Library Spaces for 21st-Century Learners

<< Chapter >> Home | TOC | Index

into different spaces using freestanding exhibits, or floor and wall treatments
that become a form of graphic signage. Visual icons can both entertain and
direct children around a space. They are also frequently easier to understand
and remember than words. Visual displays that capture the attention of users
should also be noted. Do the users stop to notice only 3D displays or are flat
bulletin boards visually enticing enough to make them stop?

One of my new favorite locations to study teen environments is an Ap-
ple Store. The stores are bright and clean, and the zones change seamlessly
from presentation spaces to conference spaces to merchandising spaces. Apple
Stores’ “Genius Bars” are a wonderful idea. And the stores’ designers have
taken the corporate “benching” concept to a new level, encouraging people
to gather around the equipment and interact.

Lighting is a key element in the stores; it is used to merchandise hard-
ware and accessories, as well as to spotlight key features. Their Apple brand
dominates the front window; once you walk into the store the environment
reinforces the brand dramatically. Just as interesting to me is the standard ap-
pearance of each employee; the standard shirt and pants are secondary to the
headphone and handheld device they all carry or wear. Access to information
24–7 is the theme of this world, and that theme is currently extremely popu-
lar with teenagers. They “hang out” in the stores as if they were clubs.

Observing Interactions

It is important to note that, after you have observed an environment for its
physical essence, you should turn your attention to the ways young people ex-
plore and interact with the space. Interaction with a space gives it a personal,
special meaning to the user. These interactions have a lasting effect on people
and embed themselves into long-term memory (Israel 2010, 2-19).

Is the space tactile; do people naturally like to touch the environment?
Does the space provide an inviting sense of warmth? Do people enjoy spend-
ing time there? Is it comfortable? Libraries have traditionally had the effect
of making people want to explore them, and one of the goals for your new
school library should be to encourage users to interact with the space and its
contents.

Observing interaction also means noticing how the users interact with
each other in the space. The most common interaction is talking, but this
generation integrates texting into almost all their conversations. I have ob-

Do As I Say, Not As I Do    39

<< Chapter >> Home | TOC | Index

served people in the same space texting each other rather than talking. It is
a personal conversation and flows seamlessly along with participants’ spoken
dialogue. Texting introduces a new aspect of multiple conversations going on
simultaneously. Texting also accompanies other interactions such as watch-
ing, collaborating, presenting, or brainstorming. No one needs to be present
to participate or contribute. Texting is a ubiquitous communication method
whose ping generates a response in young people that is as predictable as the
response of Pavlov’s dogs.

The interaction of texting with all social activity is interesting on another
level as well. A text message triggers an auditory alert that demand an imme-
diate response in a new modality. This level of interaction, even if it endangers
the precipitant while driving or interrupts another serious event, simply can-
not be ignored by most young people. Ignoring the text introduces another
series of underlying social messages to the sender. Texting is a key component
of social interaction between teens and is rapidly becoming the best way for
adults to communicate with them. Its communication dominance should not
be overlooked when planning spaces.

Other interactions not to overlook are the physical relationships of young
people. How close do they want to be during an activity? As mentioned previ-
ously, I found it interesting to watch young children cluster together to read
silently. As students age, their space relationships change. Notice when per-
sonal space starts to be important to your users. Notice, though, that when a
group becomes involved around a computer— especially if members of the
group are engaged in a game—then personal space is irrelevant. Their close
physical proximity and mutual involvement mimic the characteristics and
excitement of a sporting event.

Another interaction to watch is close friends or dating teens. I have no-
ticed the library is a favorite location for “together time.” A friend’s high
school library had one of my favorite policies that simply stated: “Only one
seat on a chair.” To reduce the possibility of situations that will be awkward
for you and library users, the typical flood of hormones should be consid-
ered in the planning phase of high school libraries, especially when planning
sightlines.

How teens share information was illustrated to me once when I noticed
two slim friends sitting together in a lounge chair as they shared earbuds and
listened to music while they worked. This observation changed my thinking
about furniture and collaboration.

40    Do As I Say, Not As I Do

<< Chapter >> Home | TOC | Index

Observing Objects

So—listening to music while studying is allowed in the library if you use
headphones. Are earbuds considered headphones? Absolutely, they are con-
sidered headphones by anyone using a smart phone or iPod. If you are sharing
those earbuds, you will be sitting close together, and, if you both can fit into
really tiny jeans, you can easily share a lounge chair. Until I observed these
students, sharing a chair and a single set of earbuds it never occurred to me as
being comfortable or practical.

Observe the objects students prefer to use and how they use them be-
fore planning your library space. The objects, their availability, and how they
are stored will influence space planning. Include furniture into the objects
category, too. Observation may dramatically influence your seating options,
table size, table shape and materials, and the configuration of shelving. For
example, if tablet computers are students’ primary research tool, but you have
printed resources that should be integrated, consider mobile shelving. Move
printed material closer to the students; they probably won’t go looking for it,
so bring it to them.

A school librarian was grumbling that students moved the task chairs
from the computer stations and used the chairs all over the library. After
observing the students, I asked her what she was seeing. Many of the student
groups were fluid, and individuals moved from table to table, working in
different teams. The only mobile chairs were the computer task chairs; all
other chairs were wooden, upholstered, and heavy. The library was full of
handsome library chairs, but they were not practical for the type of work
these students wanted to do. They needed better “chair tools” in their learn-
ing environment.

Most often, observations of objects focus on technology tools. The evo-
lution in technology has made this focus inescapable. The problem you ex-
perience focusing too closely on technology, though, is that it is continually
changing and upgrading. Planning a space based on specific technology tools
could make your library space obsolete in a couple of years. So I try to look at
what the tools have in common. Features like: they are getting smaller, they
need electrical power, they host creative applications, they can access the In-
ternet without wiring, they connect to other tools, and students are walking
into the library with them in hand. Planning for these features is essential. For
example, unless you want the library full of students sitting on the floor next
to a wall plug, you have to think more creatively about access to power.

Do As I Say, Not As I Do    41

<< Chapter >> Home | TOC | Index

These observations have also made me think a lot about the types of tools
students need in the library, but that they cannot carry with them, cannot
personally afford, or want to use with a larger monitor than their personal
devices contain. The types of creative tools I see students using introduce
sound into the equation. What will the role of sound be in your future school
library? If users need to listen to information as well as view it, then what
other applications and tools (besides headsets) should you make available in
the library to leverage sound as a learning tool?

