Tiresias.
The existing version
of Homer’s Odyssey
was written down by
scholars working
in Alexandria.


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poets of the Renaissance period, includ- THE GREEK LEGACY
ing William Shakespeare.
Theocritus also wrote comedies, one
of the very few genres in which the
Hellenistic writers were noted for their
originality.The ancient comedy of Attica
had been a kind of satirical revue, often
politically based, and covered contempo-
rary issues. The comedies of the
Alexandrian poets, on the other hand,
had tightly structured plots that owed
nothing to the current political scene.
Instead, they told stories of real life, albeit
with highly stereotypical characters.
One famous contemporary of these
Alexandrian comic writers was the play-
wright Menander (c. 341–291 BCE). He
was very popular in Egypt, and several of
his plays have been discovered there on
papyrus scrolls. Many attempts were
made to persuade him to join the
Museum in Alexandria, but Menander
preferred to stay in his native Athens.
The pure sciences
Study of the sciences also came into their
own at Ptolemy’s academy. The Library
of Alexandria was filled with the output
of the Museum’s scientists as well as its
writers. One of the foremost mathemati-
cians in Alexandria around 300 BCE was
Euclid, who produced a major work—
the Elements, which was a compilation of
all mathematical knowledge that existed The playwright Greeks did realize,however,was that the-
at the time.The work was assembled in Menander was orems could be linked, and that geome-
13 books and had a particular emphasis popular in Egypt try was an integrated system that could
on geometry.This synthesis of everything in the late fourth be studied through the use of logic.
that had gone before was a typical prod- and early third Mathematics was put to little practi-
uct of Hellenistic science. Euclid’s book centuries BCE. cal use. Only those with something to
was an essential basis for all later mathe- construct, such as temple architects,
matical studies. The sections on plane knew how to use mathematics to help
geometry were turned into a school them in their work. One reason that
textbook that was used as late as the end applied mathematics was ignored was
of the 19th century CE. that technology was still in its infancy,
The discoveries of the Greek mathe- and there was little incentive to develop
maticians were not always original— it. Since the sheer brute strength of ani-
many had already been made by the mals and slaves was enough to construct
Egyptians or Babylonians. What the buildings and turn mill wheels, society


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could keep going without it. Another
factor that worked against the develop-
ment of technology was the dismissive
attitude usually displayed by the Greek
elite toward practical matters. It was felt
that anything to do with manual
labor—and that included tech-
nology—was not worthy of
the attention of the learned.
One invention in par-
ticular could have had a
huge effect on the course of
history if its implications
had been recognized. The
scientist Hero of Alexandria
discovered the principle of
the steam turbine in the
first century CE and used it
to construct an amusing
little steam toy to entertain
his friends. The principle
was never put to further
use, however.
Archimedes
One ancient Greek citizen who
did not ignore the opportunities
offered by putting the sciences to practi- Eureka!
cal use was the mathematician and Another famous
inventor Archimedes (c. 287–212 BCE). This relief myth tells the story of
Archimedes studied at the Museum in sculpture depicts one of Archimedes’ most
Alexandria before returning to his native the mathematician famous discoveries, that of specif-
Syracuse. He made a particular study of Euclid. His book, ic gravity.The king of Syracuse had asked
the characteristics of force. It was already the Elements,was him to find out whether a supposedly
known that heavy loads were easier to lift one of the most golden crown was in fact pure gold. As
with the help of pulleys and levers, but important works water slopped out of the overfull bath
Archimedes discovered that even the produced in when Archimedes got in, it came to him
heaviest weight could be lifted easily by Alexandria. that the amount of water displaced by
using a long lever that moved around a objects of different volumes would also
fixed point, or fulcrum. be different. For this reason, the amount
Archimedes applied this knowledge of water displaced by the crown (if it was
to many applications, including military adulterated) would be different from the
catapults. He is also said to have single- amount of water displaced by a lump of
handedly launched a massive ship with pure gold that weighed the same as the
the help of levers and pulleys. Legend has crown. Archimedes is reputed to have
it that he once boasted:“Give me a solid jumped out of the bath and run down
place to stand in space, and I will move the street naked crying “Eureka!” (“I
the Earth.” have found it!”).


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Astronomy universe), which was an error that made
Rather than thinking that the stars were the calculations very complicated. One
controlled by the gods, as earlier civiliza- astronomer, Aristarchus of Samos (flour-
tions had believed, the Greeks adopted a ished c. 275 BCE), suggested that every-
scientific approach to astronomical study. thing would be easier to explain if it was
They employed mathematics, particular- assumed that the sun was the central
ly geometry, to help explain the move- point of the universe, but his ideas were
ments of the heavenly bodies. The too revolutionary for their time; they
Greeks were pioneers in making careful were dismissed in favor of the more pop-
observations of the heavens, and they ular geocentric model.
noted that the stars remained in approx- The geocentric view of the universe
imately the same place in relation to each was refined in the second century CE by
other throughout the year, while the Claudius Ptolemaeus (also known as
moon and five other bodies (Mercury, Ptolemy of Alexandria), who lived from In this 19th-century-
Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn) seemed 90 to 168 CE. He used geometric calcu- CE woodcut, Hero
to move around the sky. The Greeks lations to show that the sun, the moon, of Alexandria shows
called these heavenly bodies planates,after and the planets moved in small circular his steam engine,
the Greek word meaning “wanderer.” orbits (which he called epicycles) around the aeolipile, to his
In order to explain the movement of larger circles, like rings strung on a friends. Hero lived
the planets, Greek astronomers put for- bracelet. To support his contention that in the first century
ward the theory that the cosmos was Earth was at the center of these circles, CE.The first truly
divided into concentric spheres, each he provided mathematical calculations practical steam
one the path of a planet. They usually that were accepted by other astronomers engine was not
assumed Earth to be at the center of up to the 16th century CE.The calcula- invented until 1,600
these spheres (a geocentric view of the tions were then rejected by Polish years later.














































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great work Geography, he drew maps of
the known world that incorporated lines
of latitude and longitude. In spite of
being based on incomplete data, these
maps were used for centuries. He built a
device to study light and presented a
mathematical theory of its properties in
his treatise Optics. In Harmonica,he
offered an outline of music theory, while
in Tetrabiblos, he used his knowledge of
astronomy and astrology to make predic-
tions about the future.
Another Greek mathematician who
contributed a great deal to the knowl-
edge of astronomy was Eratosthenes of
Cyrene, who was director of the Library
of Alexandria from around 240 to 196
BCE. After distinguishing himself by
cataloging 675 stars, Eratosthenes set
about trying to calculate the circumfer-
ence of Earth. He discovered that at the
summer solstice a stick placed vertically
in the ground in Syene (now Aswan) in
Egypt would cast no shadow at noon,
while a similar stick in Alexandria would
cast a shadow one-fifth of its length.
Using this data, Eratosthenes calculated
the Earth’s circumference, with only 3.5
percent error.

