Resource Handbook 529
in which members of one group would be given a treatment (i.e., smoking) that might
lead to their deaths. Much of the research on effective teaching is also correlational re-
search. For example, the many studies that show strong relationships between certain
features of classroom management and student learning, such as Kounin’s classical
study described in Chapter 5, are nearly all correlational.
In the study of teaching, the researcher is usually interested in finding relationships
between some type of teacher behavior and student learning. Although very useful in
education, it is important to keep in mind that correlational research does not establish
cause and effect among variables, only relationships. More is said about this later.
Causal-Comparative Research
Many times in education, variables of interest to the researcher cannot be manipulated
experimentally, and data must be used from already defined groups. A method used to
explore causal relationships in this situation is the causal-comparative method. In this
type of research, unlike experimental research, the independent variable is not manip-
ulated by the researcher because it already exists. Researchers compare two groups:
subjects (normally in already existing groups) for whom a particular trait or pattern ex-
ists and similar subjects for whom it is absent. Two examples are given here. In both ex-
amples, the researcher studied variables that already exist and groups (classrooms)
already defined.
• A researcher believes teachers are more critical toward Hispanic students than to-
ward Anglo students. The researcher records teacher behaviors and then compares
the teachers’ interactions with the two groups. The independent variable in this
case is ethnic origin—a trait in students that obviously already exists and is not
manipulated.
• A researcher is interested in the attitudes of students toward school in two classrooms—
one in which the teacher is using cooperative learning strategies, the other in which
the teacher relies mainly on direct instruction. Attitudes are measured in the two class-
rooms and compared. Again, the independent variable (cooperative learning versus
direct instruction) is a condition that already exists in the classroom and is not one the
researcher manipulated.
In causal-comparative studies, differences between means are most often observed.
The statistical tests employed are similar to those used in experimental research. This
differs from correlational studies, in which the correlation coefficient is observed. Like
correlational research, the results from causal-comparative studies are limited and
must be interpreted with care because it is not clear whether the variables observed are
a cause or a result or whether some third factor is present that may be influencing both
the independent and dependent variables.
Statistical Concepts and Research Conventions
The vast majority of educational research involves measuring individual or group traits
that produce quantitative data. Over the years, researchers have developed statistical
procedures to help organize, analyze, and interpret their data. To read and to use research
requires an understanding of some of the basic procedures and agreed-on conventions
used by researchers. There is nothing magical about statistics or about symbols used by
researchers. They are merely a means to communicate clearly and objectively. They may,
530 Resource Handbook • www.mhhe.com/arends9e
however, appear mysterious to the novice. Brief descriptions of several key ideas can help
beginning teachers understand research and perhaps motivate further study.
Sampling
Because it is obviously impossible to study all teachers or all students, educational re-
searchers must, out of necessity, confine their studies to a small portion, or sample, of
a total population. An example of this technique is the sampling done by market re-
searchers to find out which TV shows people watch. From the millions of viewers at a
given programming hour, researchers poll as few as fifteen hundred to two thousand
persons selected from known segments of the viewing population. Users of market re-
search ratings accept the results because they know that what the sample is watching
represents (more or less) the habits of the total viewing audience.
The way a sample is selected is very important—if it does not accurately represent
the intended larger population, the results will obviously be biased. A famous mistake
in sampling occurred in the 1948 presidential election when a sample of citizens drawn
from telephone directories across the country the night before the election indicated
that Thomas Dewey, the Republican candidate, would be elected. The next day, how-
ever, Harry Truman, the Democratic candidate, was elected. Upon analysis, the polling
firm discovered that in 1948, many voters still did not have telephones, and those with-
out phones, who could not be included in the sample, were more prone to vote Demo-
cratic. Drawing a sample from the telephone directory was not appropriate if the
pollsters wanted to know what the total population of voters was going to do. Today,
concerns have been expressed about how representative samples are when they are
drawn from people who have land telephones during an era when many people use
only wireless. When reading reports of educational research, it is important to study
carefully the sampling techniques used by the researcher.
Randomness
The concept of randomness is also very important in educational research. Usually ran-
dom sampling or random assignment to groups means that individuals in any popula-
tion have an equal chance of being selected for study. In survey research, this means that
the researcher strives to define the total population of people he or she is going to study
and then decides by chance which ones will be chosen for study. In experiments in which
one group is to receive a special treatment and the other to serve as a control, the re-
searcher is careful that subjects are assigned to one of the two groups on a random basis.
The logic behind random sampling or random assignment to groups is that by using this
procedure, the sample or the groups under investigation will have the same characteris-
tics. This, however, is not always the case. For example, just as there is a chance, although
very small, of flipping heads in a coin toss one hundred times in a row, there is also al-
ways a chance that a random sample will indeed not represent the total population or
that two groups assigned at random will differ from one another in important ways.
Numbers and Conventions
Researchers also use certain conventions to organize and report the results of their
work to others.
Mean Scores. In many of the research studies summarized in this book as well as else-
where, researchers report mean scores that allow comparison of one group with another.
A mean score is nothing more than an average score and is calculated by adding all
Resource Handbook 531
scores and dividing by the number of cases. The reporting convention of researchers is
to use the symbol x- or M to designate the mean score and the symbol N to communi-
cate to readers the number of cases used to compute a particular mean. Mean scores are
used to perform many of the statistical tests employed in educational research.
Standard Deviation. Standard deviation (SD) is another statistic that provides infor-
mation about a set of scores. This statistic, found in many data tables, indicates the
spread of a particular set of scores from the mean. Differences in means as well as dif-
ferences in standard deviation are used to compute tests of statistical significance. The
symbol SD is the most common convention for reporting standard deviation.
Correlation and Correlation Coefficients. Correlation expresses the degree to which
a relationship exists between two or more variables. Familiar examples are the rela-
tionship between student IQ and student achievement, and the relationship between
particular teaching behaviors (keeping students on task) and student achievement. An-
other is the relationship between a person’s height and his or her performance on the
basketball court.
To express these relationships in mathematical terms, researchers use a statistic called
the correlation coefficient. A correlation coefficient can range from ϩ1.00 through .00 to
Ϫ1.00. The sign does not have the traditional mathematical meaning. Instead, a plus sign
represents a positive relationship, a minus sign a negative relationship. Thus, .00 means
no relationship exists, ϩ1.00 means a perfect relationship exists, and Ϫ1.00 means a per-
fect reverse relationship exists. As observed in many of the studies summarized in this
book, few instances are found in education (or any other aspect of human behavior)
where perfect positive or negative relationships exist.
As described earlier, an important thing to remember about correlational studies and
correlational coefficients is that even though they may show relationships among vari-
ables, they do not explain cause and effect. As an example, many studies show a positive
relationship between students’ time on task and academic achievement. Consequently, it
is assumed that teachers who can keep students on task more will produce superior scores
on achievement tests. Although this may be true, the time-on-task principle could be
turned around. It could be logically argued that it is not time on task that produces achieve-
ment, but instead it is high-achieving students who produce high time-on-task ratios.
Tests of Significance. In any empirical research on human behavior, there is always
the possibility that a specific outcome is the result of chance instead of some presumed
relationship that is being studied. Researchers have developed a procedure called the
test of statistical significance to help decide whether research results are indeed true or
perhaps a matter of chance. Several different tests of significance are observed in the re-
search reports found in this book. The main idea to remember is that when researchers
use the word significance, they are using it differently than in common usage, where it
normally means important. In the language of researchers, statistical significance
means the degree of truth rather than chance that they assign to their results. In gen-
eral, researchers agree that differences between two sets of scores are statistically sig-
nificant if they could occur by chance only one to five times out of one hundred. When
you read the research reports in this text you will often see the notation p Ͻ .01 or
p Ͻ .05. This means that the probability (p) of such results occurring by chance is less
than (Ͻ) one time out of one hundred (.01) or five times out of one hundred (.05).
Effect Size. Finally, a convention labeled effect size has been used recently as an alter-
native to the more traditional “test of significance.” Most often it is used when the results
of a number of studies are synthesized. Effect size (Glass, 1982) shows how much larger
532 Resource Handbook • www.mhhe.com/arends9e
or smaller one can expect an average score to be when a particular experimental method
(teaching strategy, curriculum, technology) is used as compared to a situation where
some type of control group does not use the method. There are various approaches to
measuring and using effect size. For our purposes here, effect size is computed by divid-
ing the difference between two means (experimental and control) and then dividing it by
the standard deviation (described previously) of the control group. According to Cohen
(1988), effect sizes can also be interpreted in terms of the percent of nonoverlap of the ex-
perimental group's scores with those of the control group (pp. 21–23). An ES of 0.0 indi-
cates that the distribution of scores for the experimental group overlaps completely with
the distribution of scores for the control group. In contrast, an ES of 1.7 indicates a
nonoverlap of 75.4 percent in the two distributions. Thus, research that reports a more
positive effect size tells the reader that a particular strategy or method has a tendency to
enhance student learning.
Reading and Keeping Abreast of Research
Reading Research with a Critical Eye
Most research in education today is subjected to a review process before it is published.
Nonetheless, a teacher who is reading and using the results of research should learn to
approach studies with a critical eye. Some things to look out for, as summarized from
Gall, Borg, and Gall (2002) and Bracy (2006), are:
• Look for deliberate bias. Although the goal of research is to discover truth, sometimes
research is done to convince others of a point of view or of the effectiveness of a par-
ticular educational program. Readers of research look to see whether the researcher
has anything to gain if the results turn out in a particular way. If so, the possibility
of bias is greatly increased, and the study has to be examined very carefully. This
does not mean, however, that all inventors of new programs or approaches who also
conduct research on their inventions will deliberately bias the results.
• Look for nondeliberate bias. Sometimes bias enters into research without the researchers
being aware of it. As with many other aspects of life, distortion can exist and influ-
ence us without our knowing it.
• Consider the possibility of sampling bias. Sampling bias is something that plagues edu-
cational research because it is so difficult to get random samples from total popula-
tions. However, as you learned in a previous section, if a sample contains bias,
results can be spurious. Studies in which volunteers have been used, where many
subjects have been lost from the sample, or in which intact groups have been used
for convenience purposes should raise red flags for readers and users of research.
• Strive to uncover how variables are constructed and manipulated. Try to see if the researcher
has made errors in logic or if the way variables have been manipulated has been po-
litically motivated.