The list of objects being used by students should be extensive because it
can include everything from pencils to interactive whiteboards. Don’t forget
to note their use of traditional library supplies like poster board and markers.
Another overlooked object can be a backpack or messenger bag. Do learners
bring bags into the library? How do you accommodate them in the space, and
what do students pull out of their bags while in the library?

Observing Users

Unless your training was in clandestine operations, students will have started
to notice you are on an observation mission. I would leverage their powers of
observation to help you with the process. The activity will be fun for them,
and they can add valuable insights in each observation category. Observing
users, however, should be subtle. There really is no need to be creepy and stare
at your users—plus no one behaves normally when someone is watching, so
the information gathered while staring would be worthless.

Of course, you will have observed the users through all your previous
observations. What have you learned? You will have also gathered informa-
tion about users from the surveys and focus groups. In the library you work
daily one-on-one with students. Your school has demographic data about
your student population. And if you have time you can read a wealth of infor-
mation about this generation based on observations made globally in books
like John Palfrey and Urs Gasser’s Born Digital or Hanging Out, Messing Around
and Geeking Out by Mizuko Ito et al.

When I observe activities, environments, interactions, and objects, I al-
ways note traits that are unique to individual users or common to groups.
Observations about users might include in what size groups do they tend to
gather? Which students are leaders and how can you tell? Which students

42    Do As I Say, Not As I Do

<< Chapter >> Home | TOC | Index

seem to be natural extroverts or introverts? Are there students who have study
habits or rituals worth noting? Do students try to control their space or their
library experiences? How do they do this? Do any students visit the library to
help restore their energy during the day? Who and how can you tell? These
observations may or may not be valuable later (Augustin 2009, 21-32).

A method of observation I would encourage is engaging users in infor-
mal conversations and unstructured interviews. Simply talking to users on a
personal level will provide you with insight. The topics you introduce can be
guided by demographic information school districts already have. This data
can also be an excellent source of ideas to improve the users’ experience in
the library.

The following story about demographics and conversation comes from a
large urban high school, and planning the library space was influenced by it.
The district was almost equally divided between an affluent neighborhood to
the west of the high school and a poor subdivision on the other side of a high-
way to the east. On the west side, the answers to the question about BYOD
indicated that tremendous resources from home were available to learners.
On the east side, the answer was extremely different. One student said she did
not even have a table at home to use for schoolwork, much less access to the
Internet or computers. The young woman who told her school librarian she
did not have a table at home on which to do her homework made that com-
ment one afternoon while helping the librarian close the school library. It was
a casual comment that had a tremendous impact on the future library.

For many students coming to this school from the east, access to tech-
nology outside of school was possible only via a cell phone. This knowledge
about the users had a clear impact on planning the school library, the re-
sources required, and after school hours of access and operation.

All the information you have collected has value, so next it is time to con-
vert it into space. That will require that organizing information, prioritizing
what it reveals, and then taking action.

Do As I Say, Not As I Do    43

<< Chapter >> Home | TOC | Index

<< Chapter >> Home | TOC | Index

Chapter 6 From Needs Assessment to
Innovation

After accumulating all your information, the urge
is to immediately start formulating space plans and
solutions to perceived problems—but try to restrain
yourself. Many people will first use their research to
corroborate their own biases and overlook incon-
venient data. To avoid falling into this trap, set up
some criteria to use in evaluating your findings and
then take the time to assess the information.

To sort information when planning a school li-
brary, I use three circles developed by IDEO (2011)
and slightly modified for my purpose. The circles
are: desirability, feasibility, and viability. From these
three spheres you can create a library or school
space that provides a learning environment for your
students, reflects your school’s goals, and should be
affordable. The merging of these three evaluation
concepts will produce innovation.

  45

<< Chapter >> Home | TOC | Index

Desirability

The desirability consideration focuses a critical eye on each concept from the
perspective of how advantageous the feature or innovation would be for the
user. At this stage of the evaluation, ask yourself:

• Which elements are most important to users?
• How would each element make learning experiences more exciting

and engaging?
• How many users would be affected?
• Will meeting this need positively impact another area of concern?

It is also important to determine how much progress users will be able to
make after a specific need is met. T. J. Sork describes this change in achieve-
ment as “the magnitude of discrepancy” (1995). You are evaluating the gap
between where your students are today and where you want them to be as
21st-century learners. If meeting the need would significantly narrow the
gap, it should be moved up the scale of importance.

Feasibility

Feasibility assessment is an evaluation of each need from the perspective of
the school’s educational model or goals. At this stage of the evaluation, ask
yourself questions about suitability, such as:

• How will each change under consideration reinforce the learning
models in the school?

• Does a change or feature support multiple learning styles?
• Does a change or feature support the mission of the school?

This is the aspect of evaluation that is most often omitted by outside de-
signers because it requires an insight into learning models that outside design-
ers usually don’t have. It is important to talk with designers about how envi-
ronments support learning. Simply creating an attractive space is not enough.
The space must work for programs, curriculum components, instruction, and
creative endeavors. The school library is a working space, not a promotional
picture for your school’s or architect’s website.

Viability

The last piece of the evaluation puzzle is viability in relationship to cost and
available funds. The questions to be answered at this stage are:

46    From Needs Assessment to Innovation

<< Chapter >> Home | TOC | Index

• Which ideas are affordable to implement?

• When does desirable innovation lose out to insufficient funds?

School funding is a critical issue, and, ideally, decisions should be made
based on the long-term student-achievement rewards. We all know this fo-
cus on students’ achievement is not always the basis for financial decisions.
Passing referendums is difficult in any economic climate, and in this second
decade of the twenty-first century voters are vigorously challenging expendi-
tures. Making a compelling case for a new school library is a difficult task,
especially if you cannot clearly articulate its desirability to users and feasibility
for learning.

I think there are actually two costs to judge when planning a new school
library; the first one is immediate. You have to ask:

• Does the district have the resources to make new concepts a reality?

• What is the budget for renovating the school library?
–or–

• What will be the cost per square foot for the library in the new
building? Is that cost greater or less than for a traditional library?

• Can you influence the budget with the information you have
gathered?

• Does the investment in the library space enrich the educational goals
of the district?

The second issue to consider is the long-term cost of underfunding a
library project. Discovering two years after a new construction or renovation
project that your school library will not support 21st-century learning would
be a tragedy.

