Academic writing A Handbook for International Students

‘Academic Writing is organized in a way that makes sense for teaching writing skills. The content covers
a diverse body of samples from various fields, so it works wonderfully for my undergrad or graduate
students. I especially like the section on common language errors, which includes extra practice for
students; there is a good balance between writing instruction and discrete skill practice. It isn’t easy to
find a text that addresses plagiarism in a way that is clear for students to understand, and this text does
the job!’

Ixchell Reyes, University of Southern California, USA ‘This book is an excellent example of inclusive
teaching. It is aimed primarily at international students, but reaches further, as it is equally useful for
British students and students who come from a more practice-focused background. It is also a strong
companion to books on research methods that need a solid basis for academic skills. The clear structure,
accessible content, and well thought through activities in this book all give students the confidence to
write effective academic work without the fear of breaking rules of plagiarism or academic malpractice.
This is the book I recommend to all my students at the beginning of each academic year, independent of

the subject I teach and the composition of my cohort.’

Maria Lonsdale, University of Leeds, UK

‘Academic Writing is simply organised, allowing ease of access for beginner writers and specifically
introducing them to the language needed to enter the conversations on academic writing.’

Djuddah Leijen, University of Tartu, Estonia

‘The 5th edition of Academic Writing includes many new features which are extremely useful for all
university students who are inexperienced in writing for academic purposes. The book provides both
information on important aspects of academic writing and practice exercises which all students will find
invaluable. It is a useful book for anyone who is new to writing for academic purposes, regardless of
their level of proficiency in English.’

Radhika Jaidev, Singapore Institute of Technology, Singapore

Academic Writing

Now in its fifth edition, Academic Writing helps international students succeed in
writing essays and reports for their English-language academic courses.
Thoroughly revised and updated, it is designed to let teachers and students easily
find the topics they need, both in the classroom and for self-study.

The book consists of five parts:

The Writing Process
Elements of Writing
Language Issues
Vocabulary for Writing
Writing Models

The first part explains and practises every stage of essay writing, from choosing
the best sources, reading and note-making, through to referencing and
proofreading. The four remaining parts, organised alphabetically, can be taught
in conjunction with the first part or used on a remedial basis. A progress check at
the end of each part allows students to assess their learning. All units are fully
cross-referenced, and a complete set of answers to the practice exercises is
included.

New topics in this edition include Writing in Groups, Written British and
American English, and Writing Letters and Emails. In addition, the new
interactive website has a full set of teaching notes as well as more challenging
exercises, revision material and links to other sources. Additional features of the
book include:

Models provided for writing tasks such as case studies and essays
Use of authentic academic texts from a wide range of disciplines
Designed for self-study as well as classroom use
Useful at both undergraduate and postgraduate level
Glossary to explain technical terms, plus index

Written to deal with the specific language issues faced by international students,
this practical, user-friendly book is an invaluable guide to academic writing in
English.

Stephen Bailey has taught English for Academic Purposes at the University of
Nottingham and Derby University. Previously he taught students in Barcelona,
Tokyo, Johor Bahru and Prague. He now lives in Derbyshire with his wife and
daughter. His other books include Academic Writing for International Students of
Business (Routledge) and The Essentials of Academic Writing for International
Students (Routledge).

Academic Writing

A Handbook for International Students
Fifth edition

Stephen Bailey

Fifth edition published 2018
by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN

and by Routledge

711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business ©
2018 Stephen Bailey

The right of Stephen Bailey to be identified as author of this work has been
asserted by him in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs
and Patents Act 1988.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or
utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now
known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any
information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the
publishers.

Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered
trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent
to infringe.

