Heavy Duty Truck Systems by Sean Bennett

478 Hybrid vehicles
The HC emissions measured during the hot soak test and diurnal test are added and must

not exceed a total of 2 g for the vehicle to be approved.

Figure A3.1
Procedure for determination of evaporation emissions

Appendices 479

To respect this limiting value, all gasoline vehicles are now equipped with activated car-
bon filters which trap the gasoline vapors given off by evaporation. These vapors are then
burnt by the engine during operation.

Type 5 Test: Durability of Anti-Pollution Devices

To check that a vehicle complies with the pollutant emission limits throughout its lifetime,
the standard provides for an 80,000 km endurance test.

During this test, the vehicle is driven either on a chassis dyno, or on road, according to a
clearly defined mission profile. A type 1 test is conducted every 10,000 km up to 80,000 km.
Based on the results obtained and smoothed by interpolation, an emission deterioration factor
is calculated between 6,400 and 80,000 km. This deterioration factor is applied to the emis-
sions measured on the type 1 test to check that the vehicle will comply with the emission
limiting values at 80,000 km.

As an alternative to the above procedure, the car manufacturer may choose to apply the
assigned deterioration factors indicated in Table A3.2:

Table A3.2. Assigned deterioration factors by engine type and pollutant type

Pollutant CO HC NOx HC + NOxx Particulates

Engine Sparck- 1.2 1.2 1.2 - -
category ignition 1.1 -
engine
1 1 1.2
Compression-
ignition
engine

1. For vehicles equipped with a compression-ignition engine

Type 6 Test: Verifying the Average Low Ambient Temperature CO and
HC Exhaust Emissions After a Cold Start

This test consists of 4 consecutive ECE cycles (therefore 780 s) after starting a vehicle previ-
ously conditioned at - 7 °C. The vehicle CO and HC emissions are measured during this test
and must not exceed:

- 15g/kmforCO,
- 18g/kmforHCs.

OBD Test: on-Board Diagnosis System for Engined Vehicle

The standard prescribes that "All vehicles shall be equipped with an OBD system so designed,
constructed and installed in a vehicle as to enable it to identify types of deterioration or
malfunction over the entire life of the vehicle". The error codes returned by the OBD system
are standardized.

480 Hybrid vehicles

The OBD system must indicate the failure of a depollution component or system when
the vehicle emissions exceed a threshold which depends on the engine type and vehicle mass.

For sparck-ignition engined vehicles, the OBD system must therefore monitor:
- the reduction in the efficiency of the catalytic converter with respect to HC emissions,
- the presence of engine misfire over a large section of the engine operating region

(excluding idling),
- continuity of the evaporative emission purge circuit.

For compression-ignition engined vehicles, the OBD system must monitor, at least:
- where fitted, reduction in the efficiency of the catalytic converter,
- where fitted, the operation and integrity of the particulate trap,
- correct operation of the electronic fuel injection systems.

Tests Prescribed by Regulation R101

Regulation R101 explains the test procedure to be implemented to measure the fuel (and
electricity) consumptions and the C 0 2 emissions of a vehicle.

The tests prescribed are very similar to those of the type 1 test in regulation R83.
ICE vehicles
The C 0 2 emissions and the fuel consumption of ICE vehicles are measured during a type 1
test of standard R83. The heating and air-conditioning must be switched off.

The C 0 2 emissions are calculated by analyzing the diluted exhaust gases sampled in
bags. The fuel consumption is recalculated by a carbon balance based on the C02, CO and
HC emissions.
Electric vehicles
The electrical energy consumption is measured on the NEDC cycle (with the same cycle
monitoring tolerance). Before testing, the vehicle must be checked to ensure that the auxil-
iary batteries are fully charged and that it has traveled at least 300 km over the last 7 days.