Medical science
Great advances were made in medical
science in Alexandria in the fourth cen-
tury BCE. They were based on the
rational approach to medicine pioneered
by Hippocrates of Kos (c. 460–377
BCE), who is called the father of medi-
cine. Previously, the practice of medicine
The mathematician astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus, who had been bound up with religion and
Archimedes is postulated a heliocentric (sun-centered) magic. However, Hippocrates believed
famous for view of the cosmos that retained that disease had natural causes. He con-
discovering the Ptolemy’s system of epicycles. sidered medicine to be an art that people
concept of specific Ptolemy also contributed to several could learn, diagnosing disease through
gravity while in other fields of knowledge. He added to an examination of the patient.
the bath.This the understanding of trigonometry, using Hippocrates was born on the Greek
drawing is based on this knowledge to make astrolabes island of Kos, where he eventually estab-
a 16th-century-CE (instruments used for measuring the alti- lished a school of medicine. His method
engraving. tude of the stars) and sundials. In his of clinical observation was to influence


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all succeeding generations of doctors, salivary glands and pioneered research
while his Regimen in Acute Diseases intro- on the blood vessels, learning that they
duced the concept of preventive medi- carried blood and not air, as even
cine through healthy diet and lifestyle. Hippocrates had believed. Erasistratus
Hippocrates also suggested that the (born c. 275 BCE) also carried out many
weather and drinking water can have an dissections at his school of anatomy in
effect on public health. Alexandria and identified the pumping
The 70 works generally known as the function of the heart,even though he did
Hippocratic Collection may not have not understand the concept of the circu-
been written by Hippocrates himself, but lation of the blood.
they originated from his school of med-
icine. Similarly, he probably was not the Philosophy
author of the Hippocratic Oath—the In addition to advances in literature, the The Dance of
oath to act ethically that is taken by all sciences, and medicine, the fourth and Apollo with the
doctors today on graduation. third centuries BCE saw the develop- Muses,by
Herophilus, the personal physician to ment of several new philosophical move- Baldassare Peruzzi,
Ptolemy I in the fourth century BCE, is ments, including Skepticism, Stoicism, was painted in the
considered the father of the study of and Epicureanism. early 16th century
human anatomy. Born in Chalcedon in By the fourth century BCE, a num- CE.The Temple
Anatolia around 335 BCE, he spent most ber of Greek philosophical schools of of the Muses in
of his life in Alexandria. By dissecting thought had been established, including Alexandria was
dead bodies, he discovered that the brain that of Sophism. Traveling teachers of one of the most
is the center of the nervous system. He philosophy, politics, and rhetoric, the important centers
also identified the separate functions of Sophists thought it was more important of the arts and
the motor and sensory nerves. He stud- to be able to argue on either side of a sciences in the
ied the liver, genitalia, eyes, pancreas, and question than to be morally right. ancient world.





































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Plato (428–348 BCE) and his student nature of things; therefore, the wise per-
Aristotle (384–322 BCE) objected to the son would suspend judgment. Pyrrhon
Sophists’ view that truth and morality never took sides, believing solely in the
were matters of opinion and countered value of observation—skepsis in Greek.
that view with the concept of idealism. His followers were called Skeptics, and
Plato maintained that the object of their questioning of everything, based on
knowledge (the “idea”) was fixed, per- the example of the questions and answers
manent, and unchangeable. He consid- of Socrates, gave rise to the modern con-
ered that only this “idea” was real and notation of the word skeptic.
rejected the view that knowledge was
based on the experience of the senses. Epicureanism
The Skeptics countered by saying Epicureanism was founded by the Greek
that all knowledge is questionable and philosopher Epicurus (341–270 BCE),
that inquiry itself is a process of doubt- who was born on the island of Samos.
ing. A philosophical school based on When he was 18, he had to go to Athens
these ideas was founded by Pyrrhon of to do his military service.When his serv-
Elis (c.363– 272 BCE).The essence of its ice was completed, he traveled for 10
philosophy was the impossibility of years, studying and developing his own
obtaining certain knowledge. Pyrrhon philosophical ideas.Around 311 BCE, he
assumed that mankind primarily strives established a school of philosophy at
for happiness, and this is the sole reason Mytilene on the island of Lesbos. Later,
for the practice of philosophy. He said in 306 BCE, he settled in Athens, where
that no human could ever know the real he bought a house with a garden. He set
up a school in the garden, and many of
his followers from his travels in Anatolia
THE MUSES flocked there.
Epicurus’s philosophy was based on a
In Greek mythology, the Muses were nine goddesses system of ethics and the belief that good
thought to inspire artists of all kinds, including and evil were to be perceived through
philosophers, poets, and musicians.The Muses were all the senses. To achieve a happy life, one
born of a union between Zeus, king of the gods, and should seek pleasure and avoid pain.
Mnemosyne, the goddess of memory. Each Muse However, he also taught that a simple life
presided over a different art or science. Poetry was so was best, because any attempt to satisfy
important that it had four separate Muses: Polyhymnia all desires would itself bring pain. So,
for sacred poetry, Calliope for epic poetry, Erato for although the goal of life was pleasure
love poetry, and Euterpe for lyric poetry.Terpsichore (and intellectual pleasure was to be pre-
was the Muse in charge of choral singing and dance, ferred to sensual pleasure), moderation
while Thalia was the Muse for comedy, and Melpomene was the path to true happiness. He
was the Muse of tragedy. Clio presided over history, and described justice, honesty, and friendship
Urania presided over astronomy. as virtues, while politics was to be avoid-
ed because it produced only misery.
The companions to the Muses were Apollo, the god of Epicurus subscribed to the atomic
music, and the Graces, who were the three goddesses theory refined by Democritus in the fifth
of beauty, joy, and charm.The Graces were also century BCE. According to this theory,
daughters of Zeus, but by the nymph Eurynome.Thalia everything is composed of tiny
was associated with good cheer,Aglaia with splendor, unchangeable atoms, which join togeth-
and Euphrosyne with mirth. er to form material objects. Epicurus
maintained that the soul and the body