First edition published 2003 by Routledge Fourth edition published 2015 by
Routledge British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record
for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress
Cataloguing-in-Publication Data Names: Bailey, Stephen, 1947– author.
Title: Academic writing : a handbook for international students / Stephen Bailey.
Description: Fifth Edition. | New York : Routledge, 2018. | Includes bibliographical
references.
Identifiers: LCCN 2017036066 | ISBN 9781138048737 (Hardback) | ISBN
9781138048744 (Paperback) | ISBN 9781315169996 (Ebook) Subjects: LCSH: English

language—Rhetoric—Handbooks, manuals, etc. | English language—Textbooks for
foreign speakers. | Academic writing—Handbooks, manuals, etc.
Classification: LCC PE1413 .B28 2018 | DDC 808/.0428—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017036066

ISBN: 978-1-13804873-7 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-1-13804874-4 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-31516999-6 (ebk)

Typeset in Galliard
by Apex CoVantage, LLC

Visit the companion website: www.routledge.com/cw/bailey

Contents

Acknowledgements
Introduction for Teachers
Introduction for Students
Academic Writing Quiz
Written British and American English – A Short Guide
Part 1
The Writing Process
1.1 Basics of Writing
The purpose of academic writing
Features of academic writing
Common types of academic writing
The format of short and long writing tasks
The components of academic writing
Some other common text components

Simple and longer sentences
Writing in paragraphs
Practice

1.2 Reading: Finding Suitable Sources

Academic texts
Types of text
Using reading lists
Using library catalogues
Using library websites to search electronic resources

1.3 Reading: Developing Critical Approaches

Reading methods
Titles, subtitles and text features
Reading abstracts
Fact and opinion
Assessing internet sources critically
Practice
Critical thinking

1.4 Avoiding Plagiarism

What is plagiarism?
Acknowledging sources
Degrees of plagiarism
Avoiding plagiarism by summarising and paraphrasing
Avoiding plagiarism by developing good study habits

Practice
Further practice
Research

1.5 From Understanding Essay Titles to Planning

The planning process
Analysing essay titles
Practice
Brainstorming
Essay length
Writing outlines
Practice

1.6 Finding Key Points and Note-making

Finding key points
Finding relevant points
Practice A
Why make notes?
Note-making methods
Effective note-making
Practice B

1.7 Summarising and Paraphrasing

What makes a good summary?
Stages of summarising
Practice A

Practice B
Practice C
Paraphrasing
Practice D
Techniques for paraphrasing
Practice E
Practice F

1.8 References and Quotations

Why use references?
Citations and references
Reference verbs
Reference systems
Using quotations
Practice
Abbreviations in citations
Secondary references
Organising the list of references

1.9 Combining Sources

Referring to sources
Taking a critical approach
Combining three sources
Practice

1.10 Organising Paragraphs

Paragraph structure
Practice A
Practice B
Introducing paragraphs and linking them together
Practice C
Practice D

1.11 Introductions and Conclusions

Introduction components
Introduction structure
Opening sentences
Conclusions
Conclusion structure
Practice

1.12 Rewriting and Proofreading

Rewriting
Practice A
Practice B
Proofreading
Practice C
Practice D
Practice E
Progress check 1

Part 2
Elements of Writing

2.1 Argument and Discussion

Discussion vocabulary
Organisation
Practice A
The language of discussion
Counter-arguments
Providing evidence
Practice B

2.2 Cause and Effect

The language of cause and effect
Practice A
Practice B
Practice C
Practice D

2.3 Comparison

Comparison structures
Practice A
Forms of comparison
Using superlatives
Practice B
Practice C
Practice D

2.4 Definitions

Simple definitions
Category words
Complex definitions
Practice

2.5 Examples

Using examples
Phrases to introduce examples
Practice A
Practice B
Restatement

2.6 Generalisations

Using generalisations
Structure
Practice A
Practice B
Building on generalisations
Practice C

2.7 Problems and Solutions

Paragraph structure
Alternative structure
Vocabulary
Practice A
Practice B

Practice C

2.8 Visual Information

Types of visuals
The language of change
Describing visuals
Labelling
Practice A
Practice B
Progress check 2

Part 3
Language Issues

3.1 Cohesion

Reference words
Practice A
Preventing confusion
Practice B
Implied language
Practice C
Practice D

3.2 Definite Articles

Use of articles
Using definite articles
Practice A

Practice B

3.3 Numbers

The language of numbers
Percentages
Simplification
Further numerical phrases
Practice

3.4 Passive and Active

Active and passive
Structure
Use of the passive
Adverbs with passives
Practice

3.5 Punctuation

Capital letters
Full stops
Commas
Apostrophes
Semicolons
Colons
Quotations marks/inverted commas
Others
Practice A

