MODERN ELECTRIC VEHICLE TECHNOLOGY-OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS

Energy 279

consumption based on the available energy resources (NakiCenoviC et al., 1998).
Therefore, continual development of alternative energy resources and efficient
utilization of oil have recently become key issues in most government strategic
planning around the world.

10.1.1 ENERGY DIVERSIFICATION

Deriving from oil, petrol and diesel are essentially the exclusive fuels for ICEVs.
So, our present transportation means are heavily dependent on oil. EVs are an
excellent solution to regulate this unhealthy dependence because electricity can be
generated by almost all energy resources in the world. Figure 10.2 illustrates the
merit of energy diversification for EVs in which electrical energy can be obtained
from thermal power generation, nuclear power generation, hydropower gener-
ation, tidal power generation, wave power generation, wind power generation,
geothermal power generation, solar power generation, chemical power generation,
and biomass power generation.

Thermal power generation is to combust fossil fuels, hence producing heat
energy, heating up water to form steam, driving the steam turbine, and finally
generating electricity. Three common fossil fuels for this power generation are
coal, oil and natural gas. Coal is the most abundant fossil fuel. As shown in Fig.
10.3, coal contributes about 91% of global fossil reserves, whereas oil and natural
gas are only of 4% and 5%, respectively. Currently, mineable coal reserves exceed
one trillion tonnes which are expected to be large enough to last over 200 years
while the current reserves of oil may last 45 years and natural gas 70 years at
current rates of consumption. Moreover, different from oil and natural gas
reserves that are concentrated in specific regions, coal is widely distributed around
the world. World coal production totals about 4.6 billion tonnes per year, and

Hydropower Chemical power
generation generation

Nuclear power Geothermal
generation power generation

Solar electric Wind power
power generation generation

Thermal Biomass power
power generation generation

Tidal power Wave power
generation generation

Fig. 10.2. Energy diversification for EVs.

280 Energy, environment and economy

Coal 91%

Fig. 10.3. Fossil fuel thermal power generation.

about 70% of the production is being used to generate about 40% of the world’s
electricity. Thus, the use of coal to generate electrical energy for EVs is not only
economically advantageous, but also greatly alleviates the dependence on oil for
transportation.

Nuclear power generation is similar to thermal power generation except that the
heat energy is resulted from nuclear reactions rather than fossil-fuel combustion.
At present, all commercial nuclear power is obtained by fission of very heavy
atoms, which are generally extracted from uranium or thorium ores. Nuclear
power is a main source for electricity generation. In 1996, nuclear power plants
supplied about 23% of the electricity production for countries with nuclear units,
and about 17% of the total electricity generated worldwide. Global and regional
operable nuclear capacities are shown in Fig. 10.4 in which the power levels are
only for indicative purposes. The nuclear generating capacity continues to grow in
some countries especially for those of the Far East. It is estimated that more
fraction of world’s new nuclear capacity will be anticipated in Asia. However,
nuclear power generation faces a complex set of issues including economic com-
petitiveness, social acceptance, and the handling of nuclear waste.

Hydropower generation is basically the conversion from potential energy to
kinetic energy of falling water, hence driving the water turbine and finally gen-
erating electrical energy. The operation of hydropower plant is clean, produces no
emissions nor greenhouse gases, and leaves behind no wastes. Because of simple
operation and no combustion, hydropower can generate electricity with an effi-
ciency as high as 90% which is much higher than that of combustion thermal
power generation. In general, the production cost of hydropower is about one-
third the cost of using fossil fuels or nuclear. Moreover, hydropower does not
experience rising or unstable fuel costs, and its operating cost generally grows
at less than the rate of inflation. The main impacts arising from hydropower
generation are intrusion to local environment and changes to local ecology.

Energy 28 1

Fig. 10.4. Nuclear power generation.

45
40
35

c 30

8 25
9

08 20

a

$15
10
5
0

Fig. 10.5. Hydropower generation.

Naturally, hydropower generation suffers from geographical constraint. About
20% of worldwide electricity is generated by hydropower. Those top hydropower
generation countries are shown in Fig. 10.5 in which the power levels are only for
indicative levels. It is interesting to note that Norway produces more than 99% of
its electricity with hydropower.

282 Energy, environment and economy

Tidal power generation is the most well developed technology to extract ocean
power. It operates on similar principles to hydropower generation. Tidal power is
governed by weather conditions, slope of the continental shelf and the coast. The
total potential tidal power of the world has been estimated to be about 64GW.
This source is non-depletable and pollution free. Some tidal power generation
systems have been constructed in the world. The Rance tidal power plant in
France is the largest one in the world, generating about 240 MW power. The main
drawback of tidal power generation is the ecological problem which may be
caused by the disruption of the environment and change of habitats.

Wave power, similar to tidal power, is a kind of ocean power as it takes the
advantage of ocean waves caused primarily by interaction of winds with the ocean
surface. Since wave power is an irregular and oscillating low-frequency energy
resource, many types of wave energy converters have been developed to extract
energy from surface waves, from pressure fluctuations below the water surface, or
from the full wave. It has been estimated that the wave power along California
coastline is of 4-10 MW/km. The technology is still at the experimental stage.