• Watch for observer and measurement bias. Human beings have a tendency to see what
they want to see, hear what they want to hear, and remember what they want to re-
member. Even though researchers go to great lengths to guard against observer bias,
they are always open to subtle error. Looking at observation instruments or proto-
cols to see if the researcher has included features to ensure objectivity and looking
at interview questions for leading or threatening questions are means to check
whether observer bias has influenced the results of a study.
Resource Handbook 533
• Analyze how conclusions are drawn in the study. Readers should study very carefully
and decide whether or not the conclusions of a piece of research are consistent with
the data presented.
Reading a Research Report: An Example
It is time now to see if you can apply these research concepts to an actual research
report. Read the research summary in Chapter 10 and then consider the following
questions:
1. What assumptions about the nature of scientific knowledge are embedded in the
study?
2. Is the study an example of descriptive, experimental, correlational, or causal-
comparative research?
3. What variables were studied? Which variables are the independent variables?
Which are the dependent variables?
4. Where would these variables fit in the model described in Figure R1.1?
5. How did the researchers use the mean statistic? From studying the scores and fre-
quencies and tests of significance, what conclusions would you draw?
6. Based on your conclusion, what might you say about the impact of cooperative
learning?
7. Which forms of bias do you find in the study? Deliberate bias? Nondeliberate bias?
Observer bias? What about the sample? Is it biased?
8. What are the strengths of the study? What are the limitations?
Keeping Abreast of Research
Once one starts teaching full time, it is sometimes difficult to keep up with research.
There are just so many other things to do. Fortunately, there are special services avail-
able to teachers that can cut down the time needed to keep abreast of the research on
teaching and learning. Beginning in the mid-1960s, the federal government became
more interested in educational research and created several services to encourage the
dissemination of educational research to classroom teachers. Two of these services can
be useful to the beginning teacher.
Regional Educational Laboratories. Knowing that most research and research centers
were not directly applicable to classroom teachers, regional educational laboratories were
created in 1964 to translate research into classroom materials and strategies and to dis-
seminate the results to teachers. Even though their budgets do not allow direct assistance
in every classroom in their region, laboratory staffs hold many useful workshops and are
eager to have classroom teachers visit their labs and learn about the work they are doing.
These laboratories also provide opportunities for the more energetic teachers to partici-
pate in ongoing research and development projects. Information about each of the ten Re-
gional Educational Laboratories (REL) can be obtained from the REL Web sites.
Educational Research Information Centers. In the mid-1960s, the federal government
began to put together a network of educational research information centers called ERICs,
sponsored by the U.S. Department of Education. ERIC clearinghouses or centers are
charged with three major tasks: (1) collecting the available knowledge on topics asso-
ciated with various specialized areas of education; (2) organizing this information so it
can be retrieved via computers from any place in the United States; and (3) summariz-
ing these data in short bulletins and papers on topics of particular interest to teachers
and other educators.
534 Resource Handbook • www.mhhe.com/arends9e
The heart of the ERIC system is the ERIC database, which contains over 1.3 million ab-
stracts and documents on educational research and practice. This database can be accessed
online via the Internet and through abstract journals available in libraries. All libraries in
major universities and many large school districts or intermediate educational agencies
have direct computer connections to ERIC. To get started, you may want to contact a per-
son in your library who can show you how to access ERIC and conduct online searches.
That person will discuss the type of topic about which you would like research informa-
tion and then perform an online search to give you an example of the types of articles and
reports that are available.
Library Digital Resources. Today all university libraries as well as many public li-
braries provide users with an array of digital resources. These include e-journals and
full-text availability from many resource providers such as EBSCOhost, LexisNexis,
and Academic Search Premier. To get started using digital resources, contact library
personnel or visit your library’s Web site.
Handbook 2 Using Learning to Teach to Prepare
for the PRAXIS II™: Principles of Learning
and Teaching Exam
This handbook is designed to help students who use Learning to Teach to prepare for the
PRAXIS II™: Principles of Learning and Teaching exam. This study resource shows
where particular PRAXIS™ topics are covered in Learning to Teach and which Portfolio
and Field Experience activities can contribute to important PRAXIS™ understanding
and skills. There are three “Principles of Learning and Teaching” tests: Grades K–6,
Grades 5–9, and Grades 7–12. However, the topics covered in the three tests are identi-
cal and are the same as the topics we include below.
This handbook also identifies the INTASC Principles and shows their relationships
to the PRAXIS™ topics and the content of Learning to Teach.
Practice questions based on the PRAXIS II™ exam are available on the Online Learn-
ing Center.
To help students prepare for the Praxis II™ Principles of Learning and Teaching exam,
we recommend that they visit the ETS Web site at www.ets.org/praxis for a full descrip-
tion of the exam, a listing of content covered, sample questions, and information about
study resources available. The ETS Web should also be consulted to see if the PRAXIS
topics have been modified subsequent to the publication of Learning to Teach, 9e.
PRAXIS™ Topics INTASC Principle Learning to Teach Learning to Teach
Content Activities
I. Students as Principle #2: Teacher
Learners understands how
children learn and
A. Student Development develop and can provide
and the Learning learning opportunities
Process that support their
intellectual, social, and
personal development.
Resource Handbook 535
PRAXIS™ Topics INTASC Principle Learning to Teach Learning to Teach
Content Activities
1. Theoretical foundations
about how learning Throughout, especially Activity 2.1;
occurs: how students Chs. 2, 7–13 All Activities Chs. 7–12
construct knowledge,
acquire skills, and Chs. 9, 13 Activities 2.1–2.5
develop habits of mind. Chs. 11, 13
Chs. 2, 13
• Examples of important Chs. 2, 13
theorists: Chs. 4, 8
• Jean Piaget Chs. 1, 11
• Lev Vygotsky Ch. 11
• Howard Gardner Chs. 7, 11
• Robert Sternberg Chs. 11, 13
• Albert Bandura
Chs. 2, 7–13
• Important terms that Chs. 7–9
relate to learning Ch. 7
theory: Chs. 7, 9
Ch. 8
• Constructivism
• Co-construction Chs. 2, 13
• Scaffolding
• Zone of proximal Chs. 9, 13
Chs. 11, 13
development Chs. 2, 13
• Learning
• Knowledge Chs. 2, 13
• Memory
• Schemas
• Transfer
2. Human development
in the physical, social,
emotional, moral, and
cognitive domains
• Contribution of
important theorists:
• Jean Piaget
• Lev Vygotsky
• Carol Gilligan
• Major progressions in
each developmental
domain and the
ranges of individual
variation within
each domain
• Impact of students’
physical, social,
emotional, moral,
and cognitive
development on
their learning and
how to address
these factors when
making decisions
536 Resource Handbook • www.mhhe.com/arends9e
PRAXIS™ Topics INTASC Principle Learning to Teach Learning to Teach
Content Activities
• How development in Principle #3: Teachers Activities 2.1–2.5
one domain, such understand how Chs. 2, 7–13 Activities 13.1–13.5
as physical, may students differ in their Chs. 2, 13 Activity 2.1
affect performance approaches to learning Chs. 2, 13
in another domain, and create instructional Ch. 13 Activity 2.2
such as social strategies that are Chs. 2, 13
adapted to diverse Ch. 2 Activities 2.1, 2.4
B. Students as Diverse learners. Ch. 2
Learners Chs. 2, 13
Ch. 2
1. Differences in the ways Ch. 2
students learn and
perform Ch. 2
• Learning styles Ch. 2
• Multiple intelligences
• Performance modes
• Concrete operational
thinking
• Visual and aural
learners
• Gender differences
• Cultural expectations
and styles
2. Areas of exceptionality
in students’ learning
• Visual and perceptual
difficulties
• Special physical or
sensory challenges
• Learning disabilities
• Attention-deficit-
disorder (ADD)
• Functional mental
retardation
• Behavioral disorders
• Developmental delays
3. Legislation and
institutional
responsibilities relating
to exceptional students
PRAXIS™ Topics INTASC Principle Learning to Teach Resource Handbook 537
Content
• Americans with Learning to Teach
Disabilities Act Ch. 2 Activities
(ADA); Individuals
with Disabilities Ch. 2
Education Act
(IDEA); Section 504 Chs. 2, 7–13 Activity 2.2
Protections for
Students Chs. 7–13 Activities 2.1–2.2
Chs. 7–13 Activities 2.l–2.5
• Inclusion, Chs. 6–7
mainstreaming, Ch. 2
and “least restrictive
environment” Ch. 2
• IEP (Individualized Chs. 2, 13
Education Plan) Chs. 2, 13
Chs. 2, 14
• Due process Chs. 2, 14
• Family involvement
4. Approaches for
accommodating various
learning styles,
intelligences, or
exceptionalities
• Differentiated
instruction
• Alternative
assessment
• Testing modifications
5. Process of second-
language acquisition and
strategies to support the
learning of students
6. Understanding of
influences of individual
experiences, talents, and
prior learning, as well as
language, culture, family,
and community values
on students’ learning
• Multicultural
backgrounds
• Age-appropriate
knowledge and
behavior
• The student culture at
school
• Family backgrounds
538 Resource Handbook • www.mhhe.com/arends9e
PRAXIS™ Topics INTASC Principle Learning to Teach Learning to Teach
Content Activities
• Linguistic patterns Principle #5: The teacher Ch. 2
and differences uses an understanding Activities 4.1–4.4
of individual and group Chs. 4, 10, 12 Activities 4.1–4.4
• Cognitive patterns motivation and behavior Chs. 4, 10–11 Activities 4.1–4.4
and differences to create a learning Activities 5.1–5.5
environment that Ch. 4 Activity 5.3
• Social and emotional encourages positive Chs. 5, 7–13
issues social interaction, Ch. 5
active engagement in Ch. 5
C. Student Motivation learning, and self-
and the Learning motivation.
Environment
1. Theoretical foundations
of human motivation
and behavior
• Important terms that
relate to motivation
and behavior.