The test procedure consists of the following steps:
- battery discharge at 70% ±5% of the maximum vehicle speed for 30 min unless:

• a speed equal to 65% of the vehicle maximum speed can no longer be maintained,
• a distance of 100 km has already been traveled,
• the onboard instruments indicate that the vehicle must be stopped,
- normal night charging (no special charging). The normal charging time is 12 hours.
In case of incomplete charging, it can be increased up to a maximum charging time of
three times the battery nominal energy divided by the grid power. The time when the
charger is unplugged is written t0,
- 2 NEDC cycles are conducted within the 4 hours following t0. The total distance actu-
ally traveled during these two cycles is written D (km),

Appendices 481

- normal night charging started within 30 min after stopping the vehicle. Charging is
stopped 24 hours after t0. The energy E (W.h) supplied to the charger by the grid dur-
ing charging is measured.

The vehicle electricity consumption can be written Consofwh/k .

Hybrid vehicles

We observe the same distinction as in standard R83 depending on whether or not it is a plug-
in vehicle and whether or not it is equipped with a mode switch.

For non plug-in hybrid vehicles not equipped with a mode switch, the procedure is the same
as for ICE vehicles, with the following differences:

- preconditioning must include at least two NEDC cycles;
- the current entering and leaving the battery must be measured and recorded in order to

calculate the battery energy variation during the test:

- where Q is measured by integrating the current, Vnom is the nominal battery voltage,
- the consumption and C 0 2 emissions values measured during the test must be corrected

according to the battery energy balance AEbatt, unless one of the following conditions
is met:
• the car manufacturer can demonstrate that there is no relation between the consump-

tion and the battery energy variation,
• the battery is always charged during the tests,
• the battery discharges during the tests but the battery electrical energy variation rep-

resents less than 1% of the energy consumed in the form of fuel during the cycle.
The correction of the consumption and C 0 2 emissions according to the battery energy
variation is linear. The car manufacturer provides the correction factors calculated using a
series of tests including at least one test with positive AEbatt and one test with negative AEbatt.
These factors must be determined separately for the urban and extra-urban sections of the
NEDC cycle.

For non plug-in hybrid vehicles equipped with a mode switch, the same procedure as above is
applied using the mode which is selected automatically when the ignition key is switched on.

For plug-in hybrid vehicles not equipped with a mode switch, two tests must be conducted:

- test in condition A: battery charged;
- test in condition B: battery discharged.

The test in condition A (battery charged) consists of the following steps:

- battery discharge (by driving the vehicle at a constant speed of 50 km/h or at a lower
speed for which the vehicle operates in electric mode or according to the car manu-
facturer's recommendations) until the ICE starts; the ICE must then be stopped within
10 s,

482 Hybrid vehicles

- vehicle preconditioning (1 NEDC + 1 EUDC cycles are carried out for vehicles
equipped with a sparck-ignition engine, 3 EUDC cycles for vehicles equipped with a
compression-ignition engine),

- thermal conditioning by soaking for at least 6 hours in a room between 20 °C and
30 °C, until there is a difference of less than 2 °C between the engine oil and water
temperatures and the room temperature,

- battery normal night charging while the vehicle is soaking; charging is carried out
either with the vehicle onboard charger or with an external charger recommended by
the car manufacturer; the battery should be charged for 12 hours, unless the onboard
instruments indicate that the charge is not complete; in this case, the maximum charg-
ing time allowed is three times the battery nominal energy (W.h) divided by the grid
power; no special charging (trickle, equalization) is allowed, whether triggered manu-
ally or automatically,

- the NEDC cycle is conducted with cold start as for a conventional vehicle,
- battery charged by normal night charging (see above) started within 30 min after stop-

ping the vehicle. The electrical energy exchanged between the grid and the charger is
measured (ej in Wh).

