MORPHOLOGY PLANTAE & ANIMALIA BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY OF KINGDOM PRACTICAL REPORT
TABLE OF CONTENT PRACTICAL REPORT 1: KINGDOM PLANTAE TITLE AIM INTRODUCTION OF MORPHOLOGY OF KINGDOM PLANTAE MATERIALS AND APPARATUS PROCEDURE PRECAUTION DISCUSSION CONCLUSION REFERENCES
TABLE OF CONTENT PRACTICAL REPORT 2: KINGDOM ANIMALIA TITLE AIM INTRODUCTION OF MORPHOLOGY OF KINGDOM ANIMALIA MATERIALS AND APPARATUS PROCEDURE PRECAUTION DISCUSSION CONCLUSION REFERENCES
KINGDOM PLANTAE PRACTICAL 1 PHYLUM PTERIDOPHYTA I PHYLUM BRYOPHYTA
Taxonomy is the branch of biology that deals with the classification, identification, and naming of living organisms. The classification system used in taxonomy is hierarchical, with organisms being grouped into increasingly specific categories based on their morphological, genetic, and evolutionary characteristics. The hierarchy of classification in the kingdom Plantae begins with the most general category, the kingdom, and progresses through increasingly specific categories, including division (or phylum), class, order, family, genus, and species. Each of these categories is based on a set of defining characteristics, and organisms within a category share a greater degree of similarity than those in more general categories. The study of morphology is important in the classification of plants into different categories. Morphological features such as leaf shape, stem structure, flower structure, and seed characteristics are used to differentiate between different groups of plants. For example, the division Bryophyta (mosses) is characterized by a lack of true roots, stems, and leaves, while the division Tracheophyta (vascular plants) has true roots, stems, and leaves. Within the division Tracheophyta, the class Magnoliopsida (dicotyledonous plants) is characterized by having two cotyledons in their seeds, while the class Liliopsida (monocotyledonous plants) has only one cotyledon in their seeds. The use of morphological features in taxonomy is not without its limitations, as some organisms may have similar morphological features but are not closely related evolutionarily. Therefore, molecular and genetic techniques are also used in taxonomy to supplement morphological data and to refine the classification of organisms. 1.0 TITLE Morphology of kingdom Plantae 2.0 AIM To examine the morphology of Kingdom Plantae. 3.0 INTRODUCTION
4.0 MATERIALS AND APPARATUS 5.0 PROCEDURE MALE FERN MOSSES WHITE TILE FORCEPS HAND GLOVE PLANT FROM PHYLUM PTERIDOPHYTE SUCH AS MALE FERNS IS SEARCHED. THE MALE FERN IS PLACED ON WHITE TILES TO OBSERVE THE STRUCTURE OF THE PLANT. PHOTOGRAPHS ARE TAKEN USING A CAMERA. THE MALE FERN IS OBSERVED. THE OBSERVATION IS RECORDED FOR THE MORPHOLOGY WRITING. THE EXPERIMENT IS REPEATED WITH THE OTHER PHYLUM WHICH IS PHYLUM BRYOPHYTA. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 6.0 PRECAUTIONS BE CAREFUL WHEN OBSERVING PLANTS AND USING FORCEPS TO AVOID GETTING HIT BY THORNS OR POISON FOUND ON PLANTS. USE GLOVES WHEN OBSERVING TO AVOID ANY SKIN REACTIONS THAT ARE ALLERGIC TO THE PLANT. 1. 2.
7.1 PHYLUM PTERIDOPHYTA: MALE FERNS 7.0 DISCUSSION
TAXONOMY HIERARCHY KINGDOM Plantae PHYLUM Pteridophyta CLASS Polypodiopsida ORDER Polypodiales FAMILY Dryopteridaceae GENUS Dryopteris SPECIES Dryopteris filix-mas
HABITAT OF DRYOPTERIS FILIX-MAS The Male fern, Dryopteris filix-mas, is a native of Europe, Asia, and North America. It is a resilient and adaptable fern species that lives in a range of settings, such as damp meadows, shady rocky outcrops, and forests. Male ferns can withstand a broad range of soil types, including acidic soils, but they prefer moist, well-drained soils. They are frequently observed growing alongside other ferns, such as ostrich ferns and lady ferns (Athyrium spp (Matteuccia struthiopteris). Male ferns are sometimes grown as decorative plants in gardens and landscapes.