2. How knowledge of
human motivation and
behavior should
influence strategies for
organizing and
supporting individual
and group work in the
classroom
3. Factors and situations
that are likely to promote
or diminish students’
motivation to learn, and
how to help students to
become self-motivated
4. Principles of effective
classroom management
and strategies to
promote positive
relationships,
cooperation, and
purposeful learning
• Establishing daily
procedures and
routines
• Establishing
classroom rules
PRAXIS™ Topics INTASC Principle Learning to Teach Resource Handbook 539
Content
• Using natural and Principle #1: The teacher Ch. 5 Learning to Teach
logical consequences understands the central Chs. 4–5 Activities
concepts, tools of Ch. 5 Activity 5.6
• Providing positive inquiry, and structures
guidance of the discipline(s) he or Ch. 5 All Activities Chs. 7–13
she teaches and creates Ch. 5 Activities 10.1–10.5
• Modeling conflict learning experiences Chs. 3, 7–12
resolution, problem that make these aspects Chs. 5, 7–12
solving, and anger of subject matter Chs. 6, 14
management meaningful for students.
Chs. 9, 11–12
• Giving timely feedback Principle #4: The teacher Chs. 2, 12
• Using objective understands and uses a Chs. 9, 12
variety of instructional Chs. 9, 11
behavior descriptions strategies to encourage Ch. 11
• Responding to student development of Chs. 7–8
critical thinking, Ch. 7
student behavior problem solving, and Ch. 10
• Arranging classroom performance skills.
Ch. 10
space
• Pacing and structuring
the lesson
• Communicating with
parents and
caregivers
II. Instruction &
Assessment
A. Instructional
Strategies
1. Major cognitive
processes associated
with student learning
• Critical thinking
• Creative thinking
• Higher-order thinking
• Inductive and
deductive thinking
• Problem structuring
and problem solving
• Memorization and
recall
• Representation of ideas
• Social reasoning
2. Major categories,
advantages, and
appropriate uses of
instructional strategies
• Cooperative learning
540 Resource Handbook • www.mhhe.com/arends9e
PRAXIS™ Topics INTASC Principle Learning to Teach Learning to Teach
Content Activities
• Direct instruction Principle #7: The teacher Ch. 8 Activities 8.1–8.4
• Discovery learning plans instruction based Chs. 9, 11 Activities 9.1–9.4
• Whole-group on knowledge of subject Ch. 12 Activities 12.1–12.5
matter, students, the Ch. 9 Activity 9.3
discussion community, and Ch. 2
• Concept mapping curriculum goals. Ch. 13 Activities 12.4–12.5
• Interdisciplinary Ch. 12
Chs. 11, 13 Activities 10.1–10.5
instruction Ch. 13 Activities 11.1–11.4
• Play Chs. 10, 12
• Questioning Ch. 11 Activities Chs. 7–9
• Learning centers
• Independent study Chs. 7–9 Activities Chs. 10–12
• Small-group work
• Project approach Chs. 10–12
• Reflection
Throughout
3. Principles, techniques,
and methods associated Throughout
with major instructional
strategies Ch. 11, Research
Handbook 1
• Direct instruction
(teacher-centered
models)
• Student-centered
models
4. Methods for enhancing
student learning through
the use of a variety of
resources and materials
• Computers, Internet
resources, Web
pages, e-mail
• Audiovisual
technologies such as
videotapes & CDs
• Local experts
• Primary documents
and artifacts
• Field trips
• Libraries
• Service learning
B. Planning Instruction
PRAXIS™ Topics INTASC Principle Learning to Teach Resource Handbook 541
Content
1. Techniques for planning Learning to Teach
instruction, including Ch. 3 Activities
addressing curriculum Activities 3.1–3.5
goals, selecting content
topics, incorporating Ch. 3
learning theory, subject Chs. 3, 13
matter, curriculum Chs. 3, 13
development, and student Ch. 3
development and interests Chs. 3, 7–12
• Behavioral objectives: Chs. 2–3, 13
affective, cognitive,
psychomotor Ch. 8
Ch. 8
• Units and lessons Chs. 7–12
Chs. 7–12
• National and state Chs. 10–13
standards
• State and local
curriculum
frameworks
• Learner objectives and
outcomes
• Emergent curriculum
• Antibias curriculum
• Themes/projects
• Curriculum webbing
2. Techniques for creating
effective bridges
between curriculum
goals and students’
experiences
• Modeling
• Guided practice
• Independent practice,
including
homework
• Activating students’
prior knowledge
• Anticipating
preconceptions
• Encouraging
exploration and
problem solving
• Building new skills on
those previously
acquired
• Predicting
542 Resource Handbook • www.mhhe.com/arends9e
PRAXIS™ Topics INTASC Principle Learning to Teach Learning to Teach
C. Assessment Principle #8: The teacher Content Activities
Chs. 6–12
Strategies understands and uses Activity 6.1
formal and informal Chs. 6–12 Activity 6.1
1. Types of assessments assessment strategies to Ch. 6 Activity 6.2
2. Characteristics of evaluate and ensure the Ch. 6 Activities 6.2–6.3
continuous intellectual, Chs. 6–12 Activity 6.1
assessments social, and physical Ch. 6 Activities 6.2, 6.4
3. Scoring assessments development of the Ch. 6
4. Uses of assessments learner. Chs. 4, 12 Activities 4.1, 12.1
5. Understanding of Activity 2.4
Principle #6: The teacher Chs. 4, 12 Activities 12.1–12.4
measurement theory uses knowledge of Chs. 2, 12
and assessment-related effective verbal, Chs. 2, 4, 12
issues nonverbal, and media
6. Interpreting and communication Ch. 12
communicating results techniques to foster
of assessments active inquiry,
III. Communication collaboration, and
Techniques supportive interaction
in the classroom.
A. Basic, Effective Verbal
and Nonverbal
Communication
Techniques
B. Effect of Cultural and
Gender Differences
on Communications
in the Classroom
C. Types of
Communications and
Interactions that can
Stimulate Discussion
in Different Ways for
Particular Purposes
1. Probing for learner
understanding
PRAXIS™ Topics INTASC Principle Learning to Teach Resource Handbook 543
Content
2. Helping students Principle #9: The teacher is Ch. 12 Learning to Teach
articulate their ideas and a reflective practitioner Chs. 4, 12 Activities
thinking processes who continually Chs. 7, 12
evaluates the effects of Ch. 12 Activity 14.1
3. Promoting risk taking his or her choices and Ch. 12 Research Handbook 1
and problem solving actions on others Chs. 11–12
(students, parents, and Ch. 4
4. Facilitating factual recall professionals in the Ch. 14, Research
learning community)
5. Encouraging convergent and who actively seeks Handbook 1
and divergent thinking out opportunities to
grow professionally. Ch. 14, Research
6. Stimulating curiosity Handbook 1
7. Helping students to Chs. 1–14, Research
question Handbook 1
8. Promoting a caring
community
IV. Profession &
Community
A. The Reflective
Practitioner
1. Types of resources
available for professional
development and
learning
• Professional literature
• Colleagues
• Professional
associations
• Professional-
development
activities
2. Ability to read,
understand, and apply
articles and books about
current research, views,
ideas, and debates
regarding best teaching
practices
544 Resource Handbook • www.mhhe.com/arends9e
PRAXIS™ Topics INTASC Principle Learning to Teach Learning to Teach
Content Activities
3. Ongoing personal Principle #10: The teacher Chs. 1–14 Chapter Reflections
reflection on teaching fosters relationships
and learning practices as with school colleagues, Ch. 14 Activities 1.5, 14.1–14.2
a basis for making parents, and agencies in Activities 2.1–2.5, 14.5
professional decisions the larger community to Chs. 1, 14
support students’ Chs. 1, 14 Activity 14.4
• Code of ethics learning and well-being.
• Advocacy for learners Ch. 14
B. The Larger Community Chs. 1–2, 14
1. Role of the school as a
resource to the larger
community
• Teacher as a resource
2. Factors in the students’
environment outside of
school (family
circumstances,
community environments,
health and economic
conditions) that may
influence students’ life
and learning
3. Develop and utilize active
partnerships among
teachers, parents/
guardians, and leaders in
the community to support
educational process
• Shared ownership
• Shared decision making
• Respectful/reciprocal
communication
4. Major laws related to
students’ rights and
teacher responsibilities
• Equal education
• Appropriate education
for students with
special needs
• Confidentiality and
privacy
• Appropriate treatment
of students
• Reporting situations
related to possible
child abuse
Glossary
ability grouping Practice of placing students in special apply One of the six types of cognitive processes in
classes or small groups based on an assessment of their Bloom’s revised taxonomy, defined as being able to
abilities or readiness to learn. apply particular knowledge and carry out and imple-
ment particular procedures in a given situation.
academic learning Type of learning normally associated
with basic school subjects and the type of thinking artifacts The products produced by students in problem-
processes required to understand them. based instruction, such as reports, videos, computer
programs.
academic learning time (ALT) The amount of time a stu-
dent is engaged in a particular subject or learning task art of teaching A degree of accomplishment that allows
at which he or she is successful. basing complex decisions more on the teacher’s expe-
rience than on research and scientific evidence.
accommodation Process of developing new concepts or
schemata to understand a situation that is new and can assertive discipline An approach to classroom manage-
be made to fit existing schemata. ment that emphasizes teachers asserting their right to
teach by insisting on appropriate student behavior and
accountability Holding teachers responsible for their by responding assertively to student infractions.
teaching practices and for what their students learn.
assessment Process of collecting a full range of informa-
achievement motives Desires and impulses that lead one tion about students and classrooms for the purpose of
to take action and to excel for the purpose of experi- making instructional decisions.
encing success and feeling competent.
assessment as learning Classroom situations that help
action research Research conducted by teachers for the students assess their own learning and the learning of
purpose of improving their own teaching or schools. their peers.
Also called teacher research.
assessment for learning Ongoing formative assessment
advance organizer A statement made by teachers before used to diagnose students’ prior knowledge and inter-
a presentation or before having students read textual ests and to monitor their learning progress.
materials that provides a structure for new information
to be linked to students’ prior knowledge. assessment of learning Summative assessments of stu-
dents used to determine grades, placements, gradua-
affiliative motives Desires and impulses that lead one to tion, and college admission.
take action for the purpose of experiencing friendship
and close relationships with others. assimilation Process of understanding something new
by adapting it to what is already known.
alternate-form reliability The degree to which two dif-
ferent forms of a test over the same topics can produce assistive technologies Special tools, mainly computer-
consistent results. related, to assist individuals who have special needs.
analogies Statements or phrases that compare two things. attribution theories View of motivation that emphasizes
analytical intelligence Defined by Robert Sternberg as the way individuals come to perceive and interpret the
causes of their successes and failures.
the kind of intelligence that involves an individual’s
cognitive processes. authentic assessment Assessment procedures that have
analyze One of the six types of cognitive processes in students demonstrate their abilities to perform partic-
Bloom’s revised taxonomy, defined as being able to ular tasks in real-life settings.
break materials into constituent parts and show how
parts relate to one another. authentic relationships Relationships teachers build with
their students in which both teachers and students
treat each other as real and significant people.