Wind power generation basically employs wind turbine technology to generate
electricity. It is economical and pollution free, but its security is constrained by
intermittence and unreliability. It has been estimated that the total physical
potential of wind power may accommodate 20% of the global electricity demand.
At present, Germany has already installed the wind power capacity over 1300MW
and Denmark is more than 1000MW. The largest wind power plant, having 112
wind turbines and capable of generating electricity of about 35MW, has been
installed in the United States.

Geothermal power is heat energy contained within the Earth, such as hot
springs, fumaroles, geysers and volcanoes that can be recovered and put to useful
work. Geothermal power generation is to convert those high-temperature (above
150"C) geothermal resources to electricityusing steam or organic vapour turbines.
Similar to other power generation using renewable resources, it is economical and
pollution free. The United States offers the largest geothermal power generation in
the world (over 2700 MW), followed by Philippines with about 890MW, Mexico
with about 700MW, Italy with about 545MW, and New Zealand with about
460 MW. Other countries such as Iceland, Japan and Russia have also installed
geothermal power plants.

Solar power generation is generally classified into two categories, namely solar-
thermal and solar-electric (photovoltaic). Solar-thermal power generation makes
use of the solar radiation incident on the collector to heat a fluid, commonly
water, to its boiling point so that the resultant steam drives a turbine to generate
electricity. At present, more than 350 MW of electricity is generated by commer-
cial solar-thermal power plants in the United States. On the other hand, photo-
voltaic power generation converts the solar photons to electricity directly. The
four countries with the greatest installed photovoltaic power capacity are Ger-
many, Italy, Japan and the United States. The world largest photovoltaic power
plant is located in Italy with electricity capacity of about 3.3 MW.

Energy 283

Chemical power generation is generally based on fuel cell technologies. A fuel
cell is the chemical system in which a fuel (commonly hydrogen) combines with
oxygen to produce electricity with pure water as by-product. Among various types
of fuel cells, the PAFC, MCFC and SOFC are relatively more attractive for power
utilities. The corresponding maximum power levels are of about 5 MW, 100MW
and lOOMW, respectively. It should be noted that the preferred fuel cell is the
SPFC for EV on-board applications. Its maximum power level is of about
1000kW.

Biomass power refers to the energy created by firewood, agricultural residues,
animal wastes, charcoal and other derived fuels. Biomass can be used as a
substitute for conventional fossil fuels for thermal power generation. The corres-
ponding heat is generated by direct combustion of biomass or biomass-derived
products. Those gaseous or liquid biofuels are derived by using thermal conver-
sion, biological conversion and biochemical conversion. Biomass power gener-
ation usually operates on a small to medium scale (under lOOMW), and those
biomass power plants are likely installed in rural locations that are connected to
the distribution network close to the final consumers.

Although various energy resources are widespread over different regions and
different countries, electrical energy can be obtained by using the aforementioned
technologies of power generation. Therefore, the use of electrical energy as the
source for road transportation essentially solves the problems of regional and
national dependence on particular energy resources, especially oil. Moreover, with
the continual development of energy diversification for power generation, the
energy security for road transportation can be achieved.

10.1.2 ENERGY EFFICIENCY

Besides the definite merit of energy diversification resulting from the use of EVs,
another advantage is the high energy efficiency offered by EVs. In order to
compare the overall energy efficiency of EVs with ICEVs, their energy conversion
flows from crude oil to road load are illustrated in Fig. 10.6, where the numerical
data are only for indicative purposes and may have deviations for different
refineries, power plants, power transfers, batteries, EV types, ICEV types or
driving cycles. By taking crude oil as loo%, the total energy efficiencies for EVs
and ICEVs are 18% and 13%, respectively. Therefore, even when all electricity are
generated by oil-fuelled power plants, EVs are more energy efficient than ICEVs
by about 40%. It should be noted that since ICEVs presently spend over 60% of
oil demand in advanced countries, the use of EVs can significant save the con-
sumption of oil, hence saving in both energy and money.

Moreover, EVs possess a definite advantage over ICEVs in energy utilization,
namely regenerative braking. As shown in Fig. 10.7, EVs can recover the kinetic
energy during braking and utilize it for battery recharging, whereas ICEVs waste-
fully dissipate this kinetic energy as heat in the brake discs and drums. With this
technology, the energy efficiency of EVs is virtually boosted up by further 20%.

284 Energy, environment and economy

3100%

Crude oil

1I I I I
ICEVs

Crude oil 1
1

I

87% 83%

100%

Fig. 10.6. Energy efficiencies of EVs and ICEVs.

Fig. 10.7. Energy saving by regenerative braking.

10.2 Environment

Nowadays, ICEVs have been exclusively used for road transportation. Since the
energy source of ICEVs is solely based on oil-derived fuels such as petrol and
diesel, the combustion of these fuels for propulsion inevitably liberates harmful
pollutants to air and generates severe noise to the surroundings. As more and
more people prefer to own a car instead of using public transportation, the
pollution due to road transportation continues to grow and reaches an unhealthy
condition in many advanced cities (Houghton, 1996). It is the time for us to take
action on the use of EVs for road transportation.