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THE GREEK LEGACY
are composed of material atoms, and linked by a divine force (Logos), which
when the body dies, the soul is also they also called reason. Zeno consid-
dissipated and no longer exists. ered that by living in conformity
Consequently, there can be no with nature, mankind would live
afterlife, and there is nothing to in conformity with the Logos,and
fear from death. this was the only way to attain
Epicurus did not deny the happiness. By calmly accepting
existence of the gods, but he everything that life deals out,
considered them irrelevant to mankind can be freed from pas-
human affairs. He viewed them as sion, grief, and joy.
existing in empty space outside the Zeno believed that information
cosmos and believed that they were received through the senses is based
too caught up in their own affairs to on correct perceptions. If mistakes
be interested in the material world are made,they are due to inaccurate
of mortals. To fear or venerate observation or faulty processing
them was as pointless as of the information. The
fearing life after death. person who uses his reason
Followers of Epicurus to digest information will
lived a comparatively aus- come to a correct con-
tere life in his school. ception of things. Once
They consumed little one has a correct con-
other than bread and ception of virtue, one
water and enjoyed few can then gain virtue.
pleasures beyond those of
friendship and intellec- Equality for all
tual pursuits. This mod- The Stoics believed that
est lifestyle, withdrawn because all mankind is
from the world, is in animated by the Logos,
direct contrast to the all men and women, rich
modern understanding of the word This bust depicts the or poor, free or slave, should be treated as
epicurean, which has come to mean the Greek philosopher equals. This was a revolutionary idea in
pursuit of pleasure; an epicure is some- Epicurus, who gave the third century BCE.
one who indulges freely in the pleasures his name to a school The Stoics considered possessions
of food and wine. of philosophy— and wealth unimportant in human rela-
Epicureanism. tionships and believed that people had a
Stoicism responsibility to help one another. For
Around 308 BCE, the philosopher Zeno this reason, they encouraged people to
of Cyprus began giving public lectures in enter public life because it allowed them
Athens under the painted colonnade to improve the lot of their fellow citi-
next to the agora. The colonnade was zens. Stoicism, as first taught by Zeno
known as the Stoa Poikile in Greek, and later refined by his follower
which gave the name Stoicism to his Cleanthes and his successor Chrysippus,
teachings. Zeno had studied with the was destined to become a major influ-
Cynics, at Plato’s Academy, and at ence in the Roman world.
Aristotle’s Lyceum, but he developed his
own view of life and the universe. See also:
The Stoics believed that everything After Alexander (page 166) • The Great
in the universe, including mankind, was Philosophers (page 122)


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GLOSSARY



Achaemenids Persian 27th dynasty Arcadia mountainous region of the comedy originally, any play or literary
of Egypt (525–404 BCE); founded central Peloponnese, Greece. composition with a nontragic ending.
by Cambyses II of Persia and
named after his family, the archons magistrates in Athens, comos procession of Greek citizens
Achaemenids. Darius I was a beginning around the seventh century during which they wore masks and
member of this dynasty. BCE. Elected annually, their duties danced and sang; often part of festivals
comprised legislation, the dispensation in honor of Dionysus.
acropolis fortified part of an ancient of justice, the conduct of religion,
Greek city.The most famous such and military affairs. Corcyra ancient name for the Greek
fortress is the Acropolis in Athens, island of Corfu.
where various large temples were Artemisium, Battle of Persian naval
built, including the Parthenon. victory over the Greeks in 480 BCE. Corinth city of the Peloponnese,
around 50 miles (80 km) west of
Adonis in Greek mythology, a young Athens preeminent city-state of Athens.
mortal man of outstanding beauty; ancient Greece.
favorite of Aphrodite. Corinthian War conflict that lasted
Attica region of central Greece. Its from 395 to 387 BCE between Sparta
Aegean Sea part of the chief city was Athens. and an alliance among Thebes,Athens,
Mediterranean Sea that separates Corinth, and Argos, initially supported
mainland Greece from Asia Minor Babylon city in southern Meso- by Persia.
(part of modern Turkey). potamia that was the center of an
Amorite empire under Hammurabi. Corupedium, Battle of fought
Alcmaeonidae influential Athenian Later, Babylon continued as the in 281 BCE, the decisive final
political family during the lifetime cultural and political capital of the confrontation between the rival
of Peisistratus. region. From 612 to 539 BCE, successors to Alexander the Great.
Babylon was the capital of the Neo-
Alexandria greatest city of the Babylonian Empire. Council of 500 originally conceived
ancient world. It lies on the by Cleisthenes and fully realized by
Mediterranean Sea on the western Bacchiads aristocratic family that Solon, a political decision-making
edge of the delta of the Nile River ruled the city-state of Corinth in the body in Athens consisting of 10
and was founded in 332 BCE by seventh century BCE. groups, each of 50 men, chosen by lot.
Alexander the Great.
Bosporus strait, 19 miles (30 km) Crannon, Battle of military
Anatolia another name for Asia long, that joins the Black Sea and confrontation in 322 BCE in which
Minor (part of modern Turkey). the Sea of Marmara. Macedonian forces under Antipater
defeated rebellious Greek forces led
Antigonids descendants of Demetrius Byzantium ancient Greek city on the by the Athenians.
Poliorcetes; ruling dynasty of shore of the Bosporus; later known as
Macedonia from 306 to 168 BCE. Constantinople; modern Istanbul. crop rotation farming system in
which fields are divided into groups
Apollo Greek god of the sun, oracles, Chaeronea, Battle of conflict in (typically of three) in which a
music, poetry, and justice; son of which Philip II of Macedon defeated different one is left fallow every
Zeus.The god of medicine,Apollo Thebes and Athens in 338 BCE. year so that it may regenerate.
could also choose to inflict disease as
punishment. Chalcedon ancient port on the Croton Greek colony in southern
Bosporus; overshadowed by its Italy in which Pythagoras settled
Aramaic Semitic language that was proximity to Byzantium. around 530 BCE.
widely spoken in western Asia until
displaced by Greek after the conquests choregi Greek sponsors of theatrical Cynics from the Greek kunikoi.
of Alexander the Great. productions and competitions. Followers of Diogenes and