The test in condition B (battery discharged) consists of the following steps:

- vehicle preconditioning only if requested by the car manufacturer,
- battery discharge (by driving the vehicle at a constant speed of 50 km/h or at a lower

speed for which the vehicle operates in electric mode or according to the car manu-
facturer's recommendations) until the ICE starts; the ICE must then be stopped within
10 s,
- thermal conditioning by soaking for at least 6 hours in a room between 20 °C and
30 °C, until there is a difference of less than 2 °C between the engine oil and water
temperatures and the room temperature,
- testing with cold start as for a conventional vehicle and calculation of the fuel con-
sumption and C 0 2 emissions,
- battery charged by normal night charging started within 30 min after stopping the
vehicle; the electrical energy exchanged between the grid and the charger is measured
and written e2,
- battery discharge (at steady 50 km/h until the first time the ICE starts),
- battery charged by normal night charging started within 30 min after stopping the
vehicle; the electrical energy exchanged between the grid and the charger is measured
and written e3,
- The electrical energy consumed is calculated using the formula:

Writing mA and DA the mass of C 0 2 emitted and the distance traveled during the test
under conditions A, and similarly, mB and DB those measured during the test under condi-
tions B, the average vehicle emissions are calculated using the following formula:

Appendices 483

(where De is the vehicle range in electric mode).

A similar formula is used for the fuel consumption and the electricity consumption.

Forplug-in hybrid vehicles equipped with a mode switch, the procedure is virtually the same
as for plug-in hybrid vehicles without mode switch, with the following differences:

- the mode is chosen according to Table A3.1.
If the vehicle electric range exceeds a complete NEDC cycle, the type A test can be con-
ducted in all-electric mode if requested by the car manufacturer. In this case, preconditioning
is not necessary.
- the battery discharges required depend on the modes available:

• if an all-electric mode is available, discharge is carried out in this mode at 70% ±5%
of the maximum speed that can be reached in all-electric mode for 30 min, or until
one of the following conditions is met:
- a distance of 100 km has been traveled,
- the threshold of 65% of the maximum speed in all-electric mode can no longer be
maintained,
- the onboard instruments indicate to the driver that the vehicle must be stopped,

• if there is no all-electric mode, the battery is discharged in the same way as for a
non plug-in hybrid vehicle (steady speed of 50 km/h until the ICE starts, see above).

Measuring the all-electric range of an electric or hybrid vehicle

This test consists of the following steps:
- battery discharge
• for an electric vehicle or a hybrid vehicle with electric mode, at a steady speed equal
to 70% ± 5 % of the maximum speed that can be reached in electric mode for 30 min,
or until one of the following conditions is met:
- a distance of 100 km has been traveled,
- the threshold of 65% of the maximum speed in all-electric mode can no longer be
maintained,
- the onboard instruments indicate to the driver that the vehicle must be stopped.
• for plug-in hybrid vehicles not equipped with electric mode, at a steady speed of
50 km/h until the ICE starts,
- normal night charging (at least 12 hours),
- test on NEDC cycle (with tolerance regarding failure to follow the cycle above 50 km/h
if the power is not sufficient; in this case, the driver presses the accelerator pedal until
he returns to the cycle). The test is stopped:
• when the onboard instruments indicate that the vehicle must be stopped,
• or when the cycle can no longer be followed below 50 km/h,
• or when the ICE starts for hybrid vehicles not equipped with electric mode.
When the test is stopped, the vehicle is decelerated using the engine brake to 5 km/h then

brought to a stop using the vehicle brakes.
The vehicle all-electric range is the distance actually traveled during this test.

Appendix 4

Toyota Prius 3 Collaborative
Braking System

1 Brake fluid reservoir
2 Brake fluid level warning switch
3 Accumulator
4 Pump motor
5 Relief valve
6 Master cylinder
7 Stoke simulator
8 Cut valve (SCSS)
9 Master cylinder pressure sensor 1 (PMC 1)
10 Master cylinder pressure sensor 2 (PMC 2)
11 SMC valve
12 SRC valve
13 Linear solenoid valve
14 Front wheel cylinder pressure
15 SCC valve
16 SLR valve
17 Pressure-increasing linear valve front left
18 Pressure-increasing linear valve front right
19 Pressure-increasing linear valve rear left
20 Pressure-increasing linear valve rear right
21 Pressure-reducing linear valve front left
22 Pressure-reducing linear valve front right
23 Pressure-reducing linear valve rear left
24 Pressure-reducing linear valve rear right
25 Wheel cylinder Front LH
26 Wheel cylinder Front RH
27 Wheel cylinder Rear LH
28 Wheel cylinder Rear RH
29 Hydraulic pressure control unit
30 Brake actuator