10.2.1 TRANSPORTATION POLLUTION

Among various environmental impacts due to road transportation, air pollution is
the major issue. ICEVs not only emit toxic gases and dust that pollute our local
environment, but also release greenhouse gases which cause unnecessary global
warming. Those toxic gases and particulate are directly harmful to our health,
causing respiratory and lung diseases as well as stimulating disastrous cancers.

Environment 285

The next major pollution due to road transportation is noise. It not only distracts
our concentration and causes annoyance, but is also harmful to our hearing sense.

The first step on solving the air pollution problem due to road transportation is
to identify those harmful pollutants generated by ICEVs. In the United States, the
Clean Air Act in 1970 authorized Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to
issue a list of air toxics, and then established regulation to control the spread of
those pollutants. Based on the potential health and environmental hazards, a list
of 189 hazardous air pollutants has been identified, including carbon monoxide
(CO), nitrogen oxides (NO,), sulphur oxides (SO,), volatile organic compounds
(VOCs) and lead molecules. Some hazardous pollutants are commented below:

0 CO is odourless, colourless and highly toxic gas which can reduce the oxygen-
carrying capability of haemoglobin in our blood, thus causing unconscious death.

0 NO2 and SO2 gases are harmful to our respiratory passages and lung. When
dissolving in water or forming acid rain, they cause the impairment of forest as
well as the contamination of lakes and rivers.

0 VOCs such as benzene, ethylene, formaldehyde, methyl chloroform and methyl-
ene chloride are cancerogenic substances,thus very harmful to human and plants.

0 Lead molecules in our environment are very harmful to human, especially the
chddren, because they cause permanent damages to our brain, nervous and digest-
ive systems. In some countries or cities, leaded petrol is becoming prohibited.

Smog is a mixture of fog, smoke and other pollutants, which can be easily
realized whenever there is a reduction in visibility. The influence of smog is not
restricted to urban areas, but also spreads to rural areas. Figure 10.8illustrates the

Emissions

Urban areas Rural areas

Fig. 10.8. Principle of smog formation.

286 Energy, environment and economy

formation of smog. ICEVs are the major source of smog-forming pollutants. As
wind may blow the pollutants away from their sources, they perform photochem-
ical reactions under direct sunlight. These reactions combine the mixture of
hydrocarbons (HC) and NO, to form ground-level ozone, which is the primary
constitution of smog. This ground-level ozone is so highly oxidizing and chem-
ically active that it is corrosive and irritating to our respiratory system. Besides this
ground-level ozone, smog consists of other pollutants (such as VOCs and N02)
that are detrimental to our health, namely the reduction of infection resistance as
well as the irritation of asthma and eyes.

Apart from the pollutants mentioned before, there are other emissions that are
classified as greenhouse gases. The major ingredients of greenhouse gases include
carbon dioxide (C02), methane (CH& nitrous oxide (N20) and chlorofluoro-
carbon (CFC). The main influence of greenhouse gases is the problem of global
warming. Initially, the global temperature of the Earth can be kept constant if the
solar energy absorbed by the Earth is always equal to the energy re-radiated back
to the space. However, the greenhouse gases above the Earth surface prevent the
re-radiated energy from escaping the Earth and hence trap the heat in atmosphere.
As more and more greenhouse gases are emitted, the global temperature continues
to increase, causing permanent changes in the sea level and hence damages to our
global ecology. Among all greenhouse gases, C02 plays the most important role as
it is exclusively dominant over the others. Furthermore, among various sources of
C02 emissions, road transportation is the major source.

Another adverse influence of road transportation to our environment is noise
pollution. Inside the engine of ICEVs, the mixture of air and fuel is burnt in burst
so that the burning gas can push the pistons drastically to provide the desired
mechanical driving force. Such kind of combustion produces a severe noise
problem to our surroundings. Additionally, practical imperfection of gears, belts
and axles along the mechanical transmission of ICEVs is another major source of
annoying noise. Although the noise pollution seems to be less detrimental than the
air pollution, this noise problem is definitely harmful to our health in terms of
concentration and hearing sense.

1 0 . 2 . 2 ENVIRONMENT-SOUND EVS

Nowadays, in many metropolises, ICEVs are responsible for over 50% of hazard-
ous air pollutants and smog-forming compounds. Although the engine of ICEVs
is continually improved to reduce the emitted pollutants, the increase in the
number of ICEVs is much faster than the reduction of emissions per vehicle.
Hence, the total emitted pollutants due to ICEVs continues to grow in a worrying
way.