V STRUCTURE OF DRYOPTERIS FILIX-MAS The fronds, or leaves, of the Male fern, are large and triangularshaped, reaching up to 150 cm in length. The fronds emerge from the rhizome and are supported by a dark, grooved stalk, called a stipe. The blade of the frond is divided into many small leaflets, known as pinnae, which are arranged alternately on either side of the rachis (the central axis of the frond). FRONDS RHIZOME The underground stem of the fern and serves to anchor the plant in the soil and absorb nutrients and water. In the case of the Male fern, the rhizome is long, creeping, and covered with brown scales. SORI structures that contain spores, are located on the undersides of the fronds. The sori are circular in shape and are arranged in rows along either side of the midrib of the pinnae. Each sorus is covered by a protective flap of tissue, called an indusium, which opens to release the spores when they are mature.
LIFE CYCLE OF DRYOPTERIS FILIX-MAS Spore production: The first stage in the life cycle of Dryopteris filix-mas is the production of spores. The spores are produced on the undersides of mature fronds in structures called sori. Gametophyte development: When a spore lands on a suitable substrate, it germinates and grows into a small, heart-shaped structure called a prothallus. This is the gametophyte stage of the fern. On the prothallus, male and female reproductive organs, called antheridia and archegonia, respectively, develop. Fertilization: The sperm released from the antheridia swim through a film of water to reach the eggs in the archegonia. Fertilization occurs, resulting in the formation of a zygote. Sporophyte development: The zygote develops into the sporophyte, which is the mature fern plant. The sporophyte consists of the rhizome, fronds, and sori. The sporophyte is diploid, meaning it has two sets of chromosomes. Spore dispersal: When the sori on the fronds mature, they release the spores. The spores are dispersed by the wind and, if they land on a suitable substrate, the life cycle begins again. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
IMPORTANCE OF DRYOPTERIS FILIX-MAS (DRYOPTERIS SP.) 1 Dryopteris sp. play an important role in the ecology of their habitats. They provide habitat and food for a variety of animals, including insects, birds, and small mammals. They also help to prevent soil erosion and improve soil quality. Some species of Dryopteris have been used as bioindicators of environmental pollution. These plants are able to absorb and accumulate heavy metals and other pollutants from the environment, making them useful for monitoring air and water quality. Some species of Dryopteris have been used in traditional medicine for centuries. For example, Dryopteris filix-mas, also known as male fern, has been used to treat intestinal parasites and other digestive ailments. Other species have been used to treat coughs, skin conditions, and other ailments. 2 3
7.2 PHYLUM PTERIDOPHYTA: BANK HAIRCAP MOSS
TAXONOMY HIERARCHY KINGDOM Plantae PHYLUM Bryophyta CLASS Polytrichopsida ORDER Polytrichales FAMILY Polytrichaceae GENUS Polytrichum SPECIES Polytrichum formosum
HABITAT OF POLYTRICHUM FORMOSUM Polytrichum formosum, commonly known as giant hair cap moss, is a species of moss that is found in a variety of habitats in both the Northern and Southern hemispheres. It is typically found in damp, shaded areas in forests, bogs, and wetlands. In North America, it is found in boreal and temperate forests, while in Europe, it is found in a range of habitats from mountainous regions to lowlands. In Asia, it can be found in subarctic, temperate, and tropical forests. Polytrichum formosum is often found growing on logs, stumps, and rocks, as well as in soil and peat. It is an important component of many ecosystems, providing habitat for small animals and helping to prevent soil erosion.