Figure A4.1
Source: Toyota

Appendix 5

Power-Split Hybridization.
Comparison of the Mechanical
Solution with Planetary Gear
and the Electrical Solution with

Dual Rotor Machine

Figure A5.1
Source: Ravello V., HI-CEPS - Highly Integrated Combustion Electric Propulsion
System, FP6 Program Description, 2005

Appendix 6

Evolution of Characteristics
for the Various Prius Models

I Models characteristics I
Year of commercialization
1997 2000 2003 2009 2012
Reference NHW10 NHW11 NHW20 ZVW30
ZVW35 |

Body

Diffusion kW Japan World World World World I
N.m I
I Electric motor rpm 30 33 50 60 60 I
305 350 400 207 207 I
Peak power V 6000 6000 6400 13500 13500 I
Peak torque
Maximum speed 288 274 500 650 650 I
I DC bus nominal/maximum1
voltage NiMH Li-Ion
Prism Prism
I High power battery 202 207

Chemistry - NiMH NiMH NiMH 6.5 21
I Geometry - Cyl Prism Prism 27 38
V 288 274 202 28 56
Pack nominal voltage Ah 6
I Pack nominal capacity kW 20 6.5 6.5 - -
- 40 21 25 1.3 4.4
Pack maximum power2 W/kg 800 38 28 42 80
Number of modules/cells Wh/kg 40 1000 1300
Cell specific power2 kWh 1.87 46 46 1798 1798
Cell specific energy kg 75 1.8 1.3 73 73
Pack nominal energy 56 45 5200
Pack overall mass 142 5200
4000 142
I Engine cm3 1497 1497 1497 13 4000
kW 43 53 57 13
Displacement rpm 4000
Maximum power N.m 102 4500 5000
Speed @ maximum power rpm 4000 115 115
Maximum torque 13.5 4200 4000
Speed @ maximum torque - 13 13
Expansion ratio

Fuel consumption3, pollutant emission values3, performances

Urban L/100 km - 5.9 5.0 3.94 49 I
Extra-Urban L/100 km - 4.6 4.2 3.74 10.7 I
Combined L/100 km 5.6 5.1 4.3 3.94
C 0 2 emission values 136 120 104 894
I 0-100 km/h acceleration g/km
performances 13.45 12.75 10.9 10.4
sec

I Vehicle

Drivetrain maximum power kW 57 69 80 100 100
4.315 4.450 4.460 4.480
Length m 4.315 1.695 1.730 1.745 1.745
1.475 1.490 1.490 1.490
Width m 1.695 0.29 0.26 0.25 0.25
1265 1300 1370 1420
Height m 1.475

Aerodynamic coefficient - 0.29

Vehicle mass kg 1240

1. For models equiped with a boost converter 3. NEDC procedure 5.0-60 mph acceleration
2.10s, 50% SOC, 25°C temp, measurements 4. With 15" wheel rim

Appendix 7

Illustration of All-Electric
Mode Phases on a European
Test Procedure (Warm Start)

Depending on the Initial
Battery State of Charge
(AMESim IFP Energies Nouvelles

Simulations)

Figures A7.1 to A7.3 show that use of the ICE at the start of the cycle is very limited in the
first case, increasing for the next two cases, when the initial battery state of charge is low,
for a given vehicle demand. The control diagram of the THS transmission clearly shows that
calculation of the power required on the ICE includes an input taking into account the need
to charge the battery to bring its SOC to the center of its operating range [Kimura, 1999].

This type of correction has been taken into account in the software and we observed
that the simulated SOC changes presented on Figure A7.4 correspond to those measured on
vehicle on the test bench under the same conditions [Vinot, 2006]. We see that the SOCs
converge within a few hundred seconds towards a single range, which explains that the uses
of the ICE are similar in Figures A7.1 to A7.3 from 400 seconds.