Practice B

3.6 Singular or Plural?

Five difficult areas
Group phrases
Uncountable nouns
Practice A
Practice B

3.7 Style

Developing an academic style
Guidelines
Practice A
Avoiding repetition and redundancy
Varying sentence length
The use of caution
Using modifiers
Practice B

3.8 Time Markers

How time markers are used
Practice A
Tenses
Practice B
Practice C
Progress check 3

Part 4
Vocabulary for Writing

4.1 Approaches to Vocabulary

Vocabulary issues
Dealing with new vocabulary
Language features
Practice
Confusing pairs
Words and phrases from other languages

4.2 Abbreviations

Types of abbreviation
Common abbreviations
Punctuation
Duplicate abbreviations
Abbreviations in writing
Practice

4.3 Academic Vocabulary: Nouns and Adjectives

Introduction
Nouns
Nouns and adjectives
Confusing nouns and adjectives
Practice A
Similar adjectives

Academic adjectives
Practice B
Practice C

4.4 Academic Vocabulary: Verbs and Adverbs

Understanding main verbs
Using verbs of reference
Practice A
Further verbs of reference
Practice B
Using adverbs
Practice C
Practice D

4.5 Conjunctions

How conjunctions work
Types of conjunctions
Common conjunctions
Practice A
Practice B
Confusing conjunctions
Conjunctions of opposition
Practice C

4.6 Prefixes and Suffixes

How prefixes and suffixes work

Prefixes
Practice A
Suffixes
Practice B
Practice C

4.7 Prepositions

Using prepositions
Practice A
Prepositions and nouns
Prepositions in phrases
Prepositions of place and time
Practice B
Verbs and prepositions
Practice C

4.8 Synonyms

How synonyms work
Common synonyms in academic writing
Practice A
Practice B
Practice C
Progress check 4

Part 5
Writing Models

5.1 Case Studies

Using case studies
Model case study

5.2 Literature Reviews and Book Reviews

Literature reviews
Example literature review
Book reviews
Model book review

5.3 Writing Longer Papers

Planning your work
Example essay
Revision

5.4 Reports

Writing reports
Essays and reports
Practice
Scientific reports
Example report: Student experience of part-time work

5.5 Writing Letters and Emails

Letters
Practice A
Emails

Practice B
Practice C

5.6 Writing in Groups

Why write in groups?
Making group work successful
Dealing with problems
Points to remember

Glossary
Answers

Part 1 – The Writing Process
Part 2 – Elements of Writing
Part 3 – Language Issues
Part 4 – Vocabulary for Writing
Part 5 – Writing Models
Index

Acknowledgements

I would like to thank all the colleagues that I have worked with over the years in
different parts of the world. Always ready to share ideas, their encouragement
and comments have helped me develop these materials.

My wife Rene, who has an unrivalled grasp of the finer points of academic
style, has been an invaluable critic, while my daughter Sophie has helped me
appreciate the other side of the academic whirl.

Introduction for Teachers

Aims

The fifth edition of Academic Writing: A Handbook for International Students has
been written to help students who are not native speakers of English with their
written academic work. In many ways writing poses the biggest challenge for
these students, due to the special demands of style, vocabulary and structure met
in the academic world.

This book is aimed at both undergraduate and postgraduate students, since
although they are studying at different levels, the requirements of their teachers
are similar – for written work that is precise, objective, accurate and fully
referenced.

In addition, students may be studying in many different situations: on full-time
pre-sessional courses, on part-time in-sessional classes, in subject-specific classes
or in multidisciplinary courses, or studying entirely by themselves. Due to its
flexible structure this book can be used in all these situations.

Structure

The organisation of Academic Writing is explained by this chart:

Part Topic Main application

1 The Writing Process from finding sources Classroom use
to proofreading

2 Elements of Writing from argument to Classroom and self-study
visual information

3 Language Issues from cohesion to time Classroom, self-study and
markers reference

4 Vocabulary for Writing from Classroom, self-study and
abbreviations to synonyms reference

5 Writing Models from case studies to Self-study and reference
emails

Part 1 guides students through the entire process of writing essays or similar
papers, and is best taught as a series of lessons, with feedback from the practice
exercises.