545
546 Glossary • www.mhhe.com/arends9e
autonomy norm The expectation in many schools that cluster seating A seating arrangement that puts desks in
teachers can do pretty much what they want within the groups to facilitate cooperative learning and small-
confines of their classroom. group lessons.
behavioral objective A form for writing an instructional cognitive-constructivist perspective A view of learning
objective that emphasizes precision and careful delin- that posits that learning occurs when learners are actively
eation of expected student behaviors, the testing situa- involved in the process of acquiring and constructing
tion, and a performance criterion. their own knowledge.
behavioral theory Approach to motivation emphasizing cognitive dissonance Discrepancies or contradictions be-
that external events, positive or negative, direct behavior. tween what an individual believes to be accurate or true
and what is present in a current situation or simultane-
behaviorism School of psychology emphasizing the im- ously held belief.
portance of behavior and the external environment as
a determinant of human behavior and learning. cognitive process dimension The dimension in Bloom’s
revised taxonomy that identifies the cognitive processes
benchmarks Designated checkpoints or the degree to which or thinking required of particular learning tasks.
a particular instructional standard has been mastered.
cognitive processes The thinking engaged in by teachers
best practice Teaching methods, processes, and proce- and students.
dures that have been shown to be effective for helping
students learn. cognitive psychology Psychology of learning that focuses
mainly on mental processes.
buzz groups A small-group technique to help broaden
student participation in discussion. cognitive structures The way knowledge is organized and
stored in the mind.
causal-comparative research Research that explores causal
relationships when the independent variable cannot be communication skills Interpersonal skills that help facil-
manipulated. itate the transmission and reception of verbal and non-
verbal messages.
challenged A term used to refer to individuals who have
special needs or disabilities. community problem solving An instructional practice
that requires students to become involved in their com-
checking for understanding Technique used by teachers munity and help solve community problems.
to see if students have grasped newly presented infor-
mation or skills. competitive goal structure Situation that occurs when one
person is successful in reaching his or her goals when
circle seating pattern A seating arrangement used in dis- others are unsuccessful.
cussion that places the teacher and students in a circle;
maximizes free interchange among participants. concept attainment An inductive approach to teaching
concepts by which students derive the meaning and at-
classroom activities Things students are expected to do tributes of a concept from examples and nonexamples
in the classroom, such as listening, discussing, com- of the concept given by the teacher.
pleting worksheets, and taking tests.
concepts Ways of organizing knowledge and experiences in
classroom ecology A way of looking at classrooms that is categories within which items have common attributes.
concerned mainly with how student cooperation and
involvement are achieved. concept teaching Approaches to teaching in which the
emphasis is on helping students learn how to make
classroom management The ways teachers organize and and label categories of ideas, objects, and experiences.
structure their classrooms for the purposes of maxi-
mizing student cooperation and engagement and min- conceptual knowledge One of four types of knowledge in
imizing disruptive behavior. Bloom’s revised taxonomy, defined as knowing about
the interrelationships among basic elements and know-
classroom meetings An approach to classroom manage- ing about principles, categories, theories, and models.
ment in which the teacher holds regular meetings for
the purpose of helping students identify and resolve conceptual mapping A technique of visually organizing
problem situations. and diagraming a set of ideas or concepts in a logical
pattern so relationships can be readily observed. Also
classroom processes Interpersonal and group processes called webbing.
that help classroom participants deal with issues of ex-
pectations, leadership, attraction, norms, communica- conditional knowledge Knowledge about when it is ap-
tion, and cohesiveness. propriate to use particular declarative or procedural
knowledge.
classroom properties Distinctive features of classrooms,
such as multidimensionality, simultaneity, immediacy, conjunctive concept A concept that has a constant rule
unpredictability, publicness, and history, that shape structure.
behavior of participants.
constructed-response items Type of traditional test items
classroom structures The ways classrooms are organized such as essay or short answer that require students to
around learning tasks and participation, and the ways provide their own responses.
goals and rewards are defined.
Glossary 547
constructivism A perspective of teaching and learning in postulating that the discontinuity between home cul-
which a learner constructs meaning from experience ture and school culture interferes with learning.
and interaction with others and the teacher’s role is to culturally relevant curriculum Teaching practices where
provide meaningful experiences for students. teachers connect the world of their students and their
cultures to the world of the school and the classroom.
constructivist perspective A view that knowledge is often cultural pluralism An ideology encouraging minority
personal and that humans construct knowledge and cultures to maintain their distinctive identities within
meaning through experience. the larger culture and to value cultural diversity within
societies.
content standards Standards that specify specific subject culture A group’s total way of life; the way group mem-
matter that students should know. bers think about social action and ways to resolve is-
sues in social collective life.
control group Group of subjects that receives no special curriculum mapping A technique for charting what is
treatment during experimental research. taught (curriculum) across grade levels and among
various subjects.
convergent questions Type of question that focuses on re- curriculum standards Descriptions of what student should
lationships and analysis of cause and effect; calls for know and be able to do.
finding single, best answer. dangle When a teacher starts an activity and then leaves
it in midair.
cooperative goal structure Situation that occurs when debriefing Way to assess the effectiveness of a classroom
students perceive they can obtain their goal if, and discussion by asking students what they thought of the
only if, the other students with whom they work also discussion.
obtain their goals. declarative knowledge Knowledge about something or
that something is the case; knowledge of facts, concepts,
corrective feedback Information given to students about or principles.
how well they are doing. deductive reasoning Process of determining particular
instances from more general rules or principles.
correlation A term used to express how two or more demographic assumptions Assumptions made by soci-
variables are related. eties about the demographic makeup of that society.
dependent variable In research, the variable that may
correlational research A type of research that investigates change as a result of the independent variable; the con-
relationships between variables that exist naturally. sequences of the independent variable.
descriptive research Research aimed at gathering de-
correlation coefficient Numbers ranging from ϩ1.00 to tailed information about some phenonemon.
Ϫ1.00 that describe the numerical relationship between desist behavior A teaching behavior aimed at stopping
variables. disruptive student behavior.
desist incidence A classroom incident serious enough
create One of the six types of cognitive processes in that if not dealt with will lead to widening manage-
Bloom’s revised taxonomy, defined as being able to ment problems.
combine elements together for a coherent whole and/or differential treatment The difference in the educational
reorganize elements into a new pattern. experiences of the majority race, class, culture, or gen-
der and those of minorities; that is, differences in qual-
creative intelligence Defined by Robert Sternberg as the ity of curriculum, instruction, classroom interaction,
type of intelligence that involves having insight to cope funding, enrollment, etc.
with new situations or experiences. differentiation Practice of adapting instruction to meet
the needs of particular students.
criterion-referenced test A test that evaluates a particular direct instruction model An approach to teaching basic
student’s performance against a preestablished stan- skills and sequential material in which lessons are
dard or criterion. highly goal-directed and learning environments are
tightly structured by the teacher.
critical attribute Feature of a concept that distinguishes it direct presentation One of several approaches to concept
from all other concepts. teaching.
disability A term used to refer to individuals who have
critical thinking Thinking directed toward analyzing ar- special needs or challenges; the inability to do some-
guments and detecting bias and fallacious reasoning. thing such as hear, walk, or learn.
cuing A signal from teachers to alert or to set up situa-
tions for students in order to help them get ready to
make an appropriate response.
cultural competence A situation where individuals are
aware of their own culture and the assumptions they
make about human behavior and values and where
they attempt to understand and respect the worldview
of culturally diverse populations.
cultural deficit theory The now-discredited theory that
accounts for the low achievement of minorities by pos-
tulating some defect in their culture or race.
cultural difference theory The currently accepted theory
that accounts for the low achievement of minorities by
548 Glossary • www.mhhe.com/arends9e
discontinuity A term used to describe a situation where equity Refers to making conditions for everyone impar-
the beliefs, values, and ways of communicating are dif- tial, fair, just, and equal.
ferent between one setting and another (e.g., the home
and the school). ESL Acronym for “English as a second language.”
essay test An approach to testing in which students are
discourse The larger patterns of verbal exchange and
communication that occur in classrooms. required to express their thoughts in writing.
essential questions Questions that reflect big ideas in any
discovery teaching or learning An approach to teaching
that emphasizes encouraging students to learn concepts subject and serve as the heart of the curriculum.
and principles through their own explorations and to establishing set Procedure teachers use at the beginning
solve problems on their own.
of a lesson aimed at getting students ready to learn. See
discrepant event A puzzling situation that sparks curios- anticipatory set.
ity and motivates inquiry into cause-and-effect rela- ethnicity Refers to groups that have common identities
tionships; used by teachers to engage students. such as language or nationality.
ethnography Term from the field of anthropology to de-
discussion A teaching method that relies on verbal ex- scribe an extensive descriptive study of a single cul-
change of ideas among students and the teacher. ture, society, or particular phenonemon.
ethos Common set of values, beliefs, and ways of doing
disjunctive concept A concept that contains alternative things found in particular classrooms or schools. See
sets of attributes. also school culture.
evaluate One of the six types of cognitive processes in
dispositions Attitudes and inherent qualities of mind. Bloom’s revised taxonomy, defined as being able to
Used to designate attitudes toward thinking. make judgments based on criteria or standards.
evaluation Process of judging, assigning value, or decid-
distributed practice Practice assigned to students to be ing on the worth of a particular program or approach
done for brief periods spread over several sessions or or of a student’s work.
periods of time. evidence-based practices Teaching practices in which ev-
idence from research has shown them to be effective in
divergent questions “What-if” questions that allow mul- producing student learning.
tiple answers and solutions and promote creativity. exceptionality Term used to define students who have
special social, mental, emotional, or physical needs.
downtime Time in classrooms when lessons are com- exhibits Displays of artifacts (products) students present
pleted early or when students are waiting for upcoming that show their work from a problem-based lesson.
events, such as moving to another class or going home. experimental group A group of subjects that receives a
special treatment in experimental research.