In order to alleviate or at least control the growth of air pollution due to road
transportation, we need to introduce a new concept of vehicles-zero-emis-
sion vehicles. In October 1990, the California Air Resources Board established
rules that 2% of all vehicles sold in the state between 1998 and 2002 should be

Environment 287

0 uo zu zox mxo; ;
Petrol-fuelled ICEVs Diesel-fuelled ICEVs
ns

EVs

Fig. 10.9. Comparison of local harmful emissions.

emission-free,and 10% of vehicles put on the market must have zero emissions by
2003. Although the Board in 1996decided to scrap the 2% mandate because of the
difficulty for the automobile industry meeting that timetable, it retained the 10%
mandate by 2003. In the foreseeable future, EVs are the most possible choice to
meet the zero-emission criterion. It should be noted that this zero-emission criter-
ion is applied to local emissions rather than global emissions. Figure 10.9 shows a
comparison of those local harmful emissions generated by petrol-fuelled ICEVs,
diesel-fuelled ICEVs and EVs. As expected, EVs offer no local emissions at all. On
the other hand, petrol-fuelled ICEVs emit remarkable toxic gases, especially CO
gas, whereas diesel-fuelled ICEVs produces serious air pollution, particularly dirty
dust. Taking into account the emissions generated by refineries to produce petrol
and diesel for ICEVs as well as the emissions by power plants to generate
electricity for EVs, a comparison of those global harmful emissions is shown in
Fig. 10.10. It can be found that the global harmful emissions of EVs are much
lower than those of ICEVs. Notice that the indicative data in those comparisons
may vary with the fuel used, the efficiency of power plants and the driving cycle of
vehicles.

In additional to low global emissions, the use of EVs offers the possibility of
further reducing the air pollutants by centralized treatment. Since the correspond-
ing global emissions are produced during electricity generation, the pollutants can
be easily collected for centralized treatment. The commonest treatment is to add
filters to adsorb the dirty dust. It should be noted that this centralized treatment is
ill-suited to ICEVs because it is practically impossible to apply expensive treat-
ment to each ICEV.

Besides the reduction of global harmful emissions, the use of EVs can benefit
the reduction of CO2 gas which is the major component of greenhouse gases.
Figure 10.11shows an indicative comparison of those COZgas globally emitted by
petrol-fuelled ICEVs, diesel-fuelled ICEVs and EVs. Increasingly, the effective

288 Energy, environment and economy

s

100

0 EVs
Petrol-fuelledICEVs Diesel-fuelledICEVs

Fig. 10.10. Comparison of global harmful emissions.

3

bJl

ICEVs ICEVs

Fig. 10.11. Comparison of global carbon dioxide emissions.

emissions of C02 gas due to the use of EVs can be further suppressed by collecting
the gas from the power plants for recycling. As shown in Fig. 10.12, a CO2
recycling system has been adopted by Kansai Electric Power in Japan. Firstly,
C02 gas is recovered from the power plant flue gas by chemical absorption
method. It can be extracted with a recovery rate of about 90%. The collected
C02 gas is then liquefied for storage and transportation. Secondly, it is experi-
mentally used to synthesize methanol (CH30H) by the catalytic hydrogenation
method as described by:

+ +C02 3H2 + CH30H H2O.

Environment 289

Liquefied Hydrogen
carbon dioxide formation

Liquefied Carbon dioxide Electric vehicles
carbon dioxide recovery

storage Charging
station

Fig. 10.12. Carbon dioxide recycling system.

The required hydrogen (H2) gas can be produced by utilizing micro-organisms
existing in the natural environment. As illustrated in Fig. 10.13, green algae
produces starch from C02 by photosynthesis in cultivation vessels, then the
resulting starch is decomposed to form organic acid in dark anaerobic fermenta-
tion vessels, hence H2 gas is generated when the organic acid is decomposed by
photosynthetic bacteria in the presence of sunlight. Finally, CH30H resulting
from the whole C02 recycling process is used as an alternative fuel for thermal
power generation.

Certainly, the above-mentioned C02 recycling scheme is not the only way to
reduce greenhouse gases. In fact, the popularity of EVs can stimulate energy
diversification for electricity production and many renewable energy sources such
as hydropower, tidal power, wave power, wind power and solar power produce
zero harmful emissions nor greenhouse gases.

290 Energy, environment and economy

Carbon Photosynthetic Hydrogen
dioxide Algae bacteria

Starch formationby Organic acid formation Hyddreocgoemnpfoosrimtiaotnioonf by
photosynthesis
by starch decomposition organic acid

Fig. 10.13. Hydrogen production by micro-organisms.

1 1 I I IStarting
Running Climbing Braking

Fig. 10.14. Comparison of noise by ICEVs and EVs.

EVs have another definite advantage over ICEVs, namely the suppression of
noise pollution. Different from ICEVs that their combustion engine and compli-
cated mechanical transmission produce severe noise problems to our surround-
ings, EVs are powered by electric motors operating with very low acoustic noise.
Moreover, EVs offer either gearless or single-speed mechanical transmission so
that the corresponding annoying noise is minimum. Actually, the operation of
EVs is too silent that it may not be easy to detect the approaching EVs. Figure
10.14 gives a relative comparison of noise created by ICEVs and EVs during
starting, running and braking.