Part 2 teaches the related writing skills and, like Parts 3, 4 and 5, is organised
alphabetically. Part 3 examines the language issues that pose particular problems
for international students, and Part 4 deals with the vocabulary problems which
are an understandable concern for such students.

Finally, Part 5 provides models of some of the most common types of assessed
writing tasks. All the units in Parts 2–5 can be taught in conjunction with units
from Part 1, or can be suggested to individual students on a remedial basis for
self-study.

Full details of how units can be linked together in a teaching programme, with
suggestions for suitable classroom approaches, can be found in the Teaching
Notes on the companion website: www.routledge.com/cw/bailey.

Using the book

The first three units in Part 1 are designed as a basic introduction to the subject
and assume a fairly low level of writing ability. With stronger students teachers
may choose to progress rapidly through these to more difficult materials starting
with Unit 4, Avoiding Plagiarism.

Note that Academic Writing uses authentic reading texts taken from a wide
variety of disciplines (e.g. medicine, politics, law and engineering) that are
selected to be of interest to all students. Most of the exercises can be done either
individually or in pairs or groups, the latter being preferable in some cases. There
is a full answer key at the end of the book, along with a glossary of academic
terms and an index. Further practice exercises, mainly at a more advanced level,
can be found on the companion website.

Cross-referencing to relevant sections in other units is provided like this:

See Units 3.4 Passive and Active and 4.5 Conjunctions

The materials in this course have been thoroughly tested in the classroom, but
improvement is always possible, so I would be grateful for any comments or
suggestions from teachers for future editions.

Stephen Bailey
[email protected]

Introduction for Students

The challenge of writing in English

Most international students who come to college or university to study on
English-language courses can speak the language well enough for everyday
activities such as shopping and travelling. But they may be surprised to find that
writing notes, essays and reports in English is much more difficult. There are
several reasons for this situation.

Firstly, while speaking is normally done face to face, so that you can see if the
listener understands what you say, when writing we cannot see the reader, so we
must write as clearly as possible to make our work easy to understand.
Additionally, with academic writing, writers and readers must learn special
conventions, such as using capital letters in certain places. If you do not follow
these rules, your meaning may be unclear and your teacher could find it hard to
assess your work. There is also the issue of vocabulary, since in most academic
subjects students are expected to use a semi-formal vocabulary which is different
from the idiomatic language of normal speech.

The aim of the book

The main purpose of Academic Writing: A Handbook for International Students is
to help you succeed in the writing tasks which you may be asked to complete on
your course. The kind of writing you are asked to do could be different from the
work you have done before, and this may be the first time you have had to write
long essays and reports in English.

Your teachers know that English is not your native language and will be
sympathetic to the problems you have in your writing. But at the same time you
will want to learn to write as clearly and accurately as possible, not only to
succeed on your present course, but also in preparation for your future career.
Most large companies and organisations now expect their staff to be able to
communicate effectively in written English, as well as orally. During your studies
you have an ideal opportunity to learn to write English well, and this book can
help you achieve that goal.

As well as accuracy, students are generally expected to take a critical approach
to their sources. This means that you are expected to question and evaluate
everything you read, asking whether it is reliable and relevant. Your teachers also
expect you to refer carefully to the sources of your ideas, using a standard system
of referencing. Academic Writing will help you develop these skills.

Using the book

The organisation of Academic Writing is explained by this chart:

Part Topic Main application

1 The Writing Process from finding sources Classroom use
to proofreading

2 Elements of Writing from argument to Classroom and self-study
visual information

3 Language Issues from cohesion to time Classroom, self-study

markers and reference



4 Vocabulary for Writing from Classroom, self-study
abbreviations to synonyms and reference


5 Writing Models from case studies to Self-study and reference
emails


The book can be used either with a teacher or by yourself for self-study and
reference. To help you get the most out of the course, note the following points:
Instructions are printed like this: Read the following text Cross-referencing to
relevant sections in other units is provided like this: See Units 3.4 Passive and
Active and 4.5 Conjunctions Answers to most exercises are provided in the
answer key at the end of the book. If there is no definite answer, a model answer
is usually given.

The glossary on page 257 explains academic terms you may not be familiar
with. The index on page 310 can be used to find specific information.