Ebonics A term used to refer to a dialect used by some expert teachers Experienced teachers who have mastered
African Americans. the art and science of teaching.
explaining links Prepositions or conjunctions used in a
ecological system A view of classrooms in which inhabi- presentation that indicate the cause, result, means, or
tants (teachers, students, and others) interact within a purpose of an event or idea.
highly interdependent environment. extrinsic motivation Behavior caused by external factors
such as rewards, punishments, or social pressures.
economy Term used by Bruner to describe ways to limit factual knowledge One of four types of knowledge in
the amount of material to be taught at any one time. Bloom’s revised taxonomy, defined as the basic ele-
ments, facts, and vocabulary of a topic or subject.
effect size A statistic that shows how much larger or fairness The degree to which a test is free from bias and
smaller an expected effect may be of an experimental does not discriminate against a particular group of stu-
method as compared to a more traditional method used dents because of race, ethnicity, or gender.
in a control group. feedback Information given to students about their per-
formance. Same as knowledge of results.
elaborative interrogation questions Questions that follow feeling tone The degree to which a learning environment
up on other inferential questions and require students to or a particular learning task is perceived as pleasant or
support and expand their ideas. unpleasant.
field dependent Refers to individuals who tend to per-
e-learning Term used to define learning that takes place ceive situations “as a whole.”
using the Internet. Also referred to as virtual and dis- field independent Refers to individuals who tend to
tance learning. perceive the separate parts of a situation rather than
the whole.
ELLs Acronym for “English language learners.”
emotional intelligence Defined by Goleman as an indi-
vidual’s ability to recognize and monitor one’s emo-
tions and be aware of the emotions of others.
enacted curriculum The curriculum that is planned and
carried out (enacted) by classroom teachers.
enduring understandings The big ideas of a subject that
every student should learn because the ideas have en-
during value.
engaged time The amount of time students actually spend
on a particular subject or learning activity; also called
time on task.
Glossary 549
flexible grouping Teaching practice where students within hands-off norm Expectation in many schools that teach-
the same classroom are temporarily grouped by ability ers will not interfere in other teachers’ work.
for particular subjects, such as reading, writing, or math.
higher-order thinking Abstract intellectual process that
flip-flop Occurs when a teacher starts an activity, then involves analyzing, criticizing, and reaching conclu-
stops and starts another one, and finally returns to the sions based on sound evidence.
original activity.
high-stakes tests Tests used to make important decisions
flow experience State when individuals feel total in- about students, such as placement or admissions to
volvement and concentration and strong feelings of particular programs or educational institutions.
enjoyment as a result of a particular experience.
holistic scoring Technique for grading essay questions
formal curriculum The curriculum that is planned by ed- or other written work that emphasizes looking at the
ucational agencies, normally state departments of edu- work as a whole rather than at its individual parts.
cation and/or local school districts.
homework Independent practice and academic work
formative evaluation Evaluation that occurs before or performed outside the classroom.
during instruction and is used to assist with planning
or making adaptations. inclusion Practice of including students, regardless of
their disabilities, in regular classrooms.
fragmentation Occurs when a teacher breaks a learning
activity into overly small units. in-context learning style Refers to the learning style
where individuals acquire understanding and skills as
full bilingual program A program in which instruction is they are needed in real-life situations.
carried out equally in two languages and the goals are
full oral proficiency and literacy in both. independent practice Practice given to students to
accomplish on their own without the teacher’s
Gantt chart A planning technique to show pieces of work guidance.
in relationship to one another and when each piece is
expected to start and to finish. independent task A situation where a learning task can
be accomplished by individuals working alone.
gender bias Views of or actions toward males and fe-
males that often favor one gender over the other. independent variable In research, the variable that is
treated and presumed to cause some change in the
gifted and talented Students who are identified as being dependent variable.
very bright, creative, and/or having special talents.
individualistic goal structure A situation where a goal
goal structures The way that goals specify the degree of can be accomplished by individuals working or per-
interdependence sought among students. There are forming by themselves.
three different types of goal structures: individualistic,
competitive, and cooperative. individualistic reward structure Occurs when achieve-
ment of the goal by one student is unrelated to the
grading on a curve A practice of assigning grades so they achievement of the goal by other students.
will follow a normal curve.
individualized education plan (IEP) A learning plan
grading to criterion Practice of assigning grades accord- specifying long- and short-term educational goals for
ing to how well students do on a predefined set of ob- students who are disabled and agreed on by teachers,
jectives or standards. parents, and special educators.
graphic organizer A visual image presented to students inductive reasoning Process of coming up with general
to provide structure for new information about to be rules or principles based on information from specific
presented. Similar to an advance organizer. examples or data.
group development Stages classroom groups go through inductive teaching See inquiry teaching or training.
in the process of developing into a cohesive and effec- influence motives Desires and impulses that lead one to
tive group.
take action for the purpose of having more control over
group investigation (GI) An approach to coopera- learning or having more say in how schools are run.
tive learning in which students help define topics information processing The process used by the mind to
for study and then work together to complete their take in, store, and retrieve information for use.
investigations. infusion strategies Approach to teaching thinking that
infuses the teaching of thinking into regular subject
group processes See classroom processes. matter lessons.
group skills Skills students have to participate effectively igeneration Term coined to refer to the current genera-
tion of students who have grown up using computers
in groups. and digital technologies.
guided practice Practice assigned to students to be com- inquiry-based teaching An approach to teaching in which
the emphasis is on helping students to inquire on their
pleted under the guidance or watchful eye of the teacher. own and to develop such skills as asking questions and
handicapped A term used to refer to individuals who drawing conclusions from data.
have special needs or challenges. Some believe it car-
ries a negative connotation and projects a negative im-
age toward those with special needs or challenges.
550 Glossary • www.mhhe.com/arends9e
instructional aspects of teaching Those aspects of teach- and least confining based on the student’s particular
ers’ work during which they are providing face-to-face needs and problems.
instruction to students in classrooms. LEP Acronym for “limited English proficiency.”
lesson plan Organization for instruction for a particular
instructional objective Statements that describe a teacher’s lesson or period.
instructional intents. level of actual development A concept attributed to Lev
Vygotsky that identifies a learner’s level of current in-
intelligence Ability individuals have for solving prob- tellectual functioning.
lems and adapting to one’s environment. level of difficulty Refers to how difficult a question asked
of students is to answer.
intelligence quotient A score that compares chronologi- level of potential development A concept attributed to
cal and mental ages. Lev Vygotsky that identifies the level at which a learner
could function intellectually with the assistance of a
interaction patterns A term used to refer to the patterns of teacher or more advanced peer.
the verbal and nonverbal communication in classrooms. logical consequences Punishments administered for mis-
behavior that are directly related to the infraction.
interdependent task A situation where a learning task long-term memory Place in the mind where information
can only be accomplished by two or more individuals is stored, ready for retrieval when needed.
working together. loosely coupled systems An organizational arrangement
in which what goes on in one part of an organization is
interpersonal communication skills Skills that promote not very connected to what goes on in other parts of the
honest communication and positive regard among organization.
students. mainstreaming Placing children with special needs in
regular classes full time or part time.
intrinsic motivation Occurs when people behave be- massed practice Practice assigned to students to be done
cause an act brings personal satisfaction or enjoyment. during a single extended period of time.
meaningful verbal learning The phrase used by Ausubel
Jigsaw An approach to cooperative learning in which to emphasize importance of teaching students meaning-
students work in mixed-ability groups and each stu- ful relationships among verbal ideas and information.
dent is responsible for a portion of the material. mean score The arithmetic average of a group of scores.
melting pot Ideology of education that believes the
knowledge base Information, accumulated over time strengths of minority cultures should be blended into
from research and the wisdom of experienced teachers, a new, single, superior culture.
that informs teaching practices. mental abilities Phrase used to define abilities individu-
als have as measured by performance on particular
knowledge dimension The dimension in Bloom’s re- cognitive tasks.
vised taxonomy that defines what learners know or are mental age Score in intelligence testing that designates
expected to know. average mental ability for a particular age group.
mental planning Planning done by teachers as they think
knowledge of results Feedback given to students about and reflect about their teaching; these plans are not al-
their performance. ways committed to paper.
metacognitive knowledge One of four types of knowledge
knowledge structure See structure of knowledge. in Bloom’s revised taxonomy, defined as knowledge and
leadership aspects of teaching Aspects of teachers’ work, awareness of one’s own cognition.
metaphors A figure of speech where one thing is applied
such as providing motivation and coordinating and to something else.
controlling learning environments and activities. momentum Term used by Kounin to describe how
learner-centered planning Planning that involves stu- teachers pace instruction.
dents in the process. motivation The process by which behavior is directed to-
learning abilities Abilities individuals have for acquir- ward important human goals or toward satisfying
ing new knowledge and skills and for adapting to one’s needs and motives.
environment. multicultural education An approach to teaching aimed
learning goal orientation An orientation toward learning at helping students recognize and value cultural
wherein students are motivated by internal factors and diversity.
compete mainly with themselves.
learning preferences Preferred environments or modalities
learners have toward learning and studying.
learning progression A tool that specifies a set of subskills
and enabling knowledge that must be learned prior to
mastering a more complex curriculum standard or learn-
ing outcome.
learning strategies Plans or strategies learners have for
approaching particular learning tasks or studying.
learning styles Particular approaches learners have to-
ward learning or studying.
least restrictive environment The placement situation
for students with disabilities that is the most normal
Glossary 551
multiple intelligences Gardner’s theory that states intel- pedagogy The study of the art and science of teaching; also
ligence is more than a single ability and instead con- refers to the methods and approaches to instruction.
sists of eight different types of abilities.
performance assessment Assessment procedures that
multiple models The practice of connecting and combin- have students demonstrate their abilities to perform
ing particular models and strategies during a single particular tasks in testing situations.
lesson or over a complete unit of work.
performance goal orientation An orientation toward
needs theory Theory of motivation positing that people learning in which students strive to reach externally im-
are motivated to take action to satisfy basic and higher- posed standards and to better their own performance
level needs. as compared to the performance of others.
negative reinforcer A stimulus such as punishment in- performance indicators Assessment items that measure
tended to eliminate or reduce undesirable behavior. student mastery of a specified benchmark or curricu-
lum standard.