STRUCTURE OF POLYTRICHUM FORMOSUM The gametophyte is the dominant stage in the life cycle of Polytrichum formosum. It is the stage that is responsible for producing the sex cells (sperm and eggs) that will eventually unite to form a zygote. The gametophyte of Polytrichum formosum is a small, leafy structure that grows from a protonema, which is a mass of cells that develops from a spore. GAMETOPHYTE RHIZOIDS Polytrichum formosum has rhizoids, which are root-like structures found on the underside of the plant. Rhizoids anchor the moss to the substrate and absorb water and minerals from the surrounding environment. They provide stability, help the plant obtain nutrients, and create a microenvironment for other organisms. LEAVES The leaves of Polytrichum formosum are long and narrow, and they have a characteristic hair-like appearance. The leaves are arranged in a spiral pattern around the stem, and they are often bent or twisted to give the plant a distinctive "curly" appearance. The leaves of Polytrichum formosum are known to be longer and slenderer than those of other species in the Polytrichum genus. SPOROPHYTE The sporophyte of Polytrichum formosum consists of a stalk called a seta and a capsule called a sporangium. The sporangium contains spores that are released into the environment when the capsule ruptures. The seta is topped with a distinctive caplike structure called a calyptra, which protects the sporangium and helps to distribute the spores. STEMS The stems of Polytrichum formosum are long and thin, and they can reach heights of up to 20 cm. The stems are covered in leaves that are arranged in a spiral pattern around the stem.
Spore Germination: The life cycle of Polytrichum formosum begins with the germination of a haploid spore, which grows into a filamentous protonema. Gametophyte Stage: The protonema develops into a mature gametophyte, which is the dominant stage in the life cycle of Polytrichum formosum. The gametophyte produces both male and female reproductive organs, called antheridia and archegonia, respectively. Fertilization: Sperm from the antheridia swim through a film of water to reach the archegonia, where they fertilize the egg. Sporophyte Stage: Fertilization results in the formation of a diploid zygote, which develops into a sporophyte. The sporophyte consists of a stalk-like structure called the seta, topped by a capsule. The capsule contains spores, which are produced by meiosis. Spore Release: When the capsule is mature, a peristome, a ring-like structure around the capsule mouth, splits open and releases spores. The spores are dispersed by the wind and can grow into new gametophytes, completing the life cycle of Polytrichum formosum. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. The life cycle of Polytrichum formosum is a complex process that involves both sexual and asexual reproduction. The gametophyte stage is the dominant phase in the life cycle, while the sporophyte stage is relatively shortlived. LIFE CYCLE OF POLYTRICHUM FORMOSUM
IMPORTANCE OF DRYOPTERIS FILIX-MAS (DRYOPTERIS SP.) 1 Bank haircap moss plays an important role in many ecosystems, particularly in forested areas. It helps to prevent soil erosion, contributes to nutrient cycling, and provides habitat and food for a variety of organisms, including insects, birds, and small mammals. Mosses like Polytrichum formosum are important carbon sequesters, meaning that they absorb and store carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. They are able to store large amounts of carbon in their tissues, which can help to mitigate the effects of climate change. Some species of Polytrichum have been used in traditional medicine for their antiinflammatory and anti-bacterial properties. They have also been used to treat respiratory ailments and skin conditions. 2 3
8.0 CONCLUSION REFERENCES In conclusion, the kingdom Plantae is a diverse group of multicellular, photosynthetic organisms that include mosses, ferns, gymnosperms, and angiosperms. However, this practical report has been focusing only on Dryopteris sp. and Polytrichum sp. In general, plants are important for their role in producing oxygen, providing food and shelter for animals, and helping to maintain the balance of the Earth's ecosystems. The study of plants, known as botany, has contributed to our understanding of genetics, evolution, and ecology. Despite their importance, many plant species are threatened by habitat loss, climate change, and other human activities. Conservation efforts are necessary to ensure the survival of these valuable organisms. Esau, K. (2019). Anatomy of Seed Plants. John Wiley & Sons. Fahn, A. (2019). Plant Anatomy. Elsevier. Gifford, E. M., & Foster, A. S. (2019). Morphology and Evolution of Vascular Plants. Waveland Press. Judd, W. S., Campbell, C. S., Kellogg, E. A., Stevens, P. F., & Donoghue, M. J. (2022). Plant Systematics: A Phylogenetic Approach. Sinauer Associates, Inc. Rudall, P. (2020). Anatomy of Flowering Plants: An Introduction to Structure and Development. Cambridge University Press. Smith, A. R., Pryer, K. M., Schuettpelz, E., Korall, P., Schneider, H., & Wolf, P. G. (2018). Fern classification. In Biology and Evolution of Ferns and Lycophytes ,3-34. Schmid, R., & Schmid-Araya, J. M. (2020). Atlas of Freshwater Centric Diatoms: With a General Introduction, Taxonomy and Ecology. 1-25.