Underfunding infrastructure is usually the first problem that comes to
light. A strain on technology resources is an issue in relatively new schools
all over the country. But that is not the only problem. An inflexible space is,
unfortunately, inflexible, and it will not adapt to new needs.

Districts that prematurely underestimate the usefulness of printed books
can experience a significant loss in resources. A new school library built as a
social meeting space or a glorified coffee shop does almost nothing to enrich
learning and certainly does not require a librarian to operate.

Under-built spaces are very frequently seen; districts that are not sure
what the school library will be in the future decide that—whatever it will

From Needs Assessment to Innovation    47

<< Chapter >> Home | TOC | Index

be—it can be much smaller than a traditional library. Inadequate space ruins
learning options immediately. Or perhaps even worse, multiple small spaces
are spread out over a campus, but with no professional development to ex-
plore their possibilities, the school is left with a mix of storage and breakout
spaces, but no library applications and no coordinated library program to
help students take their learning to the next level.

Priorities

Evaluate your information from all three viewpoints. Both simple and com-
plex tools are available to help you do this. But before you start, decide who
will be on a team helping you work through the information and prioritize
the needs to be met, and the features and characteristics of the new space that
will meet these needs. Build a team that wants a successful new library as
much as you do; involve stakeholders: teachers, administrators, and students.
They can all be valuable team members. Members of the IT department can
also be extremely valuable to this evaluation and prioritization process.

Before deciding if each idea is viable, rank its desirability and feasibility.
Any idea that does not enhance learning really does not need to be ranked on
affordability.

A simple tool for prioritizing concepts is a box matrix. One might look
like figure _____.

B A

High

Desirability

D C
High
Low

Low feasibility
48    From Needs Assessment to Innovation

<< Chapter >> Home | TOC | Index

The team decides whether each idea should be considered high or low
in desirability and feasibility, and then records that decision by placing each
idea in the box matrix. For example, if idea A was both high in desirability
for students and an excellent fit in the curriculum, it would be placed in the
box on the upper-right corner. Idea B might be high in student desirability
but low in feasibility because it does not directly support educational goals.
Therefore, idea B goes into the upper-left corner. Idea C may meet educa-
tional goals but was not as desirable to students, so it lands in the lower-right
box. And it is decided by the team that D is neither desirable to students nor
meets significant educational goals. As a result, idea D’s placement is in the
lower-left box.

As the box fills up, the ideas in the lower-left corner take on less of a
priority. If ideas must be eliminated, those would be the first to go. Ideas in
the upper-right corner have the highest priority followed by either the lower-
right or upper-left, depending on whether you place a higher priority on
feasibility or desirability.

Obviously, this process will not work if the team thinks all the ideas are
both high in desirability and feasibility. Then, a more complex method of
prioritizing ideas is required. My favorite tool is the Pugh Method. It is a
decision-making matrix that asks each team member to individually score
every idea against every other idea. This approach allows multi-dimensional
options to be considered in one ranking process.

How to Use the Pugh Method

Let’s walk through the process of applying the Pugh Method to the planning
for renovation of a high school library. Information to consider as each sug-
gested change or new feature is assessed: It is a small high school in a rural
setting. It has fewer than six hundred students. With open enrollments, ad-
ministrators want to attract students to the school. The lures to encourage
transfers will be high student achievement and state-of-the-art facilities.

Feasibility curriculum goals that were identified included: expanding
AP classes, improving critical-thinking skills at all grade levels, improving
tenth-grade language arts scores on state tests, maintaining above-state-aver-
age ACT scores for seniors, and rigorously preparing students for a success-
ful post-high-school educational experience. The school administrators have
introduced a formal mentoring program to encourage positive behavior in

From Needs Assessment to Innovation    49

<< Chapter >> Home | TOC | Index

freshman; in the program, junior and senior leaders meet one-on-one with
ninth-graders.

Students are encouraged to be self-directed learners; RtI (response to in-
tervention) testing in language arts and math produce individual learning
programs for students. Juniors and seniors must include team-project work
in their portfolios across multiple courses.

Through surveying students, it was determined that most students con-
sidered themselves average technology users, yet 93 percent had access to
computers at home, 99 percent had cell phones as sophomores, and 100 per-
cent had cell phones by their senior year. Pervasive use of technology was sim-
ply considered average use. Students said their biggest obstacle to using tech-
nology in school was blocked websites. They wanted to use mobile devices to
look up information and check grades. It was interesting to discover that two
out of three students still preferred to read homework assignments in a print-
ed book. “Flexible scheduling” was only one percentage point above “earning
college credits” as a reason why students wanted to take online courses.

Viability criteria to consider as you rank options are: as a result of success-
ful grant writing all classrooms were fitted with interactive whiteboards; WiFi
access was recently installed throughout the building; students can now bring
their own laptops or tablets to school to offset the limited number of school-
owned mobile devices. Community surveys indicate taxpayers are willing to
fund technology enhancements and improvements that increase student test
scores.

This library is in the middle of the school between two main hallways.
Hall A provides access to the language arts, math, and social studies class-
rooms; Hall B connects classrooms and labs for science, music, and studio
art classes.

Ideas to rank based on feasibility and the school’s educational goals:

1. Expand user access to power throughout the library
2. Provide students with greater access to IT staff
3. Expand infrastructure to accommodate students’ desire to BYOD to

school and access library resources
4. Raise the roof to introduce windows around the ceiling for natural

light for reading

5. Create soft-seating reading spaces and remove underused shelving

6. Convert a storage room into an AP interactive distance-learning lab

50    From Needs Assessment to Innovation

<< Chapter >> Home | TOC | Index

7. Create two private meeting spaces by converting storage space

8. Replace all current television sets on carts with several wall-mounted

flat-screen TVs in the library

9. Convert storage area for mobile carts into junior/senior study

lounge

10. Purchase mobile whiteboards and electronic whiteboard for junior/

senior study lounge

11. Purchase a mix of café tables, stools, and tablet-arm mobile lounge

chairs for study lounge

12. In lounge, add flat-screen TV, beverage bar, and wall display of mag-

azines, paperbacks, and DVDs

13. Convert large magazine-storage room into general storage room with

mobile shelving
14. Convert large alcove computer lab into AP course lab and update

environment with system furniture
15. In the window area near the main entrance off Hall B, create a work-

space with high-speed computers
16. Create an equally prominent entrance to the library from Hall A

with easy access to study lounge
17. Replace mismatched computer tables with a single style that can be

reconfigured and has built-in power access
18. Replace all stacking chairs in computer areas with mobile pneumat-

ic-lift task chairs with five-prong bases
19. Make the space more flexible by replacing wooden 42- x 72-inch li-

brary tables with a mix of tables with electrical outlets and moveable
tables that can be easily reconfigured for group work
20. Make the space more flexible by replacing wooden, sled-based chairs
with mobile pneumatic-lift task chairs with five-prong bases
21. Reduce the size of the circulation desk and install self-checkout sta-
tions
22. Create greater visual interest in the library by painting the beige walls
more vibrant colors and adding artwork
23. Create informal areas for beverages by replacing carpeting with zones
of carpet squares and Pergo wood laminate
24. Expand the fiction collection and add a cart of NOOK e-readers
25. Merchandise new books by adding display fixtures near entrances