Net generation generation born in the late 1970s and the
1980s characterized by their familiarity and use of performance standards Recommendations about what
computers and digital technologies. should be taught that define what students should
know or be able to do and at what level they are ex-
noncritical attributes Features found in some but not all pected to perform in various subjects.
members of a category.
positive reinforcer A stimulus such as a reward intended
nonlinear model An approach to planning in which to get individuals to repeat desirable behavior.
planners start with actions or activities deemed impor-
tant and later attach goals to the action to help explain positivism View that knowledge is somewhat fixed
what happened. and can be studied best through direct observation of
behavior.
norm-referenced test A standardized test that evaluates a
particular student’s performance by comparing it to power Term used by Bruner to describe the process of se-
the performance of some other well-defined group of lecting only the most important (powerful) ideas and
students. concepts to teach to students.
norms The shared expectations students and teachers practical arguments Reasoning based on knowledge and
have for classroom behavior. beliefs that is used by teachers as they make pedagog-
ical decisions.
novice teacher A teacher who is just beginning and is still
learning the art and science of teaching. practical intelligence Defined by Robert Sternberg as the
kind of abilities individuals have to adapt and reshape
numbered heads together Small group strategies that en- their environments.
courage cooperation and participation.
praise Positive verbal and nonverbal statements offered
objectivist perspective A view that knowledge consists by teachers as reinforcers to encourage and strengthen
of “truths” and an objective reality that humans have desirable student behaviors.
access to and can learn through discovery and inquiry.
presentation teaching model An approach to teaching
opportunity to learn The amount of time a teacher actu- wherein the primary emphasis is on explaining new
ally spends on academic tasks or activities. information and ideas to students.
organizational aspects of teaching Those aspects of preventative management Perspective that effective class-
teachers’ work involving interactions with other adults room management can be achieved through good plan-
in the school setting for the purpose of schoolwide ning, interesting lessons, and effective teaching.
planning and coordination.
prior knowledge Information and knowledge held by
out-of-context learning style Learning that is not necessar- students before they receive instruction.
ily connected to real or immediate needs—the typical
kind of learning required of students in schools. procedural knowledge Knowledge about how to do
something. Can pertain to specific behavioral skills or
overdwelling Situation that occurs when a teacher goes to complex cognitive strategies.
on and on after a subject or a set of instructions is clear
to students. procedures Systems established by teachers for dealing
with routine tasks and coordinating student talk and
overlappingness The ability of teachers to spot disrup- movement.
tive behavior and to deal with it without interrupting
the flow of the lesson. process-product research Research method character-
ized by studying the relationships between what teach-
overlearning Working or practicing a task or skill until ers do (process) and the effects on student achievement
it is learned completely and can be performed auto- (product).
matically.
punishments Penalties imposed by teachers to discour-
participation structures The established rules and processes age undesirable behaviors.
that determine who can say what, when, and to whom dur-
ing classroom discourse.
552 Glossary • www.mhhe.com/arends9e
qualitative research An approach to research that relies scaffolding The process in which a learner is helped by a
on more holistic observations and reports data in nar- teacher or more accomplished person to master a prob-
rative rather than quantitative form. lem or skill slightly beyond his or her current develop-
mental level.
quantitative research An approach to research that stud-
ies behavior in an objective fashion and uses traditional schema, schemata An individual’s (teacher or student)
statistical procedures to analyze data. knowledge structure or the way information has been
organized and stored in memory.
race A term used to refer to a group of people who share
common biological traits. school culture The ways members of a school think
about social action; the embedded beliefs, values,
rational-linear model An approach to planning that fo- and attitudes of members of a school. Ethos, tone,
cuses on setting goals and objectives first and then on and community are often used to describe the same
selecting particular strategies or activities to accom- phenomenon.
plish these predetermined goals.
school effectiveness research Research that tries to un-
recitation An approach to teaching in which a teacher cover features that make some schools more effective
provides bits of information, asks questions, gets stu- than others.
dents to respond, and then provides feedback by prais-
ing or correcting. scientific basis of teaching Teaching in which decisions
are based on research and scientific evidence.
reconstituting standards Process of taking a standard
and rewriting it so that it is clear and specifies a single scientific reasoning Thinking associated with scientific
dimension that can be measured. inquiry that involves drawing conclusions based on
evidence.
reflection Careful and analytical thought by teachers
about what they are doing and the effects of their be- scoring rubric A detailed description of some type of
havior on their instruction and on student learning. performance and the criteria that will be used to
judge it.
reinforcement Consequences administered by teachers to
encourage and strengthen certain desirable behaviors. seatwork Independent practice and academic work per-
formed in the classroom.
reinforcement principles Psychological principles hold-
ing that reinforced behaviors tend to be repeated; be- selected-response items Type of traditional test items
haviors that are not reinforced tend to disappear. such as multiple choice and true-false that allow stu-
dents to select responses from provided alternatives.
relational concept A concept whose rule structure de-
pends on its relationship to other concepts. self-fulfilling prophecy A situation in which teachers’ ex-
pectations and predictions about student behavior or
reliability The degree to which a test produces consistent learning cause it to happen.
results over several administrations.
self-regulated learner A learner who can diagnose a learn-
remember One of the six types of cognitive processes in ing situation, select an appropriate learning strategy,
Bloom’s revised taxonomy, defined as being able to rec- monitor the effectiveness of the strategy, and remain
ognize and recall relevant knowledge from long-term engaged in the learning task until it is accomplished.
memory.
sensory memory Part of the memory system that first
repertoire The number of teaching approaches and notes and does the initial processing of stimuli.
strategies that teachers are able to use to help students
learn. short-term working memory The place in the mind where
conscious mental work is done; also called working
responders Electronic devices that allow students to re- memory.
spond to teachers’ questions during a presentation or
discussion. smoothness The smooth flow and pacing of instructional
events.
response technique Techniques used by teachers to
check for student understanding. social context The surrounding environment within
which something (teaching and learning) exists and
reward structures The ways in which rewards can be dis- which influences what happens.
tributed within a classroom. There are three types: in-
dividualistic, competitive, and cooperative. social cognitive theory Theory of learning that empha-
sizes learning through observation and the importance
rule-example-rule technique A technique used when of learner beliefs about self and learning situations.
explaining something whereby the general principle
or rule is given first, then elaborated on with specific socially just classroom Classrooms where students are
examples, and finally summarized by a restatement of engaged in the struggle for social justice in the larger
the rule. society as well as in the classroom itself.
rules for behavior Statements that specify expected class- social skills Skills or abilities individuals have to work
room behaviors and define behaviors that are forbidden.
or interact effectively in social and group settings.
sample A group of subjects drawn from a larger popula- sociocultural theory Theory that human motivation is
tion for the purpose of research.
influenced not only from factors within the individual,
such as needs, goal orientations, and expectancies, but
Glossary 553
also from the expectations and behaviors of groups task analysis A process for breaking down complex learn-
that the individual identifies. ing tasks into fundamental parts or subdividing com-
socioeconomic status (SES) Variations among peoples plex skills into specific subskills so they can be mastered
based on income, family background, and relative one at a time.
prestige within the society.
split-half reliability The degree of consistency a test can task structures The way lessons are arranged and the learn-
produce when it is divided into two halves and student ing demands that lessons place on students.
performance is compared for each half.
stages of teacher development A theory explaining how taxonomy A classification system or device that helps
growth in teaching expertise occurs over time, pro- arrange and show relationships among objects and ideas.
gressing from one stage to the next stage in sequence.
standard deviation A measure that shows the spread of a teacher clarity Phrase used to describe the process of
set of scores from the mean. teachers giving presentations that are clear and free of
standardized tests Tests that are normally designed by ambiguity.
professional test makers for nationwide use and com-
mercially distributed. teacher effectiveness research Refers to research that
standards Statements about what students should know aims at finding relationships between teaching behav-
and be able to do. Often used today instead of goals and ior and student achievement.
objectives.
statistical test and significance Procedures used to de- teacher enthusiasm A set of behaviors employed by
termine whether results from research are indeed true teachers, such as using uplifting language and dra-
or a result of chance. matic body movements, to make students interested in
structural approach Approach to cooperative learning at- learning materials.
tributed to Spencer Kagan.
structures of knowledge The way knowledge in particu- teacher expectations Beliefs, attitudes, and percep-
lar disciplines is organized. tions teachers hold about the capabilities of particu-
student portfolios Portfolio assessment is a form of as- lar students—may or may not be accurate.
sessment that evaluates a sample of students’ work
and other accomplishments over time. teacher research See action research.
Student Teams Achievement Divisions (STADs) An ap- teaching model A term used by Bruce Joyce to describe an
proach to cooperative learning in which students work
in mixed-ability groups and rewards are administered overall approach or plan toward instruction. The attrib-
and recognized for both individual and group effort. utes of teaching models are a coherent theoretical frame-
submersion approach The now-illegal practice of simply work, an orientation toward what students should
placing limited English proficiency students in the learn, and specific teaching procedures and structures.
classroom and expecting them to pick up English on test anxiety Phenomenon that occurs when students ex-
their own without any formal teaching or other sup- perience undue stress while taking a test and do poorly
port from the school. as a result.
successful intelligence Robert Sternberg’s label for a set test blueprint A tool used in constructing a test so it will
of abilities possessed by an individual that make it pos- have a balance of questions representing various forms
sible to attain success in life. of knowledge and cognitive processes.
summative evaluation Evaluation done after instruction test-retest reliability The degree to which a test shows
to determine program effectiveness or the worth of stu- consistent results when administered to the same stu-
dents’ work. dent at different times.
sustaining expectation effect Occurs when teachers thinking matrix A visual device to help students think
do not change their previous expectations about a about the types of questions and answers they provide
student, even after the student’s performance has during a discussion; used to teach thinking skills.
improved or regressed. thinking routines Routines and structures that provide
swing seating Seating plan that allows easy movement of scaffolding to help make thinking processes visible to
seats during cooperative learning lessons. students.
synergy Positive results achieved from working together think-pair-share A technique used by teachers to slow
or through combined action. down the pace of discourse and to increase student
syntax The overall flow, sequence, or major steps of a par- participation.
ticular lesson. tiered activities A strategy for getting all students, regard-
less of abilities, to focus on the same understanding or
skill but at different levels of abstraction or complexity.
time on task See engaged time.
time-tabling Chronological mapping of time relation-
ships among various instructional activities.
tone See ethos and school culture.
transitional bilingual programs Programs in which lim-
ited English proficiency students are initially provided
554 Glossary • www.mhhe.com/arends9e
instruction in their native language, with gradual in- variable A characteristic of a person or a physical or so-
creases in English until proficiency is achieved. cial situation that can change or vary from one instance
transitions The times during a lesson when the teacher to the next.
is moving from one type of learning activity to
another. verbal signposts Statements made by teachers when ex-
understand One of the six types of cognitive processes in plaining something that tells the students what is im-
Bloom’s revised taxonomy, defined as being able to in- portant or alerts them to important points coming up.
terpret, exemplify, classify, summarize, infer, compare,
and explain knowledge. visible thinking Process for making thinking processes
unit plan An integrated plan for instruction covering sev- visible and accessible to students.
eral days and including several lessons aimed at a com-
mon set of goals and objectives. visual cuing Use of visual devices, such as hand signals,
U-shaped seating pattern A seating arrangement used to inform students about what they should be doing.
for discussions in which students’ chairs form a U and
the teacher is seated at the open end of the U. wait-time The time a teacher waits for a student to re-
validity The degree to which a test measures what it claims spond to a question and the time a teacher waits before
to measure. responding back.
value-added assessments Assessments that show the
amount of learning gain made by students as a result of webbing See conceptual mapping.
particular instruction situations, such as being in a with-itness The ability of teachers to spot disruptive stu-
teacher’s classroom for the school year.
dent behavior quickly and accurately.
working memory See short-term memory.
zone of proximal development A concept attributed
to Lev Vygotsky that represents the area between a
learner’s level of actual development and his or her
level of potential development.