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GLOSSARY
Antisthenes, they protested the of the Peloponnese and Crete between Hades god of the underworld and
material interests of established society. 1200 and 1000 BCE. brother of Zeus; also the name of
Holding virtue to be the only good, the underworld itself.
they stressed independence from ecclesia the tribal meeting of
worldly needs and pleasures and Athens open to all citizens that, Hanukkah Jewish midwinter festival
led austere lives. after Cleisthenes’ reforms, made that commemorates the restoration of
the final political decisions on Jewish rites in the temple at Jerusalem
Cyrenaica coastal district of southern internal and foreign affairs. by Judas Maccabaeus.
Mediterranean Sea; former Greek
colony; now part of Libya. Elea ancient town in Italy founded by hemlock poisonous herb; commonly
Greek refugees; famous for its school thought to have been the cause of
Delian League military alliance set of philosophy; modern Velia. Socrates’s death.
up in 477 BCE to protect the Greek
cities of Ionia (part of modern Turkey) Eleusis city on the Greek coast near Heracles greatest and strongest of
against attack by the Persians. Athens where mysteries were held Greek mythological heroes; also
between around 600 and 400 BCE. known as Hercules.
Delos one of the Cyclades, a group
of islands in the Aegean Sea. Ephesus Ionian city in ancient Hermes Greek god of travelers,
Anatolia (part of modern Turkey). shepherds, trade, and cunning.The
Delphi city in central Greece; site son of Zeus and the messenger
of an Apollo sanctuary and an oracle. Epicureanism philosophy founded by of the gods, he guided souls to
The utterances of Pythia, the priestess Epicurus (341–270 BCE). Its central the underworld.
of the oracle, had great influence on tenets were the pursuit of happiness
personal and political life. and the avoidance of pain. hoplites soldiers in the Greek heavy
infantry, armed with swords, lances,
democracy from the Greek demos Epidamnus colony on the Adriatic and the large round shields known
(people) and kratein (to rule); coast in part of what is now Albania; as hoplons.
government by the people, either founded in the fifth century BCE by
directly or through elected Greeks from Corcyra. Illyria ancient region of the Balkans;
representatives.This form of part of modern Albania.
government arose at the end of Epidaurus small but important city-
the sixth century BCE in Athens. state of ancient Greece; situated in the Indo-European languages common
northeastern Peloponnese. family of European and Asiatic
diadochs military commanders who (Indian) languages.
succeeded Alexander the Great. Eurymedon river in Asia Minor; site
of a major battle in 466 BCE between Ionia coastal region of southwestern
Dionysia Greek annual festival in the Persians and the Delian League. Anatolia (part of modern Turkey) that
honor of Dionysus; characterized by contained several Greek city-states.
processions, poetry competitions, and Gaugamela, Battle of military
theatrical performances. confrontation in 331 BCE in which Ishtar Semitic war goddess who
Alexander the Great defeated Darius merged with Inanna and became the
Dionysus Greek god of wine, ecstasy, III of Persia. goddess of love and fertility.
reproduction, life force, chaos, and
death. Gordian knot according to Greek isthmus narrow strip of land,
legend, a complex knot that could bordered on two sides by water, that
dithyramb ancient Greek hymn of only be untied by the man destined joins two larger land masses.
praise to the god Dionysus. to become king of Asia.The young
Alexander the Great cut it with one Jason Greek mythological hero who
Dodona site, near Epirus in north- blow of his sword. sailed in the Argo in search of the
western Greece, of an oracle devoted Golden Fleece.
to the god Zeus. Granicus River, Battle of military
confrontation between Alexander the Logos divine force—also known as
Dorians people from Macedonia and Great and the Persian Empire near reason—that the Stoics believed
northern Greece who conquered parts Troy in Asia Minor in 334 BCE. directed the universe and humankind.


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ANCIENT GREECE
Lydia ancient province of Anatolia Parthenon temple on the Athenian satrap provincial governor in the
(part of modern Turkey). Its capital Acropolis dedicated to Pallas Athena; Achaemenian Persian Empire.
was Sardis. built between 447 and 438 BCE.
satyr play Greek dramatic work with
Macedon alternatively, Macedonia; Peloponnese large, mountainous a heroic mythological theme, like a
region of northeastern Greece that peninsula that is joined to the main- tragedy, but with a humorous tone
was for a short time during the fourth land of Greece by the Isthmus of and a chorus of satyrs (goatlike male
century BCE the most powerful state Corinth. companions of Pan and Dionysus
in the eastern Mediterranean region. who roamed the woods and moun-
Peloponnesian War (431–404 BCE) tains). Satyr plays formed the last part
Maia in Greek mythology, the eldest conflict of hegemony between Athens of a tetralogy and were thus always
of the Pleiades and the mother of (generally allied with the Ionians) performed after three tragedies.
Zeus’s son, Hermes. and Sparta (allied with the Dorians).
The direct cause was a conflict about Seleucid Empire empire that,
Mantinea ancient city in Arcadia; site the island of Corcyra (modern Corfu). between 312 and 64 BCE, extended
of two battles.The first Battle of The army of Sparta annually destroyed from Thrace on the edge of the Black
Mantinea, in 418 BCE, was the largest Attica, while the Athenian fleet Sea to the western border of India. It
land battle of the Peloponnesian War. plundered the Peloponnesian coasts. was formed by Seleucus I Nicator
In the second Battle of Mantinea Sparta finally triumphed over Athens from the remnants of Alexander the
(362 BCE),Thebes defeated the allied with help from the Persians. Great’s realm.
forces of Athens and Sparta.
Pergamum ancient Greek city in Asia Skepticism philosophy based on the
Marathon city on the east coast of Minor; close to the modern city of assumption that all assumptions should
Attica where the Persians suffered a Izmir,Turkey. be doubted.
devastating defeat in 490 BCE by a
small Athenian army under Miltiades. Persephone daughter of Demeter, the Sophists Greek teachers in the fifth
goddess of agriculture. Her recurring century BCE who gave popularized
Medes Indo-European people who abduction by Hades and return from (and eventually denounced) instruc-
entered northeastern Iran around the the underworld symbolize the growth tion in philosophy, political science,
17th century BCE. and decay of life. rhetoric, and literature.

Mesopotamia area in western Asia phalanx a battle formation in the Stoicism school of philosophy
surrounding the Euphrates and Tigris Greek infantry, usually consisting of founded by Zeno of Citium in Athens
rivers. Floods and irrigation made the eight rows of hoplites fighting in in the third century BCE.At its core is
land fertile, and around 4500 BCE, the extremely close ranks. the belief that people should do what
first agricultural settlements were is required of them by nature and
founded there. potsherd fragment of pottery, accept their lot.
usually one that has been unearthed
Minoan civilization Bronze Age by archaeological excavation. Thermopylae mountain pass between
civilization on Crete. Thessaly and central Greece where
prytanes 10 groups of 50 men from Leonidas and hundreds of Spartans
Muses in Greek—and later in the Council of 500; formed the daily died covering the retreat of the
Roman—mythology, nine sister administration of Athens for one- Greek army from the Persians in
goddesses (daughters of Zeus) who month periods. 480 BCE.
inspired human artistic creativity:
Calliope (epic poetry), Clio (history), rhetors orator-politicians in Athens. trireme ancient galley ship with three
Erato (lyric poetry), Euterpe (music), With their rhetorical gifts, they had a banks of oars.
Melpomene (tragedy), Polyhymnia great deal of influence over Athenian
(sacred poetry),Terpsichore (dancing), politics. zeugitai social class of economically
Thalia (comedy), Urania (astronomy). independent farmers in Athens;
Salamis island on the western coast owners of zeugos (yokes of oxen).The
Parnassus mountain of central of Attica where the Persian fleet was zeugitai served as foot soldiers in the
Greece; in Greek mythology, the defeated in battle by the Greeks in 480 army and, after Solon’s reforms, could
home of Apollo and the Muses. BCE. hold minor political offices.