From Needs Assessment to Innovation    51

<< Chapter >> Home | TOC | Index

Rank all twenty-five of these ideas against one another for feasibility and
how well each addresses the educational goals of the school to establish a
prioritized list. It is best to use a spreadsheet for tabulation. Appendix A is
an example of one team member’s ranking. Based only on this one person’s
ranking, the top priorities would be given to items 3, 1, 14, 15, 24, 21, and
6. Second-tier priorities would be given to items 2, 13, 16, 5, 8, 9, 11, 17,
and 18. The lowest priority would be given to items 4, 7, 12, 20, 10, 22, 23,
19, and 25.

Ideas into Spaces

Once ideas have been prioritized, it is time to start translating ideas into
space. This is an ideal time for you and your team to use the Six Thinking
Hats tool to work through the data you have gathered and begin converting
it into space requirements. This process can be difficult if you are not familiar
with the types of products currently available on the market. It can also be
difficult if no one on the team has good spatial intelligence. These issues can
be addressed in several ways. Obviously, selecting for the team someone who
has spatial talents would be advantageous. Visiting other newly renovated
school libraries to get ideas can be helpful. These visits will show you how
other schools are addressing floor-plan and product decisions. These visits
may give you ideas on what is available and how others have addressed space
requirements. On your visits, take pictures and note what you liked about
the space and why the feature would solve a design problem in your school
library.

At this point, you can also look for outside help. The information you
now can give to an outside design consultant or architectural firm is extreme-
ly valuable. In new construction or major renovation projects, bringing in
experts is your next logical step. They can translate all your key components
into furnished space. If the budget won’t stretch far enough to hire experts,
be aware that some sales or manufacturing firms can provide design services
at no additional cost if you buy their products. Ask sales representatives who
call on your school if they provide design services.

If you cannot go outside for design services, then it is time to put on
your creative hat and think like a spatial specialist. First, think about the
space as a whole. Nonsupport walls can be taken down, doors and windows

52    From Needs Assessment to Innovation

<< Chapter >> Home | TOC | Index

can be moved or added, and shelving is not permanent no matter how it is
attached to the walls or floor. Try to visualize or diagram the space without
anything but the exterior boundaries. Then create a zone map showing all the
desired functions of the space, identifying functions that blend together and
could share space. I like to use a relational map with different-sized circles to
illustrate what functions take larger and smaller spaces and how they might
overlap. Think about sight lines in the library and how closely you need to
manage each area. How much of the space will be flexible and adaptable to
daily change? How much of the furniture should be on casters? What activi-
ties need bright light? What activities should have controlled lighting? How
many of the activities require easy access to electrical power?

Have the team group and regroup ideas and resources into circles to gen-
erate new ideas about how the space can be used. Do themes emerge and can
they be developed into new space ideas? It is from this process of brainstorm-
ing that new space concepts will take shape. No idea is bad at this point; write
down all of them, and the team can select their favorite ideas later. Include
furniture and color options during this process, as well. Make notes on the
types of furniture that would support your ideas; you can search for and select
furniture later. It is also appropriate to leverage a sales representative to source
products that fit your vision. Once you have notes on all the ideas, colors, ma-
terials, and the types of furniture you want in these zones, see if it will all fit.

The process of fitting everything together is time-consuming, even if you
have software to accelerate the process. You can draw proposed layouts on
graph paper almost faster than you can learn to use computer-aided-design
(CAD) software programs. If at all possible, outsource these drawings. If the
school has used an architect, the firm will do the CAD drawings for you.
People who do this type of work daily will be able to see problems quickly,
know requirements of the Americans with Disabilities Act, and have the tools
to render furniture realistically. Many of the CAD systems can also provide
3D drawings of the space rather than flat 2D. The 3D drawings are an excel-
lent tool to give you a clearer picture of your future space.

A serious mistake made during this process is forgetting to leave adequate
room for movement. Be willing to eliminate furniture to improve the space
for movement, traffic flow, and flexibility. Here is another way that 3D draw-
ings can help to prototype the space without creating a model or having to
tape out the floor. If 3D is not an option, then draw out the room and use

v    53

<< Chapter >> Home | TOC | Index

Zone Map-Wireless Network

Staff Office Work Room

Self-Checkout

Information Resources for
Desk Teachers

Display Digital Databases
Graphics and Online
Resources
and
Signage

Print and Teaching Meeting
Electronic Mentoring Spaces
Coaching
Books
Reading
Magazines and Making
Graphic Novels Viewing
Listening
Social Networking Studying
and Gaming Collaborating
Tutoring
Website Design and Sharing
Off-Site Access Relaxing
Demonstrating

Multi-Media
Production
and Computer

Studio

Classroom
Collaboration

<< Chapter >> Home | TOC | Index

cut-out square pieces to approximate the furniture. Alternatively, use tape on
the floor to create shapes representing furniture and other features. Either
process will show whether the space is overcrowded and movement is ham-
pered.

Branding

One last planning piece to manage before the doors open: branding your new
school library. Name each zone and employ words, images, colors, or textures
to distinguish it from other zones. Use bold graphics and icons on the walls,
floor, or suspended from the ceiling to communicate to users. Make sure
you have signage both directing users to the space and within the space. Use
your windows as a windshield for students to see what is happening inside
the library.

Delivering a new, innovative school library concept follows all the plan-
ning. The beauty and value of the new space will be evident when you see
how seamlessly both you and your users will be able to move in and use it.

You and your stakeholders have all contributed to the design; you know
the possibilities for each zone in the library and its functional flexibility. This
library was designed to complement your school’s learning model and meet
your users’ needs.

In the final chapter, examples of scenarios and possible solutions to meet
users’ needs will be presented.

From Needs Assessment to Innovation    55

<< Chapter >> Home | TOC | Index

<< Chapter >> Home | TOC | Index

Chapter 7 Library Scenarios and
Concepts

In this chapter I did some creative writing. I pulled
together realistic information representative of
what you could obtain from your students and oth-
er stakeholders, and then I used that information
to mock up two school library environments. Both
library examples are invented, but they are based
on a mix of information compiled while listening
to contemporary needs of 21st-century school li-
brarians and students. I drew together a number of
issues to illustrate possible solutions.

Elementary School Story Line

Let’s begin by planning an elementary school li-
brary. Suppose your elementary school building

  57

<< Chapter >> Home | TOC | Index

will house 360 K–3 students and is composed of cooperative-learning class-
rooms. The school’s mission statement focuses on individual responsibility
and a love of learning. The principal likes to share students’ achievements
with their peers and parents. Through a teacher survey you know their pri-
mary focus is having every student read at or above grade level in third grade.
The survey provided you with numerous examples of activities designed to
help achieve this goal. Transliteracy is an unfamiliar concept to teachers in the
district, but, when they were asked about elements of transliteracy in separate
questions, teachers’ responses indicated a strong interest in helping students
explore each form of literacy.

Students in the old school are blended together for small-group instruc-
tion based on RtI-identified learning improvements, and teachers actively
participate in planning meetings to discuss students’ needs. These practices
are expected to continue at the new school. State reading and math tests for
third grade are all taken online. You also found out that 69 percent of the
students say their favorite way to demonstrate knowledge is through hands-
on activities.

The children have a strong desire for greater access to technology, yet
funding will not allow a one-to-one computing environment. Almost 75 per-
cent of the third-graders have computers at home, and, of those, 89 percent
have access to the Internet. Sixty-one percent of the third-graders find reading
online hurts their eyes if they read long passages, but they believe that reading
online has fewer distractions. They really like using technology, and, because
testing will be online, teachers recognize a strong need for computer literacy
among students. All grades have shown appropriate or above-average visual-
literacy skills.

If students could go to the store to purchase a beach towel, 68 percent of
the time the boys would get a royal-blue towel featuring an action hero. In
contrast, 42 percent of the girls would bring home a lavender towel featuring
a fantasy animal; 45 percent of the girls would select a bold orange and lime-
green towel with abstract shapes.

All this information came through your needs-assessment work. Through
observation at the old elementary school you know that most students like
sitting on the floor with friends to read, they frequently stand when working
in groups, love talking to you about their favorite books or the ones they did
not like, run a finger across graphic labels when selecting books, and always
look through each book on display if fewer than six are featured.

58    Library Scenarios and Concepts

<< Chapter >> Home | TOC | Index

This is the information that came out of prioritizing; let’s use it to trans-
late information into space.

Relational Map Maker Tool
Carts

Reading Maker Space
Computers
Display
Space

Furniture imagery and 3D space renderings found on pages 67-74 help to
further illustrate the relational map and layout solutions.

Information about the Elementary
Library Layout

The student interest in “making” things to demonstrate their knowledge be-
comes a focal point in planning the space. A large central area surrounded by
mobile bookcases, tables, and carts provides the flexibility needed to change
the space easily during the day. Chairs in this area are not mobile but light-
weight and stackable so they can easily be shifted out of the way when learn-
ers want to work standing up. Tables are two styles, each 48 inches long, with
locking casters on one end, making it simple to configure them into a variety
of collaborative groupings. One corner of the room features platforms that
work like a set of building blocks in the space to give the students a perfor-
mance stage and multimedia production area, or the platforms can be spread
out to create an imaginary landscape.

The computer area and the maker space share a mobile interactive white-
board for instruction, demonstration, research, and creative interaction. A
large bank of computers supports computer literacy and complements proj-

Library Scenarios and Concepts    59

<< Chapter >> Home | TOC | Index

ects with two four-color printers. Chairs are mobile and adjustable for ergo-
nomic keyboarding in the computer area and for special programs are easily
moved out into the large open area.

The reading area also has some flexibility, with mobile shelving that can
be moved into the “maker” area to enrich projects by adding print informa-
tion. The mobile shelving units can also be parked under the windows to
open up a large area, allowing all six benches to be brought into a circle for
book discussions. Otherwise, students can position the benches in indepen-
dent-reading spots. Two large floor cushions with back rests form comfort-
able small-group reading areas.

Two areas of the library are carpeted in a large circular pattern to pick
up the blue and lime-green circles painted on the marbled apricot walls. The
circles feature cutouts of children and animals as transliteracy action heroes;
these icons are similar to those on graphic labels applied to book spines.
Wood-grain flooring running from the school library entrance into the maker
space allows easy movement of furniture and quick cleanup of projects. The
flooring grain has a directional pull into the maker space to reinforce the
creative nature of the area.

Lighting drops down from the ceiling in all three areas to augment the
natural sunlight coming from the outside wall of windows. An interior wall
contains windows to the hallway so students passing by can see what their
peers are doing in the library. To showcase project work, a display shelf is
built in and recessed into the windows in front of the computer area, and a
bulletin-board surface is mounted under the windows.

Additional features include the school librarian’s desk, which is low with
a peninsula conference area for working with students or teachers. On a cart
are tablet computers that can be used in the library for reading or research. A
mobile instruction station is available for the librarian to use and share with
visiting teachers. At any time during their library visit the students can use the
mobile self-checkout station, which starts the day parked near the desk along
with the cart of tablets.

New books are on display near the entrance to the library near the reading
area. Projects and books can also be displayed on the top of the 48-inch-high
shelving. The shelving supports a print collection of about 5,200 books.

Children are also drawn into the space by the large, colorful metal sculp-
tures in the courtyard garden visible through the wall of exterior windows.

60    Library Scenarios and Concepts

<< Chapter >> Home | TOC | Index

The sculptures were commissioned to encourage children’s creative expression,
to add color to the landscape, and to illustrate the “tinkering” work of adults.

Use this example to think about how survey information was translated
into space. In your opinion, what other concepts and learning methods does
the space support? What is missing?

High School Story Line

Suppose our goal is to plan the library for a new magnet high school in an
urban area; this magnet school will serve six hundred students in grades 10
through 12 and use a project-based learning model. The focus of the school
will be communication, and visual and performing arts. Students will each
have their own high-performance tablet. The school’s mission statement en-
courages self-expression, and stresses the importance of communication, col-
laboration, and diversity. A flipped environment is planned, and, through
professional development, the staff will be focused on mentoring and coach-
ing; lecture videos will be available online.

The students who selected this high school tested high in both language
arts and math, and many are excellent musicians. Visual literacy is extremely
high, and students consider themselves above average in computer literacy.
Testing shows the students who will attend are below average in critical-
thinking and problem-solving skills; these are areas of academic concern, and
projects will be designed to build these skills.

Prospective students are eager to use a large multimedia production stu-
dio that will be adjacent to the library space; this studio will include numer-
ous creative tools such as equipment for music recording, digital cameras,
and computers with editing software. Students eagerly share their creativity
with students in similar schools both in the U.S. and abroad.

Through surveys and focus groups you know most students who will at-
tend the new school want a career in computer-animation, graphic design,
or the performing arts. Their demographic backgrounds are diverse, and they
will travel from many different neighborhoods to attend this school. All stu-
dents have personal cell phones, and some have smart phones. However, only
60 percent have access to the Internet at home, although, when the school
opens, they will have tablets to take home; these tablets will connect to the
Internet if students can locate hotspots in their neighborhoods.

Library Scenarios and Concepts    61

<< Chapter >> Home | TOC | Index

Students who plan to attend say their favorite casual reading material
includes plays, books that have become movies, and books by Stephen King,
Stephenie Meyer, and Suzanne Collins. Prospective students like to listen to
or view Shakespearean plays, but find them difficult to read. Their taste in
music is extremely diverse; they appreciate jazz, classical, and blues, as well
as rock, rap, and hip-hop. They follow entertainment, sports, and human-
interest news online. They have connected with professionals in their areas of
interest and follow them with social media.

Through observations of prospective students at their current schools you
see that they like to make statements about themselves through dress, tattoos,
and hair styles. They are wearing either bold colors or black. The most no-
ticeable items of the boys’ attire are various brands of florescent red or green
tennis shoes. The male students all wear different shades of jeans, and most
of their t-shirts feature a message. What you have noticed about the girls is
that there is no pattern to their style; they look different daily. The female
students’ clothing colors, patterns, and accessories are an exuberant array of
mix-and-match that works remarkably well with their youthful personalities.
All students seem to intuitively come together on projects and leverage the
skills of individuals, regardless of whether the projects involve music, writing,
choreography, photography, or graphic design. They take noticeable pride in
sharing their work; they love to discuss and critique projects.

As part of your observation, your team researched and visited the
YOUmedia space at Chicago Public Library’s Harold Washington Library
Center.

These are the items that stood out on your prioritized list of information.
Let’s use them to plan the library space.

Information about the High School
Library Layout

The focus of this school library is as a sharing space with ample opportunity
for students to view each other’s work and collaborate on projects. Space is
specifically allotted for students to cluster for critiques or to access profes-
sional resources to enhance their work. The collection contains a mix of print
and digital content including DVDs for watching classic performances.

The library space has been planned with a large flexible space that runs

62    Library Scenarios and Concepts

<< Chapter >> Home | TOC | Index

Relational Map Collaboration
Booths
Print and
Media Benching Distance-
Open Mic Communication
Collection
Soft-Seating Studios
Coffee-Table Lounge
Collection
Multimedia
Lounge

Monitor Viewing
Stations Rooms

Furniture imagery and 3D space renderings found on pages 67-74 help to
further illustrate the relational map and layout solutions.

through the center of the room. Visitors to the library can stream in through
a large opening in the wall of the hall, similar to the open front of a store
at a shopping mall, rather than through a traditional doorway. If the space
must be secured at night, the opening can be secured with a retail-style over-
head gate. However, the space is designed to have extended evening hours to
provide students with time to work after school. The opening provides good
visibility so that students and staff are safe in the evenings. The wall behind
the computer benching area and the school librarian’s workstation features
windows for additional visibility. Skylights around a central raised-roof area
of the library admit sunlight. The skylights, along with various styles of drop-
lighting, provide good light throughout the space at all hours.

The long row of powered benching tables is designed for students to plug
in their tablets while doing research or working on their projects. The bench-
ing area can be used as individual workstations or students can cluster into

Library Scenarios and Concepts    63

<< Chapter >> Home | TOC | Index

teams to work. Additional power outlets throughout the space are channeled
into the eclectic and highly graphic laminate floor, not illustrated in the 3D
rendering that follows.

A monitor alcove behind the benching area enables students to plug their
tablets into 24-inch screens for greater clarity while reviewing and sharing
their work. The eight monitors are on a counter at a height convenient for
working while standing; stools are also provided. There is room for additional
students to stand behind a seated classmate and view a monitor while the
creator of a project explains his or her work.

In the center of the room are eight high-backed, curved bench units that
can be configured together in multiple circular patterns to facilitate project
work and discussions. Two of benches also include an attached bar on the
back for informal work. The central area also contains three mobile, round
tables along with three mobile whiteboards. All these pieces can be nested and
pushed aside to open up the center of the room as a performance space for
“open mic” afternoons. Acoustical tiles in bold graphic shapes are suspended
from the ceiling to dampen the sound in the space as teams work during the
day. A sound system with wall-mounted speakers is available for performance
events or music throughout the day.

Shelving along the interior sidewall is 84 inches high and houses a collec-
tion of around 7,400 books to support the curriculum along with new fiction,
scripts, art and photography books, along with magazines. More 84-inch and
42-inch media shelving in the back of the space surrounds a 54-inch flat-
screen television, which has Internet access, as well has DVD and cable con-
nections. During the day, when the 54-inch screen is not in use for academic
course work, a continuous loop of art, terrestrial and extraterrestrial images,
human interest photographs, and eccentric quotes stream on the screen. Most
of the visual and written material is provided by students.

In the print collection space are six lounge chairs with three occasional
tables for casual reading and relaxation. The “Coffee-Table Collection” area
features a 48-inch-diameter circular table with power in the center and ten
ottomans that can be clustered for informal conversations, brainstorming,
and social-media moments. The area houses magazines, and coffee-table pho-
tographic and art books on 60-inch-high display shelving. The books are pe-
rused by students for ideas. Slatwall above the shelving allows for the seasonal
rotation and display of student artwork.

64    Library Scenarios and Concepts

<< Chapter >> Home | TOC | Index

A built-in bar has machines to dispense hot beverages and under-counter
refrigerators for cold beverages. The area is managed using an honor system;
cash is deposited for beverages, and students are expected to clean up after
themselves. After school, beverages can be carried to any area of the library;
the same cleanup policy is in force.