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Name Index
Adams, A., 131, 518 Borg, W., 532 Clark, C. M., 94, 95
Adelman, C., 76 Borg, W. R., 274 Clark, J., 19
Aerson, G., 272 Boss, S., 426 Clark, R., 345
Airasian, P. W., 113, 115, 116, 117, 134, 216, 220 , Boyatzis, R. E., 52 Clarke, D., 264, 315
Bozeman, M., 192 Clinkenbeard, P., 367
229, 246, 258, 267 Brannon, L., 77 Cochran-Smith, M., 32
Airey, F., 317 Bransford, J., 19, 22, 23, 32, 38, 46, 106, 267, 272 Cocking, R., 32, 267, 272
Albanese, M., 402 Bransford, J. D., 28 Coffield, F., 54
Allen, V., 75 Bredderman, T., 402 Cohen, E., 166, 532
Allington, R., 500 Brenton, Myron, 6 Coiro, J., 405
Alschuler, A. S., 145 Briggs, L. J., 95 Cole, M., 496
Ames, W., 272 Brimijoin, K., 489 Coleman, J., 157, 515
Ancess, J., 498 Brody, N., 54 Collins, A., 10, 148, 170, 171, 377, 516, 521
Anderman, E., 175 Brookhart, S. M., 95, 113, 114, 220, 221, 222, 229, Collins, A. M., 267
Anderman, L., 175 Collins, M. L., 274
Anderson, L. M., 334 251, 443 Conery, L., 426
Anderson, L. W., 113, 115, 116, 117, 134, 267 Brophy, J. E., 47, 49, 126, 175, 179, 198, 299, 434 Connolly, W., 444
Anyon, J., 83 Brown, A., 32, 71, 267, 269, 272, 439 Constantino, P. M., 252
Apple, M., 105 Brown, B. R., 97 Conway, P., 31, 32
Arends, R., 110, 233, 409 Brown, C. E., 72 Cook, A., 461
Aronson, E., 368, 392 Brown, R., 81 Cooper, H., 216, 310, 311
Arter, J., 251, 258 Bruce, B. C., 155, 433, 434, 449 Corbett, L., 79
Ashcroft, M. H., 267, 269, 329 Bruner, J., 64, 141, 266, 324, 331, 341, 345, 400, 402 Corno, L., 216, 310, 311, 510, 511
Atkinson, J., 145 Bundy, D., 160 Costa, A., 354
Audet, R., 354 Burbules, N. C., 155, 433, 434, 449 Cotton, K., 98
Ausubel, D., 266, 267, 273, 324 Burke, K., 247 Couchenour, D., 487
Burmark, L., 293 Covington, M. V., 142
Baker, D., 78 Burns, A. B., 264, 315 Cronback, L., 345
Bandura, A., 147, 298 Bursuck, W., 45, 89 Crooks, T. J., 220
Bangert, R., 233 Cruikshank, D., 282
Bangert-Drowns, R. L., 221 Cahen, L., 126 Cruikshank, K. A., 113, 115, 116, 117, 134, 267
Banks, C., 69 Cain, T., 157 Csikszentmihalyi, M., 145, 146
Banks, J., 46, 49, 65, 69, 75, 76, 89 Caldwell, K. A., 152 Cuban, L., 11, 148, 264, 315, 433, 434
Barell, J., 354, 426 Calhoun, E., 320 Cuevas, M., 149–150
Barker, R. G., 180 Call, I., 351 Cullen, F. T., 220
Barker, S., 486 Callen, A., 208–209, 518 Cullen, J. B., 220
Barnes, C., 138–139 Cangelosi, J. S., 201 Cushing, K. S., 32
Barry, C. M., 152 Canter, D. M., 143, 180 Cushner, K., 44, 89
Barsalou, L. W., 330 Canter, L., 143, 180, 201 Cypher, T., 502, 503
Bauer, A. M., 180 Canter, M., 201 Czerniak, C., 397, 405, 426
Beaulieu, R. P., 221 Carter, K., 152, 181, 189
Bejarano, Y., 364 Carter, T., 36 Danielson, C., 38, 508, 521
Bellanca, J., 354, 426 Cartiera, M., 75 Darling-Hammond, L., 19, 22, 23, 32, 38, 46, 106, 498
Bellas, V., 149 Caruso, D., 36, 351 DaSilva, S., 75
Bellisimo, Y., 403 Castle, S., 414, 415, 477 Davies, D., 510
Benjafield, J. G., 330 Cathey, C., 445 Davis, J., 134
Benjamin, A., 489 Cavanagh, S., 221 Davis, K., 245
Bennett, S., 310, 311 Cazden, C. B., 81, 155, 432, 433 Deal, T., 501
Berger, K., 401 Ceci, S. J., 274 deCharms, R., 1415
Berliner, D., 32, 109, 126, 221 Chapman, C., 62 Deci, E., 145
Berliner, D. C., 32 Chappuis, J., 251, 258 Delli, L. M., 33
Berninger, V., 364 Chappuis, S., 251, 258 DeLorenzo, M. N., 252
Biddle, B. J., 179, 264, 434, 525 Charney, R. S., 205, 208 Delpit, L., 69, 449
Biklen, S. K., 76 Chartock, R., 89 Dempster, F. N., 221
Binet, A., 17, 50 Chomsky, N., 105 Dewey, J., 141, 156, 179, 184, 341, 355, 362, 400
Black, P., 221, 232, 233 Chrisman, K., 487 Dewey, T., 530
Bloom, B. S., 249 Ciotti, L., 423–424 Dietz, M., 511
Bobbitt, F., 249 City, E., 461 Dilworth, M. E., 72
Bogner, K., 269 Claiborn, W. L., 47 Dishaw, M., 126
Bohn, K., 269 Clark, C., 31, 32
576
Name Index 577
Do, S. L., 450 Gale, J., 345 Hayhow, V. L., 220
Dochy, F., 403 Gall, J. P., 532 Haystead, M., 109, 110
Dodge, J., 480, 489 Gall, M. D., 274, 434, 532 Heath, S. B., 65
Dolan, L., 365, 397 Gallagher, J. J., 60, 62 Heider, E. R., 81
Dolezal, S. E., 157, 158, 166, 269 Gallagher, S. A., 60, 62 Henning, J., 461
Donovan, M. S., 28 Gallego, M. A., 496 Herald-Brown, S., 149
Doyle, W., 95, 150, 152, 154, 180, 181, 189, 190, 216 Gandhi, M., 62 Herrenkohl, L. R., 378
Dreikurs, R., 180 Ganzer, K., 317 Herrnstein, R. J., 52, 64
Duchastel, P. C., 97 Garcia, C., 85 Hersh, R., 496, 504, 514, 601
Duffy, G., 25 Gardner, H., 18, 50, 51, 61, 65, 224, 324, 475, 478 Hershman, D., 175
Duffy, T., 28, 38 Gates, S. L., 249 Hertz-Lazarowitz, R., 364
Duncan, A., 175 Gay, G., 68, 69 Hess, D., 461
Dunkin, M. J., 179, 264, 434, 525 Gazzaniga, M., 267 Hess, R. K., 78
Dunn, K., 53 Geissler, P., 160 Hickey, D., 403
Dunn, R., 53 Germundson, A., 4 Hicks, D., 433
Durkin, D. T., 220, 221, 222, 229 Gersten, R., 75 Hicks, M., 139
Dwyer, D. C., 148 Getzels, J. W., 141 Hill, C., 79
Gewertz, C., 10, 15, 126 Hiller, J. H., 272
Eamon, M. K., 81 Gheen, M., 152, 154 Hisley, J., 274
Earl, L., 230, 233 Gijbels, D., 403 Hmelo, C., 403
Early, D., 131 Gilles, R. M., 365 Hodgkinson, H., 9
Ebmeier, H., 296 Gillies, R., 392 Holland, D., 19
Eccles, J. S., 78, 145 Gilligan, C., 76, 448, 525 Hollingsworth, J., 320
Ecclestone, K., 54 Girard, M. T., 290 Holt, D., 85–86, 458
Edison, T., 62 Gisher, G. A., 272 Holubec, E., 363, 365
Edwards, M. N., 33 Glass, G. V., 272, 405, 496, 531 Honig, M. I., 157, 510
Egeland, B., 510 Glasser, W., 184, 203 Horton, D., 403
Einstein, A., 62 Glynn, G., 336 Housner, L. D., 99, 100
Eisner, E., 506 Goeke, J., 320 Howard, T. C., 68
Elliot, E. C., 224 Gold, R. M., 220 Hunt, D., 277
Elliott, A., 73 Goleman, D., 52 Hunter, M. C., 161, 287, 296
Emmer, E., 179, 193, 196, 199, 211 Good, T., 49, 434 Hyde, J. S., 76
Emmers, E., 184 Good, T. L., 47, 49, 126, 198, 296, 299, 300
Enersen, D., 89 Goodlad, J., 83, 434, 500, 504 Irvine, J. J., 71, 72, 449
Englund, M., 510 Gore, A., 7 Ivry, R., 267
Entz, S., 330 Gould, S. J., 64
Epstein, J., 84, 216, 311, 510, 511, 521 Graham, S., 142 Jacobs, H. H., 128, 129, 134
Erickson, H. L., 354 Grant, C., 89 Jacobson, L., 47
Escalante, J., 19 Greeno, J. G., 267 James, M., 258, 336
Evans, R., 521 Gregorc, A., 53 Jay, E., 325
Evertson, C., 179, 184, 193, 196, 199, 211 Gregory, G., 62, 489 Jckson, K., 216, 310
Grey, L., 180 Jensen, A., 64