The companion website for Academic Writing can be found at

www.routledge.com/cw/bailey. It offers extra material including further practice
exercises, more challenging materials and revision quizzes, as well as links to
other resources.

I hope you find this new edition helpful in progressing with your studies, and I
would be glad to receive your comments and suggestions on any part of the book
to help develop future editions.

Stephen Bailey
[email protected]

Academic Writing Quiz

 How much do you know about academic writing? Find out by doing this
fun quiz.

1 The main difference between academic writing and other writing is that
academic writing:
a) uses longer words
b) tries to be precise and unbiased
c) is harder to understand

2 The difference between a project and an essay is:
a) essays are longer
b) projects are longer
c) students choose projects’ subjects

3 Teachers frequently complain about students:
a) not answering the question given

b) not writing enough
c) writing in pencil

4 The best time to write an introduction is often:

a) first
b) last
c) after writing the main body

5 The purpose of an introduction is:

a) to give your aims and methods
b) to excite the reader
c) to summarise your ideas

6 Making careful notes is essential for:

a) writing essays
b) revising for exams
c) all academic work

7  An in-text citation looks like:

a) (Manton, 2008)
b) (Richard Manton, 2008)
c) (Manton, R. 2008)

8 Paraphrasing a text means:

a) making it shorter
b) changing a lot of the vocabulary
c) adding more detail

9 Paragraphs always contain:

a) six or more sentences
b) an example
c) a topic sentence

10 Proofreading means:

a) getting a friend to check your work
b) checking for minor errors
c) rewriting

11 Teachers expect students to adopt a critical approach to their sources:

a) sometimes
b) only for Master’s work
c) always

12 This punctuation mark (’) is called:

a) comma
b) colon
c) apostrophe

13 A suitable synonym for ‘business’ is:

a) firm
b) organisation
c) outfit

14 ‘Progress’ and ‘research’ are both nouns. What kind of noun?

a) countable

b) uncountable
c) proper

15 An abstract is normally found:

a) on the back cover of books
b) before journal articles
c) in exam questions

16 The word ‘unreliable’ contains:

a) a prefix
b) a suffix
c) both

17  When making notes you should always include:

a) your own ideas
b) a full reference
c) the date

18 A pie chart is used to show:

a) changes in time
b) proportion
c) structure of an organisation

19 Acknowledgements are generally used:

a) to admit possible errors
b) to suggest more research
c) to thank people who helped

20 The conclusion to an article usually includes:
a) results of the study
b) additional data
c) references

Answers on p. 262

Written British and American English
– A Short Guide

Speakers of British and American English can usually understand each other
easily, with only minor confusions due to some variations in vocabulary.
However, with written academic work more differences need to be understood.
The main issues are explained in this section.

NB: Academic writers in Australia, New Zealand and many other English-
speaking areas tend to use British English; in Canada American English is more
common.

1 Vocabulary

There are many vocabulary items which differ between British (UK) and
American (US) English (e.g. autumn [UK] and fall [US]). However, these are
mainly well known and widely understood. But the two main problematic
variations in everyday vocabulary are:

a) words which are not commonly understood in both countries (e.g. tap [UK]
and faucet [US]). Other examples: boot (of car) (UK) and trunk (US)/nappy
(UK) and diaper (US).

b) words with different meanings in each country (e.g. vest is worn under a
shirt in the UK, but in the US it is the part of a three-piece suit worn under a
jacket).

For a full list of differences see:
https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/usage/britishand-american-terms

2 Spelling

a) In American English the ‘u’ is commonly dropped from words ending in -
our (e.g. neighbour becomes neighbor).

b) Words ending in -ise or -yse in British English (e.g. sanitise, modernise)
change to sanitize and modernize in American English.

c)  A group of technical nouns such as haemophiliac and foetus lose the ‘ae’ or
‘oe’ in American English and become hemophiliac and fetus.

d) British English spells the noun practice but the verb practise. In American
English both forms are spelt with a ‘c’.

e) Many words ending in -re in British English (e.g. metre, theatre) become
meter and theater in American English.