The viewing studios in the library feature large flat-screen televisions,
cameras, mics, and interactive whiteboards for group viewing and interac-
tion. The Skype studio is always set up for students to schedule interaction
with offsite peers or professionals who share common educational interests.
Two small viewing rooms have ottomans for informal viewing. The two larg-
er viewing rooms can be flexibly configured with mobile nesting tables and
mobile task chairs. The wall between the two larger viewing rooms is both
movable and tackable; when the wall is folded open, a class can schedule the
space for private viewings and discussion. The four viewing rooms have 42-
inch flat-screen televisions; the Skype studio features a 48-inch-screen. The
viewing rooms can also be set up for distance learning when scheduled for
that use.

Students can use the viewing studios for watching instructional material
and lectures or as project-planning spaces. Twelve 24- x 48-inch tables in this
area have dropdown tops so that the tables can easily be moved through door-
ways by students who want to create custom viewing and working spaces.
Three small fabric-covered benches in the area can be positioned as needed.
Lighting throughout the area can be controlled on localized dimmers; no sky-
light windows are in this area. Each viewing room has a large picture window
looking out into the main space and a glass door.

Review the space and note the features that respond directly to the survey
and observation information. Can you think of other features that could have

been added to enhance the space?

Closing Thoughts

Both these examples are fictional but illustrate how you can gather infor-
mation and translate that information into a user-based design. They also
illustrate how the focus of a school, its learning model, or students’ needs for
specific technology tools can dramatically modify the role and space design
of the school library. Both models include books. At the elementary level,

Library Scenarios and Concepts    65

<< Chapter >> Home | TOC | Index

books are required to complement online reading and supplement technol-
ogy shortcomings and insufficient funding. At the high school library, even
though every student has a tablet for text books, research, and academic work,
books are still important. Coffee-table editions simply do not translate well
to the small-screen format. Also, some books, especially those demanded by a
tightly focused curriculum, are simply not available in digital format.

In both examples, I assumed WiFi access throughout the buildings.
However, the elementary library could just as easily have had Internet access
hardwired to the computers. In the high school example, the multimedia
viewing studios might be better served with faster-speed hardwiring. Both
libraries have power grids in the floor, allowing the spaces to be flexible and
easy to reconfigure. Both spaces also take advantage of sunlight.

In neither library do I elaborate on a circulation desk, office, or workroom.
Offices and workrooms are necessary and should be planned based on the
needs of the staff as “users.” If self-checkout stations are used by students, the
function, cost, and footprint of a circulation desk must be carefully analyzed.
In my examples, the school librarians are using desks that encourage students
to sit down and work with the librarian. I think of these desks as “informa-
tion stations.” A librarian working in the main space is more approachable, is
encouraged to be highly mobile in the space, and takes on the demeanor of
a teacher. I think many other options and models could be considered when
planning school librarians’ workstations, and I recommend considering these
options before simply installing a traditional circulation desk.— I hope this
book encourages you to think in a broader, more creative way when planning
your school library space. The tools and processes described can help you plan
a new library, renovate an existing one, or simply change a corner. The path to
planning the best library space for contemporary learners is challenging, yet
it should also be stimulating and enjoyable. Currently, the path is just being
explored. So start your journey and share what you learn along the way.

66    Library Scenarios and Concepts

<< Chapter >> Home | TOC | Index

Furniture Imagery

Attractive wood carts can be stocked with
maker-space supplies and parked either
on the library floor or rolled in for easy
student access. Finding carts with a wide
selection of compartments, drawers and
tubs allows you to mix and store creative
materials. Images used with permission
from Gressco Ltd.

Blending in colorful, informal floor cushions for young children creates a re-   67
laxed spot to read with friends while still providing back support. Position these
pieces under windows or near other sources of light to casually direct children
to a quiet location. Images used with permission from Gressco Ltd.

<< Chapter >> Home | TOC | Index

Carpeted blocks make wonderful performance spaces or tiered reading lofts for
students. On creative days the blocks can be moved apart to form changing landscapes
in the library. Life-sized building blocks encourage students to create unique learning
spaces. Images used with permission from Gressco Ltd.

68

<< Chapter >> Home | TOC | Index

Geometric shaped benches
and ottomans provide
unique opportunities to
gather students into clusters
for a conversation. Backless
furniture allows students to
sit in multiple directions and
interact with others in a 360
degree radius. Users can eas-
ily rearrange the seating into
configurations for group or
individual work. Images used
with permission from Gressco
Ltd.

Small spaces to meet and collaborate can be difficult to secure in schools. High back
soft seating can create semi-private spaces for teams. They can also provide social media
spots to muffle voices. These informal small group locations can add an interesting mix
of color and texture to the library as well. Images used with permission from Arcadia/
Encore/On-Q.

  69

<< Chapter >> Home | TOC | Index

Long sections of benching system furniture encourage sharing laptop or tablet work
with peers. Tables with visual dividers and electrical outlets running down the center
provide students with easy access to power and a large work surface for collaboration.
© 2012 Steelcase Inc. Used with permission.

70 

<< Chapter >>

Space Renderings: Elementary School

School library space renderings by Scott Retzlaff of Contrax Furnishings.

Home | TOC | Index

71

<< Chapter >>

Space Renderings: Elementary School

School library space renderings by Scott Retzlaff of Contrax Furnishings.
72

Home | TOC | Index

<< Chapter >>

Space Renderings: High School

School library space renderings by Scott Retzlaff of Contrax Furnishings.

Home | TOC | Index

73

<< Chapter >>

Space Renderings: High School

School library space renderings by Scott Retzlaff of Contrax Furnishings.
74

Home | TOC | Index

<< Chapter >> Home | TOC | Index

Bibliography

Works Cited
American Association of School Librarians. 2009.

Empowering Learners: Guidelines for School
Library Programs. Chicago: ALA.
Augustin, Sally. 2009. Place Advantage: Applied
Psychology for Interior Architecture. Hoboken,
NJ: Wiley.
Conifer Research LLC. n.d. Steelcase User
Observation Field Notebook. Grand Rapids, MI:
Steelcase.
de Bono, Edward. 1985. Six Thinking Hats. Boston:
Little, Brown.
IDEO. 2011. Human Centered Design Toolkit, 2nd
ed. n.p.: IDEO.
Israel, Toby. 2010. Some Place Like Home: Using
Design Psychology to Create Ideal Places.
Princeton, NJ: Design Psychology Press.
Salant, Priscilla, and Don A. Dillman. 1994. How to
Conduct Your Own Survey. New York: Wiley.