Feather, N., 145 Griffey, D. C., 99, 100 Jensen, E., 364
Feiman-Nemser, S., 31, 500, 510 Griffin, P., 496 Jha, J., 78
Feldman, J., 329 Griffiths, S., 32 Johnson, D., 154, 363, 365, 392
Felman, J. L., 286 Grigoroenko, E., 160 Johnson, D. W., 175, 366, 367
Fenstermacher, G., 23 Grissmer, D., 221 Johnson, F., 154, 175, 392
Fenton, E., 341 Grolnick, W., 149 Johnson, R., 363, 365, 366, 367
Fernandez, P., 209 Gronlund, N. E., 95, 113, 134, 235, 245, 258 Jolliffe, W., 392
Filby, N., 126 Grothe, M., 285 Jones, L., 196, 211
Finkelstein, D., 293 Grouws, D. A., 296, 300 Jones, V., 196, 211
Fisher, C. W., 126 Gump, P. V., 152, 180, 190 Jordon, L., 354
Fisher, D., 258, 320 Gurian, M., 76, 78, 89 Joseph, R., 46
Flanders, N., 434 Guskey, T. R., 249, 253 Joyce, B., 320, 496, 504, 514, 601
Flavel, J., 269 Guzzetti, B. J., 272, 405 Jung, L., 253
Floden, R. E., 500, 510, 524, 525 Jussim, L., 157
Fogarty, R., 489 Haberman, M., 58
Ford, G. W., 266 Haider, S., 366, 367 Kaess, W., 272
Foreman, L., 486 Hale, M., 461 Kagan, M., 370, 392
Frederick, S., 172 Hall, E., 54 Kagan, S., 370, 371, 385, 392
Frey, N., 258, 320 Hallinan, M. T., 49, 78, 83 Kahne, J., 157, 510
Friedman, T., 8 Halpern, D. F., 76 Kalish, N., 310, 311
Friend, M., 45, 89 Halverson, R., 516, 521 Kaplan, A., 152, 154
Friendly, R., 149 Halveson, R., 10, 148, 170, 171, 377 Kaskowitz, D., 299
Fullan, M., 95, 504, 506, 515, 521 Hammerness, K., 32 Kear, K., 25
Fuller, F., 31 Harbet, S., 446 Kelleher, F., 78
Furst, N., 272 Harrison, C., 221, 232, 233 Keller, F. S., 249
Hart, B., 81 Kempler, T., 274
Gage, N. L., 4, 27, 524 Hart, P., 170 Kilcher, A., 110, 233, 409
Gagné, E. D., 267, 269, 270, 281 Hatfield, S., 148 Kilpatrick, W., 400
Gagné, R. M., 95, 267 Haycock, K., 106 Kindion, D., 78
578 Name Index • www.mhhe.com/arends9e
Kirschner, P., 345 Marliave, R., 126 Novodvorsky, I., 193, 211
Klahr, D., 345 Marshal, B., 221, 232, 233 Nye, B., 216, 310
Klausmeier, H., 350 Martella, R., 320 Nystrand, M., 434
Klein, S., 78 Marzano, J. S., 211
Kleinfeld, J., 78 Marzano, R. J., 38, 109, 110, 198, 211, 220, 251, Oakes, J., 46, 47, 49, 69, 83, 89, 144, 155, 166, 167,
Klopfer, L., 433 184, 205, 206, 245, 464, 482
Kochel, K., 149 253, 258, 272, 282, 284, 293, 299, 306, 310,
Kohn, A., 83, 144, 180, 184, 205, 206, 207, 211, 311, 387, 434, 440, 448, 504 O’Brien, J., 290, 457–458
Maslow, A., 144, 180, 184 O’Connor, K., 254
220, 310, 311, 320, 506, 521 Mathews, J., 511 Ogbu, J. U., 157
Kolodner, J., 403 Maughan, B., 496, 504 Ogle, D., 233
Kosminsky, E., 433 Maxwell, N., 403 Oja, S. N., 277
Kosminsky, L., 433 Mayer, R. E., 113, 115, 116, 117, 134, 267, 272 Okagaki, L., 52
Kottler, E., 38 McClelland, A., 44, 89 Okatcha, F., 160
Kottler, J., 38 McClelland, D., 145 O’Leary, D., 78
Kotulak, R., 53 McCombs, G., 128, 134 Omi, M., 64
Kounin, J. S., 152, 180, 181, 182, 183, 189 McCutcheon, G., 95, 96, 99, 101 Ormrod, J. E., 76, 77, 78
Krajcik, J., 397, 405, 426 McDill, E., 46 Ornstein, A., 468
Krathowl, D. R., 113, 115, 116, 117, 134, 267 McDonald, E., 175 Ouston, J., 496, 504
Krauss, J., 426 McDonald, M., 32
Kryza, K., 175 McIntyre, J., 145 Palincsar, A. S., 71, 325, 341, 342, 378,
Kuiper, E., 409 McKee, A., 52 433, 439
Kulik, C. C., 221, 233 McKibbin, M., 496, 504, 514, 601
Kulik, J. A., 221, 233, 481 McLaughlin, D., 67 Pallas, A., 46
Kumar, D., 306 McLaughlin, M. W., 157, 510 Panza, C., 445
Kussell, P., 364 McMillan, J., 229 Papert, S., 345
McTighe, J., 108, 109, 134, 254, 387, 453, 489 Patall, E., 310, 311
Ladd, G., 149 Mead, M., 527 Patnoe, S., 368, 392
Ladson-Billings, G., 69, 70, 449 Meier, E., 160 Patrick, B., 274
LaMay, M. L., 76 Mendler, A., 175 Patterson, J., 424
Lambros, A., 426 Mergendoller, J., 403 Paullio, H. R., 220
Lampert, M., 29, 95 Merkel, P. A., 389–390 Pavlov, I., 297
Landry, C., 293 Merrow, J., 16 Pedulla, H., 221
Landsburg, M., 15 Mertler, C. A., 246, 247, 248 Pelech, J., 38
Landsman, J., 106 Metcalf, K., 282 Pellegrino, J., 403
Leahy, S., 232 Metts, S., 440 Perelman, L., 10
Lee, V., 505 Meyer, E., 89 Perkins, D., 325
Lehr, R., 220 Meyer, R., 341, 345 Perkins, D. N., 52, 233, 347
Leinhardt, G., 99, 365 Midgley, C., 152, 154 Perna, D., 134
Leonard, J., 373 Mignano, A., 126, 127, 199, 200, 211, 380, 381 Perry, W., 277
LePage, P., 22, 23 Miles, R., 64 Pestalozzi, J., 180
Lessow-Hurley, J., 75, 89 Miller, L., 128, 134, 501, 521 Peterson, K., 501
Lewis, K., 156 Milner, H. R., 95, 96, 99, 101 Phillips, S., 65
Lick, D., 521 Milton, O., 220 Piaget, J., 277, 324, 330, 400, 401
Lieberman, A., 501, 521 Mitchell, S., 402 Pickering, D., 310, 387
Lindsey, J. J., 216, 310 Mitzel, H., 524 Pickering, D. J., 211
Linn, M. C., 76 Mohan, L., 269 Pieper, G., 38
Linn, R. L., 245 Mohatt, G., 160 Pintrich, P. R., 113, 115, 116, 117, 134, 142, 146,
Lipka, J., 160 Moore, A., 403
Lippitt, R., 156 Moore, S., 504 157, 267
Lipton, M., 47, 49, 69, 83, 89, 144, 155, 166, 167, Morgon, M., 233 Placier, P., 32
Mortimore, P., 496, 504 Plouffe, J. T., 220
184, 205, 206, 464 Moseley, D., 54 Pollard, D., 76
Lissitz, R., 214 Mozart, W. A., 62 Pollard, D. S., 76
Little, J. W., 560 Mueller, K. J., 142 Popham, J., 110, 134, 302
Lobato, J., 264, 315 Muir, K., 46 Popham, W. J., 258
Lortie, D. C., 32, 496, 500, 501 Murphy, C., 521 Poytthast, A., 445
Lucas, T., 58, 65 Murphy, P. K., 33 Pressley, M., 157, 158, 166, 269, 440
Luckner, A. E., 510 Murray, C., 52, 64 Prince, R., 160
Luiten, J., 272 Pugno, L., 266
Lyman, F., 370, 453–455 Narvaez, L., 489 Putnam, J., 179
Lyon, C., 232 Nash, J., 61
Lyotard, J., 525 Natriello, G., 46 Raphael, L., 269
Lytton, H., 77 Nettles, S. M., 84 Rather, D., 4
Neu, T., 78, 89 Raths, J., 113, 115, 116, 117, 134, 267
Ma, X., 76 Newcomb, T. M., 157 Ravitch, D., 15, 38, 221
Macbeth, D., 271 Newsome, L., 375 Raviv, S., 364
Macias, J., 67 Nibam, M., 345 Redfield, D., 434
Madden, N., 365, 397 Nichols, S., 109, 221 Reilly, A., 220
Maehr, M., 147 Nickerson, R., 324 Rendulic, P., 148
Mager, R. F., 95, 111 Niguidula, D., 252 Resnick, L. B., 267, 325, 398, 433
Magnusson, S., 341, 342 Noblit, G., 184, 185, 186 Richards, T., 364
Mangun, G., 267 Noddings, N., 144, 180, 184, 205, 211, 525 Richardson, V., 27, 32, 38
Mann, H., 21 Nokes, C., 160 Richardson, W., 426, 446, 461
Marchand-Martella, N., 320 Richardson-Koehler, V., 335
Riddle, J., 293
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