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MAJOR HISTORICAL FIGURES



Aeschylus (525–456 BCE) Greek Eratosthenes Greek mathematician Pericles (c. 495–429 BCE)
playwright; author of the Oresteia and astronomer of the third and democratic leader of Athens during
trilogy and The Persians. second centuries BCE who calculated its Golden Age.
the circumference of Earth.
Alcibiades (c. 450–404 BCE) Plato (c. 428–348 BCE) ancient
Athenian politician and military Euclid (c. 300 BCE) ancient Greek Greek philosopher who, with Aristotle
commander whose policies mathematician; known as the father and Socrates, laid the foundations of
contributed to his city’s defeat of geometry. subsequent Western thought.
by Sparta in the Peloponnesian
War (431–404 BCE). Euripides (c. 485–406 BCE) Greek Plutarch (c. 46–120 CE) Greek
dramatist; author of more than 90 biographer and historian.
Alexander the Great (356–323 plays, including Medea.
BCE) king of Macedonia from 336 Pythagoras (c. 580–500 BCE)
BCE until his death.Alexander over- Herodotus (born c. 480 BCE) ancient Greek philosopher and
threw the Persian Empire and laid the known as the father of Greek mathematician whose religious,
foundations of a Hellenistic Empire. historiography. political, and philosophical
doctrines strongly influenced
Antigonus (382–301 BCE) Herophilus personal physician to Plato.
Macedonian general who co-founded Ptolemy I in the fourth century BCE;
the Antigonid dynasty. widely regarded as the father of the Socrates (469–399 BCE) Athenian
study of human anatomy. philosopher. His ideas were passed
Archimedes (c. 287–212 BCE) down primarily through the writings
Greek mathematician and inventor. Hesiod (c. 700 BCE) epic poet; of Plato.
author of Thegonia, on religion and
Aristophanes (c. 450–388 BCE) mythology, and Works and Days,a Sophocles (c. 496–406 BCE) Greek
early Greek comic playwright. manual for farmers. playwright; author of tragedies.

Aristotle (384–322 BCE) Greek Hippocrates (c. 460–377 BCE) Thucydides (c. 460–400 BCE)
philosopher and scientist. ancient Greek physician; known as Greek historian of the Peloponnesian
the father of medicine. War.
Croesus king of Lydia between 560
and 546 BCE; conquered Ionia and Homer (c. 800 BCE) legendary Virgil (70–19 BCE) Roman poet;
was in turn subjugated by the Persians; Greek poet to whom the epics the author of the Aeneid, an epic of the
famous for his vast wealth. Iliad and the Odyssey are attributed. foundation of Rome by fugitives from
the sacking of Troy.
Cyrus the Great sixth-century-BCE Judas Maccabaeus leader of the
Persian ruler who founded an empire Maccabaean revolt against the Seleucid Xenophon (431–350 BCE) Greek
that stretched from the Aegean Sea Empire (166–165 BCE). historian; author of the Anabasis,an
eastward to the Indus River. account of how Greek mercenaries
Leonidas (died 480 BCE) Spartan attempted to seize the Persian
Darius I king of Persia between 521 king who died in the Battle of throne.
and 486 BCE; started the First Persian Thermopylae.
War. His expedition against Athens Xerxes I king of Persia between 486
ended in the Battle of Marathon. Menander (c. 341–291 BCE) and 465 BCE; destroyed Athens in
Athenian comic dramatist; author of 480 BCE during the Second Persian
Democritus fifth-century-BCE Greek more than 100 plays. War.
philosopher.
Miltiades general who led Athenian Zeno (c. 335–263 BCE) Greek
Diogenes (c. 400–325 BCE) Greek forces to victory over the Persians at Cypriot who founded the Stoic
philosopher; founded Cynicism. the Battle of Marathon in 490 BCE. school of philosophy.


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INDEX






Page numbers in italic type refer to Antipater 158, 166, 171 army 74, 76
illustrations. Antisthenes 136 Athena 53, 63, 82, 84, 114, 121
apoikiai 47–48 citizenship 60, 78, 120
Appolonius 162 coinage 73, 74
A Aratus of Sicyon 173 Corinthian War 152
Achaean League 173 Arcadia 44, 153, 176 Council of 500 74, 76, 77–78,
Achilles 37, 38, 45 Archaic colonization 45 114
Adonis 84 Archaic period 40, 42–51, 64 Delian League 110, 111–112,
Aeschines 153 Archidamus II 140 138, 140, 148
Aeschylus 88, 92–93, 92, 93, 95, Archilochus 40, 51 democracy 64, 74–79, 114–118,
119, 154 Archimedes 178, 180 138, 149–150
Aetolia 166 architecture 50, 118, 119, 177 ecclesia (assembly) 61, 63, 76–77,
Aetolian League 171 Cyclopean masonry 28 114, 115
Agamemnon 26–27, 38 Doric order 68 Erechtheion 79, 119
Agesilaus 152 Minoan 19, 19,22 festivals 71, 88, 90
Agesilaus II 151–152, 151 Mycenaean 32, 33 government 60–61, 63
agriculture 6, 8–9, 16, 19–20, 33, Sparta 58–59 Lamian War 171
50, 72, 72, 73, 76 archons 60–61, 63, 90, 114–115 legal system 71, 114, 150
Ajax 45 areopagus 60, 114 Long Walls 140, 141
Akrotiri 11–12 Argos 43, 43, 45, 143, 152 Lyceum 122, 137
Alcibiades 143–144, 143, 144, 146 Aridaeus 166 metics 150
Alcmaeonidae 70, 72, 74 Aristarchus 174, 179 Mycenaean culture 26, 31, 35
Alexander IV 166 Aristides 111 naval supremacy 101, 110, 111,
Alexander the Great 135, 153, aristocracy 64–65, 74 138, 140, 146, 148
154–165, 155, 159, 160, 161, Aristogeiton 75, 75 ostracism 76
164, 166, 168 Aristogoras of Miletus 97 Parthenon 110, 116, 119, 121,
Alexandria 154, 161, 162, 162, 168, Aristophanes 88, 95, 119, 148, 148 121
170, 174, 176–180 Aristotle 122, 123, 124, 131, 137, Peisistratus 70–71
Al Mina 47 137, 154, 174, 182 Peloponnesian War 110, 112, 114,
alphabets 42, 46 armor and weapons 35, 45, 59, 59, 138–153
Ambracia 112 74, 100, 138, 157 pentakosiomedimnoi 63
Amon-Re 161, 163 army see warfare and armies Pericles 110–121, 111, 140–141,
Amyntas 156 Artaphernes 97 143
Anacreon 75 Artaxerxes 160 Peristratus 64
Anatolia 26, 29, 40, 42, 79, 96, 154, Artemisium, Battle of 99, 102–103 Persian Wars 96, 99–107, 112
159, 166, 169, 169, 171 ascesis 127 phylae 76, 77
anatomy 181 asceticism 136 plague 138, 140–142
Anaxagoras 118, 126, 128, 132 Asine 29,31 pottery 71
Anaximander 122, 124 astrolabe 180 Propylaea 119
Anaximenes 122, 124–125, 125 astronomy 124, 126, 126, 174, prytane 77–78
Antalcidas, Peace of 152 179–180 rhetors 115
Antigonid dynasty 166, 169, 172 atheism 86–87, 122 slaves 78, 117
Antigonus 166, 168–169 Athens 29, 43, 43, 45, 47, 52, 58–63 social organization 60–61, 63
Antigonus Gonatas 167, 169, Academy 122, 135, 137 Solon’s reforms 61, 63, 64, 68,
171–172 Acropolis 58, 63, 70, 79, 110, 74
Antioch 169 112, 116, 117, 119 strategoi 115, 143, 147
Antiochus I 171 Alcmaeonidae 70, 72, 74 Temple of Athena Nike 117,
Antiochus III 170 archons 60–61, 63, 114–115 119
Antiochus IV 170 areopagus 60, 114 Theater of Dionysus 88, 90, 91