3 Academic language

There are many minor variations between the language of the educational
systems of Britain and the US. These are some of the more important:

a) In Britain students read/do/study a subject. In the US they study or major in
a subject (the latter as the main part of a two-part degree).

b) Most teaching in UK universities is done by lecturers, while a professor is a
senior position. In US colleges and universities teaching is mainly done by
professors and assistant professors.

c) In Britain a thesis is the paper submitted for a PhD. This is called a
dissertation in the US. (In the UK a dissertation may be written for a
Master’s degree).

d) A college in the UK is usually any post-school institution which provides
mainly vocational training, but doesn’t award degrees (but a few
universities such as Oxford are organised in colleges). In the US a college is
usually part of a university and does give first degrees.

e) Someone studying for a Master’s degree in the UK is a postgraduate, while
in the US they are a graduate student.

f) Students in Britain sit or take exams, in America exams are just taken.
Before taking an exam, British students may revise the subject, but in the US
they review the topic.

UK students generally receive marks for their work, while American students get
grades.

4 Punctuation

a) In Britain quotations are shown by single quotation marks, while nested
quotations (those inside quotations) use double. In the US the convention is
the opposite.

UK: As Kauffman remarked: ‘His concept of “internal space” requires close
analysis’.

US: As Kauffman remarked: “His concept of ‘internal space’ requires close
analysis.”

Note that in British English the full stop comes after the quotation marks,
while in the US it is inside.

b) In American English the ‘Oxford comma’ is standard (i.e. the comma before
the final ‘and’ in a list): … typhus, cholera, tuberculosis, and smallpox were
all endemic in the nineteenth-century slum.

 In British English this is usually omitted:

… typhus, cholera, tuberculosis and smallpox were all endemic in the
nineteenth-century slum.

c) Dates are generally written with the month first in American English:
11.30.2017 = November 30th 2017

In British English dates usually begin with the day: 30.11.2017 = 30th
November 2017

 See Units 1.8 References and Quotations and 3.5 Punctuation

PART 1
The Writing Process

Part 1 explains and practises all the stages of producing a piece of academic
writing, from analysing the title, reading the sources, note-making and
referencing, through to rewriting and proofreading the final draft.

UNIT 1.1

Basics of Writing

Most academic courses test students through written assignments. These
tasks include coursework, which may take weeks to write, and exam
answers, which often have to be written in an hour. This unit deals with:

The names of different writing tasks
The format of long and short writing tasks
The structure of sentences and paragraphs

1 The purpose of academic writing

Students should be clear why they are writing. The most common reasons
include:

to report on a piece of research the writer has conducted
to answer a question the writer has been given or chosen
to discuss a subject of common interest and give the writer’s view
to synthesise research done by others on a topic

 Can you suggest any other reasons?

2 Features of academic writing

Although there is no fixed standard of academic writing, and style may vary
from subject to subject, academic writing is clearly different from the written
style of newspapers or novels. For example, it is generally agreed that academic
writing attempts to be accurate, so that instead of ‘the metal was very hot’ it is
better to write ‘the metal was heated to 65°C’. What are some of the other
features of academic writing?

 Working alone or in a group, list your ideas here.

Impersonal style – generally avoids using ‘I’ or ‘we’

3 Common types of academic writing

The main types of written work produced by students are presented in the
following table.

 Match the terms on the left to the definitions on the right.

4 The format of short and long writing tasks

Short essays (including exam answers) generally have this pattern:

Introduction
Main body
Conclusion

Longer essays and reports may include:

Introduction
Main body

Literature review
Case study
Discussion

Conclusion
References
Appendices

 See Unit 5.3 Longer Essays Dissertations and journal articles may have:

Abstract
List of contents
List of tables
Introduction
Main body

Literature review
Case study
Findings
Discussion

Conclusion

Acknowledgements
Notes
References
Appendices

In addition to these sections, books may also include:

Foreword
Preface
Bibliography/Further reading

 Discuss the meanings of the preceding terms.

a) A short summary which explains the paper’s purpose and main findings.
b) A list of all the sources the writer has mentioned in the text.
c) A section, after the conclusion, where additional information is included.
d)  A short section where people who have helped the writer are thanked.
e) Part of the main body in which the views of other writers on the topic are

discussed.
f) A section where one particular example is described in detail.
g) A preliminary part of a book usually written by someone other than the

author.