REFERENCES

Kimura A, Abe T and Sasaki S, Toyota Motor Corp, Aichi, Japan (1999) Drive Force Control of a
Parallel-Series Hybrid System: JSAE Review 20, 337-341, Elsevier Science B.V.

Vinot E, Badin F, Vidon R, Malaquin B, Perret P et Tassel P. INRETS LTE (2006) Projet EVALVH,
évaluation du véhicule hybride Toyota Prius 2004 et de ses composants, rapport final : Rapport

LTE 0626, novembre (INRETS/RR/06-530-FR).

492 Hybrid vehicles

Figure A7.1
Battery highly charged at the start.

Figure A7.2
Battery with nominal charge at the start.

Appendices 493

Figure A7.3
Battery highly discharged at the start.

Figure A7.4

Comparison of changes in the battery states of charge for the three initial values
(AMESim simulation), final SOC 55%.

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to extend their thanks to all IFP Energies nouvelles employees who
helped to produce this book, either through their contributions to the content, their advice or
their thorough reviewing and pertinent comments.

Amongst all IFP Energies nouvelles colleagues and friends involved, our special thanks
goto:

• Eric Watel, for his valuable help in writing, illustrating and reviewing the section con-
cerning the diesel engine and its combustion, Simon Vinot, author of the section on
fuels, Cyprien Ternel for his information on two-stroke engines, Franck Vangraef-
schèpe for CAI combustion and Abdellilah El Habchi for exergy balances;

• Eric Condemine, Sébastien Magand, Antonio Sciarretta, Franck Vangraefschèpe,
Alexandre Pagot and Stéphane Zinola, for their reviewing, inputs and advice on the
hybridization section, Nicolas Marc, Anthony Da Costa, Alexandre Chasse and Ales-
sio Del Mastro for vehicle simulations, and especially Stéphane Venturi for his valu-
able contribution on transmissions and power-split drives;

• Guenaël Le Solliec, for writing the insert on prototyping of control laws, Jean-Charles
Dabadie for that on the IFP-Drive library, Alexandre Chasse for that describing the
Prédit HyHiL program, colleagues from the IFP Energies nouvelles Control, Signal
and System department and its manager Gilles Corde for their various contributions to
the methods, results and graphs included in the chapter on energy management;

• Eric Prada, for his contribution to the graphs illustrating the chapter on energy stor-
age, Julien Bernard for his thorough reviewing of Chapter 4 and in particular the sec-
tions on battery electrochemistry, and Yann Creff for his educational insert on SOC
estimation;

• Patrick Boisserpe for his support, inputs and pertinent comments, Mireille Darthenay,
for her extremely thorough and fastidious reviewing of the proofs and the layout with
Éditions Technip, as well as Dominique Allinquant for his unfailing availability to
produce the numerous illustrations in the document.

This book has been enriched by a number of inserts providing an insight external to
IFP Energies nouvelles on scientific studies, technological breakthroughs, and industrial
achievements; the authors therefore wish to thank everyone involved at IFSTTAR, LRCS,
Michelin, Renault and Valeo for their precious contributions on these aspects.

Several colleagues outside IFP Energies nouvelles have also made invaluable scientific
contributions to this book; our special thanks to Professor Jean-Marie Kauffmann for his
involvement, both in writing the chapter on electric drivetrains and reviewing the entire
book, as well as Michel Broussely and Mathieu Morcrette for their advice and thorough
reviewing of the chapter on energy storage.

We also extend our thanks to Philippe Pinchon who, as Director of the Transport Busi-
ness Unit, ordered this book and therefore made this project possible. Thanks also to all
IFP Energies nouvelles heads of department and directors for their support to all the authors
throughout this endeavor.

Lastly, the authors would like to express their gratitude to Olivier Appert, IFP Energies
nouvelles Chairman and CEO, for having accepted to write the preface of this book.

François Badin