KINGDOM ANIMALIA PRACTICAL 2 PHYLUM MOLLUSCA I PHYLUM ANNELIDA I PHYLUM ARTHROPODA
Taxonomy is the science of identifying, classifying, and naming living organisms based on their evolutionary relationships, physical characteristics, and genetic makeup. The classification system used in taxonomy is hierarchical, and it involves grouping organisms into increasingly specific categories based on their characteristics. One of the most diverse and complex kingdoms in taxonomy is the Kingdom Animalia, which includes all animals. Animals in this kingdom are multicellular, and heterotrophic, and exhibit a wide range of morphological and behavioral characteristics. They are further classified into different phyla, classes, orders, families, genera, and species based on their morphology and genetics. The phyla within the Kingdom Animalia include Porifera, Cnidaria, Platyhelminthes, Annelida, Mollusca, Arthropoda, Echinodermata, and Chordata. Each of these phyla is characterized by specific morphological features and traits. Morphology, which is the study of the form and structure of organisms, plays a crucial role in taxonomy, particularly in the classification of animals. The morphological characteristics used to classify animals include body shape, size, symmetry, presence of appendages, and other external and internal features. Nevertheless, this practical report only be focusing on the morphology of phylum Annelida, Mollusca and also Arthropoda only. 1.0 TITLE Morphology of kingdom Animalia 2.0 AIM To investigate the morphology of Kingdom Animalia. 3.0 INTRODUCTION
4.0 MATERIALS AND APPARATUS 5.0 PROCEDURE EARTHWORM GIANT AFRICA SNAIL MEALWORM WHITE TILE FORCEPS HAND GLOVE CONTAINER ANIMAL FROM PHYLUM MOLLUSCA SUCH AS GIANT AFRICA SNAIL IS SEARCHED AND KEPT IN A CONTAINER. THE GIANT AFRICA SNAIL IS PLACED ON WHITE TILES TO OBSERVE THE STRUCTURE OF THE ANIMAL. PHOTOGRAPHS ARE TAKEN USING A CAMERA. THE GIANT AFRICA SNAIL IS OBSERVED. THE OBSERVATION IS RECORDED FOR THE MORPHOLOGY WRITING. THE EXPERIMENT IS REPEATED WITH THE OTHER PHYLUM WHICH ARE PHYLUM ANNELIDA AND ARTHROPODA. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 6.0 PRECAUTIONS BE CAREFUL WHEN OBSERVING ANIMALS AND USING FORCEPS TO AVOID BEING BITTEN OR STUNG BY POISONOUS ANIMALS. USE GLOVES WHEN OBSERVING ANIMALS. 1. 2.
7.1 PHYLUM MOLLUSCA: GIANT AFRICAN SNAIL 7.0 DISCUSSION
TAXONOMY HIERARCHY KINGDOM Animalia PHYLUM Mollusca CLASS Gastropods ORDER Stylommatophora FAMILY Achatinidae GENUS Achatina SPECIES Achatina fulica
HABITAT OF ACHATINA FULICA Achatina fulica, also known as the giant African land snail, is native to East Africa, but it has been introduced to many other parts of the world, including Asia, the Americas, and the Caribbean. In its native habitat, it can be found in forested areas, as well as in agricultural and urban areas. Outside of its native range, Achatina fulica is considered an invasive species and can be found in a wide variety of habitats, including forests, grasslands, and agricultural areas. They prefer warm and humid environments with a consistent source of moisture, such as gardens, parks, and plantations. They are often found near human habitation, as they feed on a variety of plant material, including crops and ornamental plants.