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thetes 60, 61, 74, 114 Companions (hetairoi) 158, 159, 165 diadochs 166, 168–172 INDEX
Thirty Years Peace 138 Corcyra 138, 139, 140 Diagoras of Melos 87, 122
tyranny 64, 68, 70–72, 74–75, Corinth 43, 43, 47, 48, 67, 68, 107, diet 6, 8–9, 72, 76
148–150 115 Diogenes 122, 123, 134, 135, 136
wealth 101, 118 oligarchy 64, 68 Dionysia 71, 88, 89, 90, 92
women 62, 78, 120 Peloponnesian War 112, 114, 138, dithyramb 88, 90
zeugitai 60, 61, 74, 114 140 divination 85
athletics 77,82 Spartan Confederacy 112, 114 divorce 120
Atlantis 13 Temple of Apollo 69 dodeca poleis 42, 52
atomic theory 131, 182–183 trade 65–66 Dodona 83
Attica 44, 45, 52, 58, 60, 71, tyranny 64, 65–69 Dorians 35, 40, 42, 44, 52, 80
103–104 Corinthian League 155 drama 48, 82, 88–95, 119
Corinthian War 152 choregi 90
Corupedium, Battle of 166, 169, comedy 88, 90, 95, 177, 182
B 169 masks 88, 90,91
Babylon 96, 163, 165, 169 Cos 42, 44 satyr plays 90
Bactria 164, 169, 171 craftsmen 6, 19, 33, 55, 60, 68, 71, tetralogy 90
Barsine 165 72–74, 73 theaters 88, 90, 91
basileus 40, 43 Crannon, Battle of 166, 171 tragedy 71, 88, 91–95, 182
Bessus 164 Crete 11, 14–25, 17, 26, 35, 40, 44 dromos 31, 32, 32
Boeotia 7, 50 Croesus 98
Brasidas 143 Croton 122, 126–127
Bronze Age 6–13, 8–9, 16–25 Cycladic culture 6, 7, 8–13, 11, 13, E
bull-leaping 21, 21, 23, 24 16 ecclesia 61, 63, 76–77, 114, 115
Cynics 136 economy 72–74
Cyprus 40, 44, 166, 169 education 57, 118, 131, 132,
C Cypselus 64, 66–67, 72 181–182
Callias 112 Cyrenaica 166 Egypt 11, 12, 14, 36, 154, 161–163,
Callimachus 100, 162 Cyrene 163 166, 168, 169, 172, 174
Cambyses II 79, 96 Cyrus the Great 96, 98 Elea 49, 125, 128
Cape Mycale, Battle of 99, 106, Eleusian mysteries 80, 85–86
109, 110 Elis 143
Cape Sounion 85, 99 D emporion 47
Carthage 51 Damon 118 Epaminondas 152–153
Cassander 171 Dardanelles 154, 159 Ephesus 73
Catana 144 Darius I 75, 96, 97, 99–100, 102, Epicurianism 181, 182–183
Celts 51 163, 163 Epicurus 182–183, 183
centaurs 81 Darius III 160–161, 163–164, 165 Epidamnus 138
Chaeronea, Battle of 153, 154 Dark Age 36, 40–42, 42–43,43 Epidaurus 140
chariots 35, 59 debt slavery 47, 52, 60–61, 64 Erasistratus 181
children 57, 62 Delian League 110, 111–112, 138, Eratosthenes 150, 180
Chios 42 140, 148 Eritria 97
Chrysippus 183 Delos 8, 9, 11, 111, 115 ethics 132–133, 182
Cicero 105 Delphi 80, 83, 85, 86, 99, 101 Etruria 50
Cimon 111–112 Demaratus 99 Euboea 42, 45
Cleanthes 183 Demetrius of Phaleron 174 Euclid 174, 177, 178
Cleisthenes 64, 74, 76, 79 Demetrius Poliorcetes 166, Euripides 88, 94–95, 95, 119, 126,
Cleomenes III 166, 173 168–169 154
Cleon 141, 143 democracy 64, 65, 74–79, 114–118, Eurymedon, Battle of the 111
coinage 73, 74, 82, 98, 100, 161, 149–150 Evvoia 44
168 Democritus 87, 182
colonies 45, 47–51, 119 Democritus of Abdera 131
comedy 88, 90, 95, 177, 182 Demosthenes 141, 152, 153, 156, F
comos 88, 90 171 festivals 71, 82, 88, 89, 90, 92