  75

<< Chapter >> Home | TOC | Index

Sork, T. J. 1995. Needs Assessment in Adult Education. Workshop sponsored by
Faculty of Extension, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada.

The Muppet Movie. 1979. Burbank, CA: Walt Disney Productions.

Recommended Reading

Altschuld, James W., and Belle R. Witkin. 2000. From Needs Assessment to
Action: Transforming Needs into Solution Strategies. Thousand Oaks, CA:
Sage.

American Association of School Librarians. 2009. Empowering Learners:
Guidelines for School Library Programs. Chicago: ALA.

Doorley, Scott, and Scott Witthoft. 2012. Make Space: How to Set the Stage for
Creative Collaboration. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

Exley, Sharon, and Peter Exley. 2007. Design for Kids. Mulgrave, Vic.: Images.
Ferrell, O.C. and Michael D. Hartline. 2010. Marketing Strategy. South-

Western, Cengage Learning.
Ito, Mizuko, et al. 2010. Hanging Out, Messing Around, and Geeking Out: Kids

Living and Learning with New Media. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Morgan, Tony. 2008. Visual Merchandising: Window and In-Store Displays for

Retail. London: Laurence King.
Nair, Prakash, Randall Fielding, and Jeffery Lackney. 2009. The Language of

School Design, 2nd ed. Minneapolis: DesignShare.
North Carolina State University Libraries and DELTA, brightspot strategy,

and Strategy Plus at AECOM. 2012. Learning Space Toolkit. <http://
learningspacetoolkit.org>.
OWP/P Architects, VS Furniture, and Bruce Mau Design. 2010. The Third
Teacher. New York: Abrams.
Palfrey, John, and Urs Gasser. 2008. Born Digital: Understanding the First
Generation of Digital Natives. New York: Basic Books.
Pande, Peter S., Robert P. Neuman, and Roland R. Cavanagh. 2000. The Six
Sigma Way. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Partnership for 21st Century Skills. 2009. The MILE Guide: Milestones for
Improving Learning & Education. Tucson AZ: Partnership for 21st
Century Skills.

76    Bibliography

<< Chapter >> Home | TOC | Index

Silver, Harvey F., Richard W. Strong, and Matthew J. Perini. 2000. So Each
May Learn: Integrating Learning Styles and Multiple Intelligences.
Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum
Development.

Sullivan, Margaret. 2011. “Walls Can Talk…But Are They Speaking to Teens?”
Teacher Librarian 39 (2): 13–15.

———. “Merchandising Your Library Resources.” Teacher Librarian 38 (2):
30–31.

Tobey, Deborah. 2005. Needs Assessment Basics. Alexandria, VA: American
Society for Training and Development.

Bibliography    77

<< Chapter >> Home | TOC | Index

<< Chapter >> Home | TOC | Index

Appendix A Pugh Sample

Introduction

The Pugh Method of evaluation used in this exam-
ple is based on the storyline described in Chapter 6.
This example uses feasibility as the decision-making
criterion; every idea will be judged on its contribu-
tion to the school’s educational goals.

The basic idea when using the Pugh Method is
to compare every idea against every other idea and
decide which idea in each pair has a higher priority.
The comparisons are performed in cycles, as shown
in this appendix. Within each cycle, one idea is
compared against each of the other possibilities,
but only against those that the idea has not already
been compared with. Each time an idea is judged
to take priority over another idea, the higher prior-

  79

<< Chapter >> Home | TOC | Index

ity idea gets one point. At the end of the evaluation, the total points for each
idea are compared; the ideas with the highest scores are the highest-priority
items to implement.

In this example, the person ranking each idea must first decide whether
channeling electrical power throughout the library (the idea identified in col-
umns A and B below) would contribute more to meeting the school’s edu-
cational goals than each of the other twenty-four ideas identified in columns
E and F. If, for example, channeling power through the library space takes
priority over moving the IT office, a 1 is entered in column C (see row 2 be-
low). However, if another idea, such as expanding infrastructure for BYOD,
is deemed more important than channeling power, a 1 is entered in column
D (see row 3 below).

The process continues. In the second cycle, moving the IT office is com-
pared with each of the other ideas except channeling electricity (because these
two ideas were compared during the first cycle).

In the example in this appendix, the evaluator decided that, to meet the
schools’ educational goals, channeling power throughout the library space is
more important than twenty-one other ideas. In the opinion of this evalu-
ator, only three improvements ranked higher in feasibility than expanding
the power grid in the library. The three more important improvements were
number 3 (expanding the school network capabilities throughout the build-
ing), number 14 (adding an AP lab), and number 15 (purchasing more high-
speed computers for the library’s creative space). During the first ranking
cycle, ideas 3, 14, and 15 each received a point while idea number 1 scored
a 0 against them.

The evaluator then went on to judge idea number 2 against the twenty-
three remaining ideas. The process continued until, in the final cycle, only
idea 24 remained to be compared against idea 25.

80    Pugh Sample

<< Chapter >> Home | TOC | Index

Notice that in the second and subsequent ranking cycles, a total for each
idea is tallied. As the evaluator moves through the process, points for each
idea accumulate until each idea has been evaluated against every other idea.

Normally, a team of people would evaluate the ideas, and a final score for
each idea would surface after each person’s rankings had been completed and
merged into a total score.

If this were an actual project, the team would then rank each idea on De-
sirability to the students and Viability to the community based on cost. The
sum total of all the points for each idea would produce a list of key priorities
to drive the renovation.

Scores can be weighted based on unique circumstances in the school dis-
trict. For example, perhaps a referendum has already passed; the money for
renovations was approved. Then Viability is not as important as Feasibility or
Desirability. Viability might be worth only half a point in the scoring rather
than a full point. Weighted values should be discussed and established prior
to the actual work of ranking.

Other types of formulas for ranking improvements can be found in From
Needs Assessment to Action by James W. Altschuld and Belle Ruth Witkin (Sage
Publications 2000).

Sample Evaluation Tables

Pugh Sample    81

<< Chapter >> Home | TOC | Index

82    Pugh Sample

<< Chapter >> Home | TOC | Index

Pugh Sample    83

<< Chapter >> Home | TOC | Index

84    Pugh Sample