STRUCTURE OF ACHATINA FULICA The most recognizable feature of Achatina fulica is its large, spiral shell. The shell can grow up to 20 cm (8 inches) in length and is brownish in color with light brown stripes. The shell is made up of calcium carbonate and provides protection for the snail's soft body. Achatina fulica, like other snails, has a radula, which is a ribbon-like structure covered in small, sharp teeth. The snail uses the radula to scrape and grind up its food before ingesting it. RADULA MANTLE The mantle is a thin layer of tissue that covers the snail's body and produces the shell. It also plays a role in respiration and excretion SHELL HEAD AND FOOT Achatina fulica have a head and a muscular foot that it uses for movement. The head contains two pairs of retractable tentacles, which the snail uses to sense its environment. The larger, upper pair contains the eyes, while the smaller, lower pair is used for smelling and feeling.
STRUCTURE OF ACHATINA FULICA DIGESTIVE SYSTEM The snail's digestive system consists of a mouth, esophagus, stomach, and intestine. Food is ingested through the mouth and passed through the rest of the digestive tract. REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM Achatina fulica is a hermaphrodite, meaning it has both male and female reproductive organs. During mating, two snails will exchange sperm, which they use to fertilize their own eggs. The eggs are laid in a hole in the soil and hatch into small snails after a few weeks.
LIFE CYCLE OF ACHATINA FULICA Achatina fulica is a hermaphrodite, meaning that each individual has both male and female reproductive organs. This snail can reproduce sexually, with two individuals mating and exchanging sperm, or asexually, through self-fertilization. During mating, two Achatina fulica snails will approach each other and extend their reproductive organs. They will then exchange sperm, which they store in a special organ called the spermatheca. The sperm can be used to fertilize eggs for several months after mating. Achatina fulica can also reproduce asexually, through self-fertilization. This can occur if the snail is unable to find a mate or if conditions are not suitable for mating. In this case, the snail will fertilize its own eggs with its own sperm. Once fertilized, the eggs are laid in a hole in the soil, which the snail creates using its foot. The eggs are small, white, and round, and typically measure around 5mm in diameter. They take approximately two weeks to hatch into small, translucent snails. Achatina fulica can lay hundreds of eggs in a single clutch, and they are capable of laying several clutches in a year under favorable conditions. This can contribute to their population growth and the potential for them to become an invasive species in some areas.
IMPORTANCE OF ACHATINA FULICA (ACHATINA SP.) 1 The mucus of Achatina fulica has been found to have potential medical properties, including anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial effects. It is also being studied for its potential use in wound healing. In some cases, Achatina fulica has been used as a biological control agent against invasive plant species. By feeding on these plants, they can help to reduce their growth and spread. 2
7.2 PHYLUM ANNELIDA: EARTHWORM
TAXONOMY HIERARCHY KINGDOM Animalia PHYLUM Annelida CLASS Oligochaeta ORDER Haplotaxida FAMILY Megascolecidae GENUS Pheretima SPECIES Pheretima posthuma
HABITAT OF PHERETIMA POSTHUMA Pheretima Posthuma, also known as the Indian blue worm, is a species of earthworm that is native to the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia. It is commonly found in soil and leaf litter in a variety of habitats, including forests, agricultural lands, and gardens. These earthworms are often found in moist soil, where they can burrow and move easily. They prefer soil that is rich in organic matter, such as leaf litter or compost. They can also be found in soils that are slightly acidic to neutral in pH. Pheretima Posthuma is an important species in soil ecology, as it plays a critical role in soil structure and nutrient cycling. Its burrowing activities help to improve soil aeration and water infiltration, while its consumption and breakdown of organic matter help to release nutrients that are important for plant growth.