Economy 29 1

10.3 Economy

As introduced before, it is anticipated that the coming impetus for the commer-
cialization of EVs will be due to the economic opportunity in the 2000s. In
response to the latest California rule that a mandate of 10% of vehicles put on
the market must have zero emissions by 2003, it implies that Californian con-
sumers will buy approximately 400 thousand EVs in 2003. Optimistically, if the
other states adopt the same rule, the total EV sales in the USA will be almost 1800
thousands in 2003 (which is based on the estimation that the total vehicle sales in
the USA will be of 18 millions in 2003). In case other states may not enforce the
same rule or may adopt a slower schedule, a conservative estimation of the total
EV sales in the USA should be about 800 thousands in 2003. Taking into account
some unforeseeable adverse factors, this amount may be reduced to 100 thou-
sands. Apart from the USA, Europe and Asia also actively promote the EV
markets. It has been forecasted that Europe and Asia will create a market size of
50 thousand EVs. It should be noted that the California mandate will be reviewed
periodically, therefore the above estimation may be reviewed in due course. Also,
the ultralow-emission vehicles, HEVs and FCEVs will have certain market share
in the coming years.

On 16 February 2001, the Electric Vehicle Association of the Americas (EVAA)
reported as follows: ‘22 states throughout the USA have introduced legislation
this year that would provide financial and/or non-financial incentives for electric
drive technologies. Examples of innovative financial incentives include legislation
introduced in Connecticut that would provide economic incentives to manufac-
turers who build new, or retool existing, plants to manufacture electric or solar-
powered cars; and Georgia has legislation pending that would require, beginning
in Model Year 2003, that 5% of the state-owned motor vehicles be alternatively-
fuelled. This percentage would ramp up to 75% by Model Year 2012 and there-
after. In order to encourage the use of neighbourhood EVs (NEVs), Hawaii has
introduced a bill that would create a task force within the department of business,
economic development, and tourism to develop state policy to convert the state
motor pool to EVs, including NEVs. Finally, providing access to high occupancy
vehicle (HOV) lanes to single-occupant drivers of battery EVs, hybrids and/or
other alternative fuel vehicles is one of the non-financial incentives being intro-
duced in state houses across the country. Arizona, Florida, Georgia, Texas, Utah
and Washington all have introduced bills that would provide single-occupant
drivers of some or all of these types of vehicles access to HOV lanes. Moreover,
there are a variety of incentives that states are considering to promote the pur-
chase and use of battery, hybrid electric and fuel cell cars, trucks and buses
throughout the USA’.

In face of such potential markets, new economic opportunities must be enor-
mous. Hence, the global economy can be benefited from the sustainable growth of
zero-emission and ultralow-emission vehicles. Since different countries have dif-
ferent vehicle mileages, petrol/diesel prices, electricityprices and energy scenarios,

292 Energy, environment and economy

the corresponding economic benefits may be different. We expected that the most
beneficial businesses are automobile companies, power utilities, battery manufac-
turers, electric motor manufacturers, and other EV auxiliary manufacturers. It
should be noted that the worldwide development and markets of existing vehicles
have been monopolized by several countries for many decades, and it is hardly
possible or at least very difficult for other countries to chase the technological
development or to share a reasonable amount of markets. The new EV markets
open up this possibility because the development of EVs has not yet been mon-
opolized. As experienced by the developers of ICEVs, a successful developer of
EVs can bring the country enjoying a drastic growth of economy. Therefore, it is
anticipated that the coming impetus for the commercialization of EVs will be due
to economy.

The key issues of successfullycommercializing and promoting EVs lie in how to
produce low-cost, good performance EVs; how to leverage the initial investment;
and how to provide an efficient infrastructure. The overall strategy should take
into account how to fully utilize the competitive edge, to share the market and
resources, and to produce EVs that can meet the market demand. Although
specific strategies may vary with different manufacturers and countries, and are
very complex, the key element is the willingness and commitment of manufacturers
and their industrial partners, governments and public authorities, electric utilities
and users. It is negative to say, ‘Let the market decide’. Market forces are just
abstract concept, derived from individuals who have different interests. Therefore,
a wise initial strategy and agreement on market penetration are essential.

The key of success is two integrations. First is the integration of society
strength, which includes government’s policy support, financing and venture
capital’s interest, incentives for industry, and technical support from academic
institutions. Second is the integration of technical strength, that is the effective
integration of the state-of-the-art technologies of automobile, electrical, elec-
tronic, chemical and material engineering.

At the beginning, EVs cannot compete with ICEVs in every application. There-
fore, it is important to identify the niche markets that are feasible, consequently to
identify the required technical specifications, and to adopt the system integration
and optimization. In order to achieve cost effectiveness, a unique design approach
and a unique manufacturing process should be developed. Excellent after-sales
service and effective infrastructure are also essential. Figure 10.15 shows the basic
considerations of government, industry and market. Although the viewpoint and
emphases of these three parties are not identical, if these three parties are willing to
cooperate and commit, a common interest and awareness can be achieved. This
implies that the corresponding common area will be bigger, and hence the chance
of success will be greater.

Since EVs are not traditional vehicles, innovative marketing strategies and
programmes should be developed so that the financier, manufacturer and cus-
tomer can cooperate together at the win-win situation. As mentioned before, the
major obstacles of marketing EVs are the short range and high initial cost.

Economy 293

Price & fuel economy
Performance
Comfort

Industrial leadership

Fig. 10.15. Government, industry and market.