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ANCIENT GREECE
G Helladic culture 6, 7,16 krypteia 54
Gaugamela, Battle of 158, 163 Hellenism 172–173 Kythnos 8, 9
Gaul 51 helots 52, 54
Gaza 161 Hephaestion 163, 164
geometry 124, 128, 177, 179 Heraclitus of Ephesus 125, 132 L
Gla 26, 29,35 Herodotus 68, 69, 70–71, 74, 98, labyrinth 14, 20
gods and goddesses 80–81, 82, 84, 100, 101, 105, 105, 106 Laconia 45, 52
122, 172 heroes 80 Lamachus 144
Aphrodite 80, 84, 86–87 Hero of Alexandria 178, 179 Lamian War 171–172
Apollo 11–12, 80, 81, 84, 182 Herophilus 181 languages 7, 26, 42–43, 44, 172
Ares 84, 84 Hesiod 40, 50, 51,83 Laurium silver mines 101
Artemis 34, 84, 116 Hindu Kush 164 Lefkandi 42, 45
Athena 34, 53, 63, 71, 73, 74, 82, Hipparchus 75 legal system 47, 71, 114, 150
84, 114, 121 hippeis 60, 61, 63 Leonidas 58, 103
Demeter 84, 86 Hippias 64, 71–72, 74, 75, 99 Leotychides 106, 109
Dionysus 34, 71, 80, 81, 84, 88, Hippocrates 122, 180–181 Lerna 6
89, 90, 172, 173 Hippodamus of Miletus 119 Lesbos 40
Eos Aurora 80 Hittites 36 Leto 84
Hades 84, 85–86, 87 Homer (Iliad and Odyssey) 26–27, Leucippus 131
Helios 80, 82, 127 36–39, 42–43, 45, 71, 80, 83, Leuctra, Battle of 138, 152
Hephaestus 84 154, 174, 176 Library of Alexandria 177, 180
Hera 80, 84 hoplites 59, 59, 74, 76, 99–100, Libya 166, 169
Hermes 80, 84 106, 106, 138, 146, 152 Linear A script 23, 25
Hestia 82 housing 6–8, 13, 16, 17, 21–22, 28 Linear B script 44, 46,80
Minoan culture 20–21 Hydaspes, Battle of 154, 164 literature 119
Mnemosyne 182 Locris 144
Mycenaean culture 34, 34,35 logic 132, 177
Olympian 80, 84 I logographers 150
Persephone 80, 84, 85–86, 87 idealism 182 Logos 125, 183
Poseidon 34, 84 Ilium 39 Lycurgus 52, 56, 57
priesthood 34 Illyria 155 Lydia 73, 96, 98, 100, 106
Zeus 34, 71, 80, 83, 84, 163, 182 India 154, 164 Lysander 148–149, 149
see also religion Iolkos 29,31 Lysias 150, 150
Gordian Knot 160, 160 Ionia 11, 42, 44, 96, 98, 138 Lysimachus 169
Gordium 158, 160 Ionian philosophy 122–126
Gorgias 132 Ionian Rebellion 96–97, 99, 101
Gournia 17, 21, 22 Ipsus, Battle of 168, 169 M
government Ischia 50 Macedon 96, 112, 153, 154–165,
colonies 50 Issus, Battle of 158, 159, 160–161 169, 171–172
democracy 64, 65, 74–79, Ithaca 26 Alexander the Great 154–165
114–118, 149–150 Antigonid dynasty 166, 169, 172
oligarchy 64, 68, 118, 138, 145 Magna Grecia 48, 50
poleis 40, 42, 43, 45, 47, 52, 64 J Maia 84
Sparta 47, 52–57, 118, 138 Jerusalem 161, 166, 170 Mallia 16, 17
tyranny 47, 64–75, 96 jewelry 23, 24, 30, 33, 45 Mantinea, Battle of 143, 153
Graces 182 Judas Maccabaeus 166, 170, 172 maps 124
Granicus River, Battle of 154, 158, Marathon, Battle of 96, 99–100, 99,
159–160 103
Grotta-Pelos 10 K marble 7,9,11
Gylippus 146 Kastri 11 Mardonius 106, 107
Keftiu 14 marriage 57, 62, 120
Keros 7,10 mathematics 122, 124, 127–128,
H Knossos 14, 16–25, 16, 17, 18, 19, 130, 174, 177–180
Harmodius 75, 75 26, 35 Medes 96


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Media 164 P Plutarch 154 INDEX
medicine 122, 180–181 Paestum 47 poetry 40, 50, 51, 82, 83, 88,
Megacles 70–71, 74 Palestine 161, 163, 166, 170 176–177, 182
Megara 140 Pallene, Battle of 71 poleis 40, 42, 43, 45, 47, 52, 64
Menander 95, 177, 177 Panathenaea 71 Polycrates 126
Menelaus 26, 38 Parmenides 125, 128, 130, 131, Polypechon 171
mercenaries 64, 73, 158–159 132–133 population 45, 49
merchants 6, 19 Paros 9, 9 Porus 164
Messenia 45, 52, 54, 153 Partakes 171 Potidaea, siege of 140
metempsychosis 127 Parthenon 110, 116, 119, 121, 121 pottery 37, 45, 60
metics 150 Parthia 164, 169, 171 Athenian 71, 78, 119
migration 40, 42, 44, 47–51 Pasagardae 163 Bronze Age 7, 13, 18, 24, 33, 35
Miletus 73, 97 Pausanias 149–150 Corinthian 68
Miletus, School of 122, 124–125 Pausanius 107 Dark Ages 42
Milos 8, 11, 13 Peisistratus 70–71, 72 Kamares ware 17, 24
Miltiades 100 Peloponnesian League 138, 140 Mycenaean 34, 35, 36
Minoans 11, 12, 14–25, 16, 17 Peloponnesian War 44, 48, 110, pithoi 18
Minos 14, 18, 20 112, 114, 138–153 Priam 37, 38
Minotaur 14, 15, 20, 20 Perdiccas 156 priesthood 82, 83
Minyan culture 6, 7–8 Pergamum 171 Protagoras 119, 122
mosaics 15, 38 Periander 64, 65, 66, 68–69 prytane 77–78
Mount Olympus 80, 84 Pericles 110–121, 111, 126, Psammetichus 64, 68
Mount Parnassus 83 140–141, 143 Ptolemaic dynasty 162, 166, 168,
Muses 84, 174, 181, 182 perioikoi 52, 54–55 172
Museum 174, 176, 177 Peristratus 64 Ptolemy I 166, 168, 168, 174
music 118, 127, 128, 130, 180, 182 Persepolis 108, 163, 163 Ptolemy II 168, 174
Mycenae 26–28, 29, 31, 35, 37, 38 Persia 60, 151–152, 154, 159–166, Ptolemy of Alexandria 175,
Mycenaeans 13, 14, 16, 25, 26–36, 163–164, 165, 171 179–180
27, 29, 39, 40, 58, 80 Seleucid dynasty 166, 169–171, Pylos 26, 29, 31, 33, 34, 35, 46
tombs 29–32, 32 172 Pylos, Battle of 141
Mykonos 8, 9 Persian Wars 58, 75, 79, 96–109, 99, Pyrrhon of Elis 182
mythology 80–81, 83, 84, 88, 92, 110, 112 Pythagoras 122, 126–128, 129, 130
122, 124 Phaistos 14, 16, 17,22 Pythia 83
phalanx 157, 157, 159 pyxis 120
Pheidippides 100
N Phidias 121
Nabis 173 Philip II 153, 153, 154, 156, 156, R
Naxos 8, 9, 9, 111 157 religion 13, 80–87, 122
Nestor 26, 31, 33 Philip III 166 atheism 86–87, 122
Nicias 143–144, 146 Philistus 154 divination 85
Nicias, Peace of 138, 143 philosophy 118, 122–137, 174, Hellenistic empires 172–173,
181–183 173
Phoenicia 42, 46, 102, 161 Minoan 20–21, 24
O Phrygia 160, 168, 169 Mycenaean 28, 32, 34, 34, 35, 80
Odysseus 26, 37, 38, 38, 176 Phrynichus 91–92 mystery cults 80, 85–86, 87, 154
oligarchy 64, 68, 118, 138, 148 phylae 76, 77 oracles 49, 80, 83, 84, 85, 86, 101,
Olympias 154, 156, 163 Pindar 158 161
Olympic Games 125 Piraeus 118, 119, 140, 141, 142 priesthood 82, 83
oracles 49, 80, 83, 84, 85, 86, 101, Pithekoussai 47, 50 Pythagoreans 127
161 Plataea, Battle of 96, 99, 106, 107, sacrifice 24, 32, 34, 35, 82, 83,
oration 110, 115, 150 107, 109 84
orchestra 90 Plato 58, 117, 118, 122, 123, 131, syncretism 80, 173
Orchomenus 7, 9 132–133, 134–135, 134, 137, temples 81–82, 85
ostracism 76, 112 182 see also gods and goddesses