STRUCTURE OF PHERETIMA POSTHUMA The body of Pheretima posthuma is covered in small, bristle-like structures called setae. These setae help the worm to grip the soil as it moves and burrows. The skin of Pheretima posthuma is thin and moist, and it secretes a mucous layer that helps to protect the worm from drying out. The skin is also permeable, which allows for the exchange of gases and other molecules with the environment. SKIN BODY SETAE The body of Pheretima Posthuma is divided into segments, or annuli, which are separated by grooves called intersegmental furrows. The body is cylindrical and elongated, with a pointed head at one end and a rounded tail at the other. MUSCLES The body of Pheretima posthuma is supported by circular and longitudinal muscles, which contract and expand to allow for movement and burrowing.
STRUCTURE OF PHERETIMA POSTHUMA Pheretima posthuma is hermaphroditic, meaning that each individual has both male and female reproductive organs. During mating, two worms will exchange sperm, which is used to fertilize eggs. The eggs are then laid in a cocoon, which is secreted by the worm and deposited in soil. The cocoon hatches into small, immature worms that grow and mature into adults. REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM DIGESTIVE SYSTEM The digestive system of Pheretima posthuma consists of a mouth, pharynx, esophagus, crop, gizzard, intestine, and anus. The worm ingests soil and organic matter through its mouth, which is located on the first segment of the body. The soil passes through the digestive tract, where organic matter is broken down and nutrients are absorbed.
LIFE CYCLE OF PHERETIMA POSTHUMA The life cycle of Pheretima posthuma begins with the hatching of the egg from the cocoon. The newly hatched juvenile earthworm is about 1-2 mm long and feeds on organic matter in the soil. As it grows, it molts its skin several times, shedding the old skin to allow for growth. Pheretima posthuma reaches sexual maturity at about 6 months old. As a hermaphroditic species, each earthworm possesses both male and female reproductive organs, and selffertilization is possible. However, cross-fertilization can also occur when two individuals mate. Mating behavior involves aligning the bodies of two individuals and exchanging sperm through their genital openings. After mating, each earthworm produces a cocoon or capsule, which contains several eggs. The cocoon is deposited in the soil, and the juvenile earthworms hatch after a few weeks. The newly hatched earthworms look like miniature versions of the adults and continue to feed on organic matter in the soil. They grow and develop through successive stages, molting their skin several times as they mature. Pheretima posthuma has a lifespan of about two to three years, depending on environmental factors like temperature, moisture, and food availability. As they grow older, earthworms may become less active and reproduce less frequently. In summary, the life cycle of Pheretima posthuma involves hatching from an egg, growing and developing through successive stages, reaching sexual maturity, mating and producing cocoons containing eggs, and hatching into juvenile earthworms. The life cycle continues as the juvenile earthworms grow, mature, and reproduce, and the cycle repeats.
IMPORTANCE OF PHERETIMA POSTHUMA (PHERETIMA SP.) 1 Pheretima posthuma plays an important role in maintaining healthy soil. They burrow through the soil, breaking up compacted earth and improving drainage. As they eat and digest organic matter, they also help to decompose and recycle nutrients in the soil. Pheretima posthuma is used in vermiculture, a process of composting organic waste using earthworms. Vermiculture can help to reduce waste and produce nutrient-rich compost that can be used to improve soil health and crop productivity. Pheretima posthuma is an indicator species for healthy soil ecosystems. Their presence in soil can indicate a healthy and thriving ecosystem, while their absence can indicate poor soil health and potential environmental degradation. 2 3
7.2 PHYLUM ARTHROPODA: MEAL WORM
TAXONOMY HIERARCHY KINGDOM Animalia PHYLUM Arthropoda CLASS Insecta ORDER Coleoptera FAMILY Tenebrionidae GENUS Tenebrio SPECIES Tenebrio molitor
HABITAT OF TENEBRIO MOLITOR The wild habitat of mealworms, which are the larvae of the Tenebrio molitor species of darkling beetles, includes a wide range of environments, such as forests, fields, grasslands, and wetlands. Mealworms can be found in soil, leaf litter, and other decaying organic matter, where they feed on a variety of plant and animal material. They are also commonly found in habitats with stored grains, such as granaries and silos. Mealworms are typically nocturnal and prefer to stay hidden during the day, so they can often be found in crevices, under debris, or buried in soil. They are known to be able to tolerate a range of temperatures, although they tend to prefer warmer environments.