However, we should look into the overall economic analysis throughout the life
cycle of EVs. The total cost of EVs including two parts: initial cost and operating
cost. The initial cost of EVs is much higher than that of ICEVs due to the use of
batteries as the energy storage device, while the energy storage device in ICEVs,
namely the fuel tank, represents only a minor fraction of the total vehicle cost. In
order to relieve the burden of the EV customer, it is proposed to lease the battery,
so that the initial cost of the EVs mainly only consists of the cost of the chassis,
body and propulsion system. Thus, the initial cost of EVs can be comparable or
even cheaper than that of ICEVs if mass produced. Then, the operating cost of
EVs will include three parts: maintenance cost, fuel cost and battery rental cost.
According to the statistic of EV operation in various countries, the maintenance
cost of EVs accounts only 25-50% of that of ICEVs. The ratio of fuel cost of EVs
to ICEVs varies in different countries, since the oil price depends on the energy
resource, energy policy and tax system of different countries. In general, the oil
price in the USA is much cheaper than in some Asian countries, such as China.
Again, the electricity price depends on the primary energy used and price, effi-
ciency of the power system and the energy policy of different countries. Generally,
the ratio of fuel cost of EVs to ICEVs is much cheaper in China as compared to
that in the USA. The author has made an overall cost comparison of electric
public minivans and diesel-engine public minivans in Hong Kong based on annual
operation of 50 000 km and using the battery leasing programme. Taking into
account a reasonable profit of the battery leasing company, the total annual
operating cost of electric minivans is cheaper than that of diesel minivans. The
saving of the operating cost is sufficient to compensate the higher initial cost of

294 Energy, environment and economy

electric minivans within a duration of several years. This is because even without
the battery, the initial cost of electric minivans may still be more expensive than
that of diesel minivans, due to the absence of mass production.

The battery leasing company may be a joint venture among the battery manu-
facturer, battery dealer, electric power utility and oil company. This company
owns the battery, leases the battery, provides charging and other services to the
customer, and is responsible for the recycling of the battery. Since such a large
quantity of batteries is managed by a leading company, it must be more cost-
effective. The abovesaid programme will not only release the initial financial
burden of the EV customer, but also relieve the psychology burden of the EV
customer. Whenever the customer has a problem, he or she just needs to go to the
service station. Depending on the customer’s situation, the company may adopt fast
charging, occasional charging, normal charging or battery swapping (the battery
will be recharged during the off-peak demand of the power system), thus it can
leverage the energy demand and hence increase the overall energy efficiency.

Another example of innovative marketing programme is by the introduction of
innovation-bond proposed by Abt (Abt, 2000). The innovative manufacturer must
have a well proven product, know the investment required for mass production,
know the price for large scale of sales, and know the production period. The bank
issues the innovation-bond with its price, the same as the EV price, its interest rate
as low as government bonds, and its duration valid until the delivery of EV. The
buyer will receive interest from the bond, and will receive good product or money
back after expiration of the bond. The buyer can sell the bond to someone else.
The procedure of marketing is as follows: the customer buys the innovation-bond
from the bank, while the bank grants credit to the innovative manufacturer, and
the manufacturer supplies good product at low price to the customer. Thus, the
innovative manufacturer can benefit from minimized investment risk, can get
lower interest rates of loan from the bank and can predict the market. The
customer has no risk, since he or she is paid with interest rates comparable to
government bonds by purchasing the bond and waiting the product. The bank is
the biggest winner of all, because the bank will charge the manufacturer for issuing
the bond, and will charge the customer a handling fee. The major profit of the
bank may come from the interest gain, since the bank will charge a higher interest
rate than government bonds for the credit granted to the manufacturer, and the
risk of granting such loan is minimized. Although there are inevitable difficulties
in implementing the idea of innovation-bond, creative EV marketing schemes
should be developed to make commitment to the financier, manufacturer and
customer with the support of government’s policy. Other innovative EV market-
ing programmes with the aid of information technology should also be developed
to suit different situations in different countries and regions.

The present EV market situation can be described as the following adverse circle
of chain reaction: high initial price +low consumer satisfaction + low demand +
lack interest of investment + no mass-production lines + no large-scale sales +

high initial price. . .

Economy 295

This situation must be changed by the following favourable circle of chain
reaction: keen interest of investment + mass production lines + large-scale sales
4 low initial price 4 high consumer satisfaction 4 high demand 4 keen interest

of investment. ..

We should strive for a Clean, Efficient, Intelligent and Sustainable transporta-
tion means for the 21st Century.

References

Abt, D. (2000). The innovation-bond: an instrument for the broad market introduction of
electric vehicles. Proceedings of the 17th International Electric Vehicle Symposium, CD-
ROM.

Assessment of Electric Vehicle Impacts on Energy, Environment and Transportation Systems.
International Energy Agency, 1999.

Chan, C.C. (2000). The 21st Century Green Transportation Means-Electric Vehicles.
National Key Book Series in Chinese, Tsing Hua University Press, Beijing.

Houghton, J.T. (1996). Climate Change 1995: The Science of Climate Change. Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge.

Electric Vehicle. Energia, 1996.
Electric Vehicle. Kansai Electric Power, 1996.
Electric Vehicle. Kyushu Electric Power, 1996.
Electric Vehicle-Current Situation and Perspectives. VARTA Batteries, 1996.
E V Town 21. Japan Electric Vehicle Association, 1996.
Http://eia.doe.gov/.
Http://www.epa.gov/.
Http://www.hydro.org/.
Http://www.iea.org/.
NakiCenoviC, N., Griibler, A. and McDonald, A. (1998). Global Energy Perspectives. Cam-

bridge University Press, Cambridge.
Preserving The Global Environment-Carbon Dioxide Recycling Research Facility. Kansai

Electric Power, 1996.
State Legislative Alert. EVAA Leaflet, 2001.

INDEX

Index Terms Links

# 75 82

10.15 mode, see driving cycle 94–114 237

A 114 128

Ac motor 114 119
induction motor
PM hybrid motor 133–149 237
PM synchronous motor
switch reluctance motor 42

Acceleration 57–63
full-throttle
vehicle performances 14 44 242

Acid fuel cells 170
phosphoric acid (PAFC)
170
Adaptive control
Advanced conduction angle control 101 107
Aerodynamic drag
Air conditioning 127–128

air-conditioner 41 237
Alkaline fuel cell (AFC)
Aluminium/air 217 223
Ambient-temperature lithium
217
Li–Polymer battery
171

154 161

164

164 238

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Index Terms Links

Ambient-temperature lithium (Cont.) 165 195 202
Li–Ion battery 238
91 233
Armature control 192 225
Auxiliary power 221
222–224 220–224
auxiliary battery 218–220 99
auxiliary power supplies 30
fan 82
power steering 267–268
Auxiliary resonant snubber (ARS)
AVERE

B

Battery 153–168 192–224 239
ambient-temperature 164 214
battery indication 214 151
battery management methods 207–208 196
battery model 192 55 163
battery swapping stations 241 193 159–166
capacity 153 190
charging characteristics 258–259 156
C rate 54 198
discharging characteristics 196 188
efficiency
152
energy density 193
evaluation 43
gassing 186
hybrid 152
166
156
13
247

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Index Terms Links

Battery (Cont.) 22 155–157 199
lead–acid 165 195 202
Li–Ion 238
164 238 199
Li–Polymer 160 162 269
metal/air 157–160
nickel-based 157 192
self discharge 23 162
sodium-ß 154 156 227–232
state-of-charge (SOC) 152
274 268
temperature 164 183
Battery charger 192–207
Braking 179 189
228 233
configuration 230
control 227–230
hydraulic braking 11
regenerative 10
Body design

C

C rate 152 193 196
Capacitor 12 178–183 187–190
269
double layer capacitor 180 254–259
Carbon dioxide gas 286 207
Charger 192–207
203–205
conductive 202
inductive 196
Charging characteristic

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Index Terms Links

Chopper 79 88 69
Climbing 33 42 245
181 188
Clutch 31 52 121
Columbia 16 60 224
Complex hybrid 50 28
Conductive charger 203–205 94 153–156
Control 83 293
107 101 237–238
adaptive 91 101–104
armature 139 152–153
current chopping 110 88 178
efficiency-optimizing 91–94 11 196
field 104 140
field-oriented 112 254–260
pole-changing 108 40
sliding-mode 91
speed 75 23
variable-voltage variable-frequency 79 165–168
Converter
Cost 8 188
35–40
Curb weight 166–168
Current demand impact
Current demand minimization 10
Cycle life 272
272
Cycles, see driving cycle 12
157–159
183

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Index Terms Links

Charging system 254–259
fast charging current 255
medium charging current 255
normal charging current 255
262
CEN

D

Dc motor 84–88 117
configuration 84 49 287
151 31 37–38
Depth of discharge (DOD) 29 95 113
Diesel 10
Differential 70 221 245
241 11 45
differential gear 95
Direct methanol fuel cell (DMFC) 175
Discharging characteristic 193
Domestic charging 255
Drive
38–40
inner-rotor 40
in-wheel 39
Driveability 14
Driving cycle 8
ECE
European driving cycle 46–47
FUD48 46–47
FUD72
FUDS 47
Japan 0.15 mode 47
SAE J227 46
46–48
46–48

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Index Terms Links

Dual-motor 70
Domestic charging 255

E

ECE, see driving cycle 291 110
Economy 11 43–44 238
Efficiency 43 69
43
maps 10
power 222
Efficiency-optimizing control 110
Electric power steering 16
Electric propulsion 221
Electrobat 78
Electrohydraulic power steering 37 38
Electromagnetic interference (EMI)
Electronic differential 19 46 168
EMC, see Electromagnetic interference 263–265 280 286–291
Emission 151–190 278–284
12 192–224
Energy 153–168 239
battery 189
biomass 279 262 213
chemical 279 279
consumption 42–43
239
diversification 279
efficiency 283
flow
fuel cells 29
geothermal 168–178

279

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Index Terms Links

Energy (Cont.) 187–190 286 189
hybridization 279
hydropower 13 178–182
management 279 182–190
nuclear 279
solar
source 151–190
thermal 279
tidal 279
ultracapacitor 153
ultrahigh-speed flywheel 153
wave 279
wind 279

Environment 284–291
Equal area PWM 98
EVAA 267
EVAAP
267

F

Fast charging stations 257
FHDS, see driving cycle
Field control 91 94
Field-oriented control 104
Force parameter 41
41
aerodynamic drag
rolling resistance 42
climbing 42
acceleration 42
Front-wheel drive 31
FUDS, see driving cycle

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Index Terms Links

Fuel cell 168–178
acid 170
alkaline 171
direct methanol 175
evaluation 176
fuel cell electric vehicle (FCEV) 20
molten carbonate 172
proton exchange membrane (PEM) 173
solid oxide 173
solid polymer 173

G 35 31 40
35 71 33
Gearing 14 63–66
fixed gearing 51 24
gear ratio 71 51–52 263
71
geared-motor 12 239
gearless motor 37–40 284–289
planetary gear 71
35
variable gearing 287
Global emission 278
Global energy consumption 226
Global navigation 42
Gradeability 280
Greenhouse gas 40
Gross weight

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Index Terms Links

H 269 53
268
Harmonic compensation 33–34 159–161
Harmonic impact 49–50 283 289
Hill climbing, see climbing 53
Hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) 52
52
complex hybrid 51
parallel hybrid
series hybrid 187
series–parallel hybrid 247
Hybridization 190
hybridization ratio 188
long-term 243
near-term 227–230
optimization
Hydraulic braking 20
Hydrogen 169–175

I 75 94–113 237
95
Induction motor 104
configuration 97–101
field-oriented control 101–104
inverter 205
speed control 254–276
54
Inductive charger 38
Infrastructure
Internal combustion engine (ICE)
In-wheel drives

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Index Terms Links

L

Lead–acid battery 22 154–155 197
230 263 202
Lithium–ion 165 195
238
Lithium–polymer 164
Local emission 287
Local navigation 226

M

Matlab 235 169–170 175–178
Magnetic bearing 184–185 234 237
Management 283
Metal/air 7 117
160
Al/Air 162 94–113
Zn/Air 161
Methanol 21 118
288 116
Mixed-signal simulation
Molten carbonate fuel cells 14
Motor drive 172–176

dc 69–74
dc–dc converters 84
electric propulsion 88
induction 67
multiple-motor 75
PM 37
PM brushless 114
PM dc 76
74

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Index Terms Links

Motor drive (Cont.) 37 237
single-motor 133–147
switched reluctance
259
Move-and-charge zones

N

Navigation systems 225 199 202
local navigation 226 200 202
l57
Nickel-based battery 157–158 76
nickel–cadmium 158–159
nickel–metal hydride 159–160
nickel–zinc 67
237–238
Noise 256

Normal charging stations

O

Occasional charging stations 257
Optimization 243

P

Parallel hybrid 50 55
Payload 40 67
237–238
Payment system 260 114
PM hybrid motor 128 242
Performance 44
44
acceleration rate 45
maximum speed 44
range per charge

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Index Terms Links

PM brushless motor 118 29 49
PM material 116 169 178
PM synchronous motor 119 279 285
Petrol 175–176
13 283
Phosphoric acid fuel cell (PAFC) 161 257
Photovoltaic 254
Planetary gear 291
Pole-changing control 170
Power flow control 282
51
block diagram 112
complex hybrid control 53–55
parallel hybrid control
series hybrid control 56
series–parallel hybrid control 60
Power electronics 55–56
Power steering units 55–56
Promotion 55
Proton exchange membrane (PEM) 77–79
Public charging 220
battery swapping 267
fast charging 173
infrastructure 256
move-and-charge zones 258
normal charging 255
occasional charging 256
259
255
257

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Index Terms Links

R

Range 3 10 14
40 44 48–49
Recharging 152
43 208 256
Regenerative braking 272
Regulations 11 189 227–230
Road load 264
Rolling resistance 41–44 213 238
41–42

S

SAE 262 163–166 199
Self-discharge 157–158 52
Series hybrid 55 196–197
Series–parallel hybrid 50 261–262
Simulation 50 163
233 229
system level 233
Single-motor 70
Sliding model control 108
Smog 285–286
Sodium-ß batteries 162
163
sodium/nickel chloride 163
sodium/sulphur 81
Soft switching 173
Solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) 173
Solid polymer fuel cell (SPFC) 55
Safety 224

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Index Terms Links 156 270
192 220–226
Standards 260–261
State-of-charge (SOC) 152 243
275 233
Steering 30
Swapping
Switched reluctance motor 258–259
133
control 143
design 141
operation 135
System optimization 13
System-level simulation 11

T 219
217
Thermoelectric variable temperature seats 265
Temperature control units 245
Training 37 241
Transmission
37 70
efficiency 245
fixed-gearing 284
transmission ratio
Transportation pollution 178
179
U 181
179
Ultracapacitor
design
evaluation
feature

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Index Terms Links

Ultrahigh-speed flywheel 182
design 183
evaluation 187
feature 183
154
USABC
219
V
75 101 113
Variable temperature seat
Vector control 88–89 118
Voltage control
40 202
W 40 87
40
Weight parameter 40
battery 40
curb 40
definitions 40
drivetrain 40
gross 40 67
inertia 237
maximum 11 75–77
payload 96 116

Winding 19
161
Z

Zero emission vehicle (ZEV)
Zinc/air

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