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ANCIENT GREECE
rhetoric 115, 118, 131, 132, 181 perioikoi 52, 54–55 Mycenaeans 26, 35
Rhodes 36, 42, 44, 166 Persian Wars 96, 99, 102–103, Sparta 55
Romans 39 106–107 tragedy 71, 88, 91–95, 182
Roxana 166 social organization 47, 52–55 tragoidos 88
Spartan Confederacy 112, 114 Treasury of Atreus 26, 32, 32
Thirty Years Peace 138 trigonometry 180
S Spartan Confederacy 112, 114 triremes 109, 109
Salamis, Battle of 96, 99, 104, 104, Stoicism 87, 174, 181, 183 Troy 26–27, 28, 29, 36–39, 39
106, 109, 109, 110 Stone Age 6–8, 14–16 tyranny 47, 64–75, 96, 148
Samos 41, 42, 101, 126 strategoi 93, 110, 115, 143, 147 Tyre 154, 161
Samos, Battle of 97 sundial 124, 180 Tyrtaeus 52
Sappho 44 Susa 163, 165
Sardis 96, 97, 160 Syracuse 48, 48, 138, 143–144, 145,
satyrs 81 146 V
science 118, 122, 124, 128, 131, Syria 169 Virgil 176
174, 177–181, 182 Syros 10, 11
seals 6, 16, 24–25, 30, 78, 109
Sea Peoples 36 W
Seleucid dynasty 166, 169–171, 172 T warfare and armies 73, 74
Seleucus 166, 168, 169, 171 Tarentum 144 Athens 74, 76
ships 25, 35, 42, 101, 109, 109, 110, textiles 33, 62, 72, 119 Bronze Age 10
138, 140, 141 Thales of Miletus 122, 124, 124, Companions (hetairoi) 158, 159,
Sicily 48, 143–146 126 165
Simonides 75 Thasos 51 hoplites 59, 59, 74, 76, 99–100,
Siwa Oasis 161, 168 theater see drama 106, 106, 138, 146, 152
Skepticism 181, 182 Thebes 26, 29, 31, 43, 43, 138, Macedon 157, 157, 158–159
slaves 33, 47, 51, 60–61, 62, 64, 78, 152–153, 156, 158 Mycenaeans 26, 33, 35
117, 177 Corinthian War 152 naval warfare 97, 101, 102–103,
Socrates 118, 122, 126, 131–135, Peloponnesian War 112, 114 104, 106, 109, 138, 140, 141,
132, 133, 136, 143, 182 Themistocles 101, 104 146
Sogdiana 164 Theocritus 162, 176–177 phalanx 157, 157, 159
Solon 52, 61, 61, 63, 64, 74, 98 Thera 9, 12 Sparta 55, 56, 57, 58, 59
sophia 127 volcanic eruption 6, 11–13, 14, see also armor and weapons
sophists 118, 131, 132, 181–182 25 women 57, 62, 72, 78, 91, 112, 119,
Sophocles 88, 93–94, 94, 119, 154 Thermopylae, Battle of 58, 96, 99, 120
Sparta 26, 38, 43, 43, 45, 52–58, 58, 102–103 wrestling 56
110, 166 Theseus 15, 20, 52, 58, 91 writing 23, 24–25, 40, 42–43, 46,
army and military training 55, Thespis 88 46, 47, 85
56, 57, 58, 59 thetes 60, 61, 74, 114
Cleomenes III 173 Thirty Years Peace 138
Corinthian War 152 tholos tombs 30–32, 32 X
gerousia 56–57 Thrace 71, 96, 154, 155 Xanthippus 110
government 47, 52–57, 118 Thrasybulus 149 Xenophanes 125
helots 52, 54 Thucydides 122, 141, 142, 147, 147 Xenophon 73, 132
imperialism 151–152 Thurii 119 Xerxes I 96, 100–106, 160
kings 56 Tiryns 26, 28, 29, 31, 33,35
krypteia 54 trade 72, 73–74
Lycurgan Constitution 52, 56 Archaic period 40, 42, 45, 47 Z
oligarchy 138 Bronze Age 6, 11, 16, 19, 25 Zakro 16, 17
Peloponnesian League 138, 140 colonies 47, 51 Zeno of Cyprus 174, 183
Peloponnesian War 110, 112, 114, Corinth 65–66 Zeno of Elea 130, 132–133
138–153 emporion 47 zeugitai 60, 61, 74, 114





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