STRUCTURE OF TENEBRIO MOLITOR The head of a Tenebrio Molitor contains a pair of antennae, compound eyes, and mouthparts. The antennae are used for sensing the environment, while the compound eyes allow for sight. The mouthparts are used for feeding. HEAD THORAX The thorax of a Tenebrio Molitor contains three pairs of legs. These legs are robust and spiny, providing grip and allowing the mealworm to move through soil and other substrates. BODY The body of a Tenebrio Molitor is elongated and segmented, consisting of a head, thorax, and abdomen. This structure allows for flexibility and movement. ABDOMEN The abdomen of a Tenebrio Molitor is composed of ten segments as also shown in Diagram 5.3, with the first few segments containing hard plates called sclerites. The last segment contains a pair of hooks called urogomphi, which are used for grasping.
LIFE CYCLE OF TENEBRIO MOLITOR Mating: Adult darkling beetles mate by coming together in close proximity, with the male mounting the female from behind. The male deposits sperm into the female's reproductive tract. Egg-laying: After mating, the female darkling beetle lays eggs in soil or other suitable substrate. The eggs are small, white, and oval-shaped, and are typically laid in clusters. Larval Stage: The eggs hatch into larvae, which are the mealworms. The larvae feed and grow, going through several instars, or molting stages, as they grow larger. The larval stage of mealworms lasts for several weeks to several months, depending on environmental conditions. Pupa Stage: After the final instar, the larva enters the pupal stage, during which it undergoes metamorphosis and transforms into an adult beetle. The pupa is usually found in a cocoon, which provides protection during this vulnerable stage. Adult Stage: After several weeks in the pupal stage, the adult beetle emerges from the cocoon. The newly emerged beetle is soft and pale in color, but will darken and harden over the course of a few hours. The adult beetle is fully formed and ready to mate and lay eggs. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
IMPORTANCE OF TENEBRIO MOLITOR 1 Tenebrio Molitor larvae can consume organic waste such as food scraps and agricultural residues, and convert them into valuable resources such as compost and animal feed. 2 Tenebrio Molitor larvae are used as a food source for humans and animals. They are rich in protein, fat, and other nutrients, and are used in the production of various food products, including snacks, pet food, and livestock feed.
8.0 CONCLUSION REFERENCES To sum up, the morphology of Kingdom Animalia is incredibly diverse and encompasses a vast range of forms, shapes, and sizes. The animals in this kingdom are multicellular, eukaryotic organisms with specialized tissues and organs that allow them to carry out specific functions. They are classified into different phyla based on their body plans, which can vary from simple radial symmetry to complex bilateral symmetry. Some common characteristics of animals include the presence of nervous and muscular tissues, the ability to move, and heterotrophic nutrition. Despite their diversity, all animals share a common ancestry and are thought to have evolved from a single-celled ancestor over 700 million years ago. Brusca, R. C., & Brusca, G. J. (2019). Invertebrates. Sinauer Associates, Inc. Hickman, C. P., Roberts, L. S., & Larson, A. (2022). Animal Diversity. McGraw-Hill Education. Hickman Jr, C. P., Roberts, L. S., & Larson, A. (2019). Integrated Principles of Zoology. McGraw-Hill Education. Ryan, J. F., & Chiodin, M. (2019). Where is My Mind? How Sponges and Placozoans May Have Lost Nervous Systems. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society. Rokas, A. (2019). The Origins of Multicellularity and the Early History of the Genetic Toolkit for Animal Development. Annual Review of Genetics, 53, 479-496. Ruppert, E. E., Fox, R. S., & Barnes, R. D. (2019). Invertebrate Zoology: A Functional Evolutionary Approach. Cengage Learning. Schmidt-Rhaesa, A. (Ed.). (2022). Handbook of Zoology: Gastrotricha, Cycloneuralia and Gnathifera, Volume 1. Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG.