Effective Teaching Methods: Research-based practice

428  Appendix B  Answers to Chapter Questions and Activities

d. Provide another learning task with which the student d. Limit the resources provided to promote sharing and
can try the new approach. Model self-questioning contact.
behavior for the student as the new material is being
learned. e. Make one stage of product contingent on a previous
stage completed by someone else.
e. Provide other opportunities for practice, decreasing
your role as monitor. 8.  a. Summarizer
b. Checker
f. Check the result by questioning the student’s com- c. Researcher
prehension and use of strategies. d. Runner
e. Recorder
Field Experience and Practice Activities f. Supporter
g. Observer/Troubleshooter
1.  a. Show students the reasoning involved.
b. Make students conscious of it. 9.  a. Average the individual scores to determine the group
c. Focus them on the application of the reasoning. grade.

3. Reciprocal teaching provides opportunities to explore b. Assign all group members the average of the highest
the content to be learned via group discussion. (or lowest) half of the members’ scores.

6.  a. Jingles or trigger sentences c. Average an individual’s score with the group score.
b. Narrative chaining
c. Number rhyme or peg word 10. The teacher’s roles are (a) to remind each group of its
d. Chunking assigned role, (b) to redirect the group’s efforts, and
(c) to provide emotional support and encouragement.
Chapter 12
11.  a. Openly talk about how the groups functioned.
Discussion and Practice Questions b. Solicit suggestions for how the process could be
improved.
1. The shared objectives are (a) engaging students in the c. Get viewpoints of predesignated observers.
learning process and (b) promoting higher, more com-
plex patterns of thought. 12.  a. There is not enough time.
b. Debriefing stays vague.
2.  a. Attitudes and values c. Students stay uninvolved.
b. Prosocial behavior d. Written reports are incomplete.
c. Alternative perspectives and viewpoints e. Students use poor collaborative skills.
d. Integrated identity
e. Higher thought processes Field Experience and Practice Activities

3.  a. Specify the goal. 1.  a. Teacher–student interaction
b. Structure the task. b. Student–student interaction
c. Teach and evaluate the collaborative process. c. Task specialization and materials
d. Monitor group performance. d. Role expectations and responsibilities
e. Debrief.
2.  a. Grades—individual and group
4. Forms of products or behaviors include written group b. Bonus points
reports, higher individual achievement, an oral perfor- c. Social responsibilities
mance, an enumeration or resolution, a critique, and d. Tokens or privileges
data collection. e. Group contingencies

5. The most efficient group size is four to six members. 3.  a. Communicate one’s own ideas and feelings.
b. Make messages complete and specific.
6.  a. Build groups around isolated students. c. Make verbal and nonverbal messages congruent.
b. Randomly assign students. d. Convey an atmosphere of respect and support.
c. Form groups diversely. e. Assess whether the message was properly received.
d. Share the selection process with students. f. Paraphrase another’s point of view.
g. Negotiate meanings and understandings.
7. The answer should include three of the following six h. Participate and lead.
methods:
a. Assign a product that requires a clear division of Chapter 13
labor.
b. Form pairs in which students oversee each other’s Discussion and Practice Questions
work.
c. Chart the group’s progress on individually assigned 1. A norm-referenced test compares a student’s perfor-
tasks. mance to that of a large sample of pupils (called the

Appendix B  Answers to Chapter Questions and Activities  429

norm group) representative of those being tested. It 11. A standardized test is constructed by specialists to de-
is useful when you need to compare a learner’s per- termine a student’s level of performance relative to that
formance to that of others of the same age or grade of other students of similar age and grade.
level. A criterion-referenced test compares a student’s
performance to a standard of mastery (called a crite- 12. A percentile rank indicates that the student’s score was
rion). It is useful when you need to decide if a student higher than the scores of that percentage of individuals
requires more instruction in a certain skill or content in the norming sample. That is, in the norming sample,
area. the percentage of students indicated scored lower than
this individual. Two points to keep in mind in inter-
2. A test blueprint measures (a) level of cognitive com- preting a percentile rank are as follows:
plexity and (b) area of instructional content. a. The percentile rank is not the percentage of correct
answers.
3.  a. True/false b. The extreme or end points of a percentile distribution
b. Matching tend to be spread out, whereas percentiles toward the
c. Multiple choice center tend to be compressed. This makes compari-
d. Completion or short answer sons between the same number of points at different
portions of the scale difficult.
4.  a. Stem clues
b. Grammatical clues Field Experience and Practice Activities
c. Redundant words/unequal response lengths
d. Use of “all of the above” and “none of the above” 1. An extended-response essay question allows stu-
dents to determine the length and complexity of
5. The three devices are (a) pictorial, graphical, or tabu- the response. It is most useful when the problem
lar stimuli; (b) analogies that demonstrate relationships p­ rovides little or no structure and outcomes at the
among terms; and (c) application of previously learned analysis, synthesis, and evaluation levels are desired.
principles or procedures. A restricted-response essay question poses a specific
problem for which the student must recall proper
6. Reasons for using an essay test are that (a) higher-level information, organize it, derive a defensible conclu-
cognitive processes have been taught, (b) relatively sion, and express it according to specific criteria. It is
few items can be graded, and (c) test security is a con- most useful when the problem posed is structured and
sideration. when outcomes at the application and analysis levels
are desired.
7. Advantages: Essay tests require students to use higher-
level cognitive processes, are well-suited to certain 2. A scoring rubric is a guide written in advance that
topics and objectives, and can measure communication indicates the criteria or components of an acceptable
skills pertinent to a subject area. Disadvantages: Essay answer.
tests are tedious to read and score, may be influenced
by the learner’s communication skills, and may involve 3. The three types of validity are (a) content, (b) concur-
some degree of subjectivity on the part of the scorer. rent, and (c) predictive.

8.  a. Content 4. The three methods of testing reliability are (a) test-
b. Organization retest, (b) alternate form, and (c) internal consistency.
c. Process
d. Completeness/Internal consistency 5. Marks and grading systems are based on comparisons
e. Originality/Creativity with the following:
a. Other students
9. Validity refers to whether the test measures what it is b. Established standards
supposed to measure. Reliability refers to whether the c. Aptitude
test yields the same or similar scores consistently. d. Achievement versus effort
e. Achievement versus improvement
10. An acceptable validity coefficient ranges between .60 and
.80 or higher. An acceptable reliability coefficient ranges
between .80 and .90 or higher. The maximum possible
size of either a validity or reliability coefficient is 1.0.

Appendix C

Higher Order Thinking and Problem-Solving Checklist 

Check each column below indicating (1) the extent to which your curriculum requires students to achieve the following
­outcomes and (2) the extent to which you are teaching your students to achieve these outcomes.

Assign to each checkmark a number 5 for “Great Extent,” a 4 for “Fair Extent,” a 3 for “Some Extent,” a 2 for “A Little,”
and a 1 for “Not at All.” Subtract your assigned rating or value for the “Degree of Implementation” column from that in the
“Degree of Importance” column for each behavior to arrive at your highest priorities.

Degree of Importance Degree of Implementation

12345 12345

Does your curriculum require Are you teaching your students
students to achieve the to achieve the following? (Check
following? (Check one) one)

Application of Knowledge

  1. Search of one’s memory for what he or she
already knows about a problem.

  2. Draw a picture or diagram that shows what
was learned or observed.

  3. Construct and interpret graphs, charts,
and tables.

  4. Classify/categorize things according to
definable attributes.

  5. Communicate the results of what was
observed in written and oral format.

  6. Apply given rules to reach a conclusion.

  7. Consult a variety of knowledge sources to
gather information.

Analytical Skills

  8. Identify the similarities and differences
among various elements.

  9. Compare a problem to problems encountered
previously.

10. Understand the relationship of each
component to the whole.

430

Appendix C  Higher Order Thinking and Problem-Solving Checklist  431

Degree of Importance Degree of Implementation

12345 12345

Does your curriculum require Are you teaching your students
students to achieve the to achieve the following? (Check
following? (Check one) one)

11. Draw reasonable conclusions from the
observation or analysis of data.

12. Identify and articulate errors in one’s own
thinking or in that of others.

13. Explain the reasons for a conclusion.

14. Predict what will happen given the
information one has.

15. Plan a way to test one’s prediction.

16. Distinguish the most important elements
of a problem.

17. Organize the conclusion about a problem
in a logical fashion.

18. Identify the criteria for evaluating a problem
solution.

19. Gather information or evidence to solve
a problem.

20. Find corroborating evidence from among
different data sources.

21. Determine the reliability of the evidence.

22. Place an interpretation of a problem in the
context of prevailing circumstances.

Synthesis/Creativity

23. Generate new ways of viewing a situation
outside the boundaries of standard
conventions.

24. Reformulate a problem to make it more
manageable.

25. Brainstorm new applications of content.

26. Anticipate potential problems.

27. Accurately summarize what has been read or
what others have said, orally and in writing.

Evaluation/Metacognition

28. Ask oneself what was learned.

29. Make appropriate revisions on the basis
of feedback.

432  Appendix C  Higher Order Thinking and Problem-Solving Checklist

Degree of Importance Degree of Implementation

12345 12345

Does your curriculum require Are you teaching your students
students to achieve the to achieve the following? (Check
following? (Check one) one)

30. Assess the risks involved in a solution.

31. Monitor the outcome and revise a strategy,
where appropriate.

32. Judge the credibility of evidence.

33. Evaluate and revise what is written.

34. Ask oneself questions about ideas one
is unsure of.

35. Catch fallacies and contradictions.

Dispositions

36. Meaningfully praise the performance
of others.

37. Share and take turns.

38. Help keep others on task.

39. Provide assistance to others when needed.

40. Engage in tasks even when the answers
or solutions are not immediately apparent.

41. Seek accuracy.

42. Be flexible to change one’s viewpoint to
match the facts.

43. Demonstrate restraint over impulsive
behaviors.

44. Compose drafts and tryouts in attempts
to solve a problem.

45. Demonstrate persistence in tackling difficult
tasks.

46. Use a constructive tone when responding
to others.

47. Display enthusiasm for learning.

48. Ask for feedback when needed.

49. Collaborate with others in teams.

50. Provide assistance to others when asked.

51. Demonstrate independence in completing
a project.

Appendix C  Higher Order Thinking and Problem-Solving Checklist  433

Degree of Importance Degree of Implementation

12345 12345

Does your curriculum require Are you teaching your students
students to achieve the to achieve the following? (Check
following? (Check one) one)

52. Listen attentively to others.

53. Ignore distractions that interfere with goal
attainment.

54. Keep a record of one’s own progress toward
important goals.

55. Realistically evaluate one’s own performance.

56. Set goals that are achievable within a specific
time span.

Values

57. Demonstrate awareness of ethical concerns
and conflicts.

58. Adhere to codes of conduct.

59. Show an ability to resolve ethical dilemmas
and conflicts.

60. Maintain self-discipline in dealing with
difficult situations.

61. Behave in a manner that communicates care
and concern for others.

62. Act responsibly in dealing with tasks
and people.

Glossary

A Behavioral objective  A written statement that identifies
specific classroom strategies to achieve desired goals and
Active listening  The listener provides feedback to the expresses these strategies in a format that allows their
speaker about the message heard and the emotion ­effects on learners to be measured.
­conveyed and lets the speaker know he or she is being
understood and respected. Behavior modification  Changing or modifying a behavior
by following the behavior with some type of reinforcement.
Active responding  Orally responding to a question, writ-
ing out the correct answer, calculating an answer, or phys- Blended learning  A traditional course of instruction incorpo-
ically making a response (e.g., focusing a microscope). rating online materials and intermittent online discussion.

Active uninvolvement  When a group member talks about Blogs  A platform for students to publish text, audios, or
everything but the assigned goal of the group. video online with which they can reflect and articulate
thoughts through writing, audio recording, or video,
Activity structure  The systematic varying of task d­ emands enhancing their cognitive and metacognitive skills.
within a unit.
C
Adaptive teaching  Applying different instructional strate-
gies to different groups of learners so they all can achieve Centering behavior  A type of amiable limit testing during
success. which learners question how they will personally benefit
from being group members.
Advance organizer  A framework or structure that organizes
the content into meaningful parts. Classroom management tradition  Focuses on planning
and organizing the classroom, teaching rules and routines,
Affective domain  Behaviors that relate to the development and informing students of the consequences of breaking
of attitudes, beliefs, and values: receiving, responding, the rules.
valuing, organizing, and characterizing.
Classroom response system  A teacher–learner interactive
Applied behavior analysis  Classroom management system in which students can by remote control respond
emphasizing behavior modification techniques and to teacher questions posed in a multiple-choice format,
reinforcement theory. the answers to which can be immediately displayed for
all to see.
Assessment portfolio  All or some of the selections in
a display portfolio and some of those that begin in a Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP) A
w­ orking portfolio. language proficiency model that focuses on culturally
sensitive interventions for language learning to improve
Asynchronous learning  A system of learning in which the school performance of students who are socially, eco-
students can move in and out of the formal classroom rou- nomically, and linguistically different from mainstream
tine to retrieve and exchange information, discuss topics, learners.
and collaborate with peers and their teachers.
Cognitive domain  Behaviors that relate to the development
At-risk learners  Those who are most often off-task and of intellectual abilities and skills: knowledge, comprehen-
disengaged and who have difficulty learning at an aver- sion, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation.
age rate.
Cognitive learning strategy  General methods of thinking
Authentic behaviors  The types of performances required that improve learning by helping the learner to retain in-
in the real world. coming information (reception), recall task-relevant prior
knowledge (availability), and build logical connections
Authentic tests  Tests that ask learners to display their among incoming knowledge (activation).
skills and behaviors in the way they would be displayed in
the real world, outside the classroom. Common Core  National standards for K-12 learning goals
that outline what a student should know and be able to do
B at the end of each grade.

Behavioral antecedents  Events or stimuli that are pres-
ent when a behavior is performed that elicit or set off the
b­ ehavior.

434

Glossary  435

Compensatory approach  The teacher chooses an in- Culturally responsive teaching  The teacher’s ability to
structional method to compensate for learners’ lack of react to students of different cultures with different verbal
information, skills, or ability and alters content presen- and nonverbal classroom management techniques.
tation to circumvent learners’ weaknesses and promote
their strengths. Culture-specific questioning  Rules that govern social con-
versation among different cultural groups, which can be used
Concept mapping  A type of graphic organizer—or mind to better target questions to specific populations of learners.
tool—for knowledge organization that can help learners
interpret, represent, and organize information by making Curriculum guides  Grade, department, or school district
a graphic in cooperation with others. specifications about what content must be covered in
what period of time.
Congruent communication  Using communication skills
to promote learners’ self-esteem, which influences them to D
choose acceptable behavior.
Debriefing  Gathering feedback about an activity by
Constructivism  Designing and sequencing lessons ­discussing it, soliciting suggestions for improving it, and
to ­encourage learners to use their own experiences to getting observers’ viewpoints about it.
a­ ctively construct meaning that makes sense to them,
rather than to acquire understanding through exposure to Declarative (factual) knowledge  Facts, concepts, rules,
a format organized by the teacher. and generalizations pertaining to a specific area or topic;
intended to be spoken or written.
Constructivist teaching strategies  Instructional tools that
emphasize the learner’s direct experience and the class- Deduction  Reasoning that proceeds from principles
room dialogue while deemphasizing lecturing and telling. or generalizations to their application in specific
­instances.
Convergent question  One that limits an answer to a single
or a small number of responses. Differentiated instruction  Maximizing each student’s
academic success and personal growth as a learner by
Cooperative learning  An arrangement in which students meeting the student where he or she is and providing the
work in groups and are rewarded on the basis of the suc- needed instruction and resources that lift him or her to
cess of the group. According to Glasser, cooperative the next step on the learning ladder.
learning builds an environment that makes the classroom
a place learners want to be. Diffusion  The process by which learners’ different aca-
demic and social expectations spread through the class as
Cooperative learning role functions Summarizer, they communicate with one another.
checker, researcher, runner, recorder, supporter, and
­observer/troubleshooter. Direct instruction  A teacher-centered, knowledge acqui-
sition, presentation-recitation model for teaching facts,
Course management system  A personal communication rules, and action sequences.
tool by which the teacher can maintain contact with stu-
dents in or outside of the classroom. Discrimination  Selectively restricting a range of instances
by eliminating things that appear to match the concept but
Criterion level  The degree of performance required to that differ from it in critical dimensions.
achieve a learning objective.
Distancing behavior  A type of amiable limit testing dur-
Criterion-referenced test (CRT)  Compares a student’s per- ing which group members challenge academic expecta-
formance with an absolute standard of mastery, or criterion. tions and rules to establish under what conditions they do
and do not apply.
Cross-age tutoring  One student teaches another; the tu-
tor may be one or more years or grade levels above the Distracters  The wrong answer choices in a multiple-
learner. choice or matching test item.

Crystallization  Learners’ expectations converge into a Distributed cognition  Media emphasizing the social
shared perspective of classroom life as they engage in ­aspects of cognition and advocates learning that involves
­activities together. the simultaneous interaction among students, computers,
and the learning environment.
Cultural deficit model  Using genetically or culturally
inspired factors to explain differences in such things as Divergent question  One that has many or a broad range of
aptitude and language between cultural minorities and acceptable responses.
mainstream learners.
E
Cultural difference model  Focusing on solutions that
r­equire culturally sensitive links to and responses from Effective questions  Questions for which students actively
the school to improve the performance of students who compose responses, thereby becoming engaged in the
are socially, economically, and linguistically different learning process.
from mainstream learners.
Eliciting probes  Questions asked to seek clarification of
Cultural frame  The individual’s frame of reference, the student’s response to determine its appropriateness or
­acquired from experience, that is the lens through which correctness.
he or she interprets and responds to events.

436  Glossary

Engaged learning time  The amount of time students Guided student practice  The direct instruction strategy of
­devote to learning in the classroom. presenting stimulus material and then eliciting practice,
directed by the teacher, of the desired behavior.
Examples  Representations of a concept that include all
the attributes essential for recognizing it as a member of H
a larger class.
Helping behaviors  Behaviors used in combinations to im-
Expert leadership  Being seen as competent to explain or plement key effective teaching behaviors, including using
do certain things and as knowledgeable about particular student ideas and contributions, structuring, questioning,
topics. probing, and teacher affect (developing the teacher–
learner relationship).
Expressive objective  A learning objective that may have a
variety of correct responses. Horizontal relationships  Successful relationships with
peers that meet learners’ needs for belonging and allow
Extended-response essay question  One that allows the them to acquire and practice important social skills.
student to determine the length and complexity of
the r­ esponse. Humanist tradition  Classroom management focusing on
the inner thoughts, feelings, psychological needs, and
F emotions of individual learners.

Family-school linking mechanisms  Opportunities for Hypermedia  Media with which learning needs are met by
school and family involvement, such as parent–teacher using multiple presentations of information from different
conferences, home visits, teacher participation in com- sources or perspectives along with the opportunity to
munity events, newsletters, phone calls, personal notes, create new knowledge.
parents volunteering as classroom aides, and using home-
based curriculum materials. I

Feedback and correcting errors  The direct instruction Independent practice  The direct instruction strategy in
strategy for handling right and wrong answers. which the teacher brings facts and rules together in ways
that force simultaneous consideration of all the individual
Field-dependent  Seeing the world in terms of large, units of a problem and connect the units into a single
connected patterns. harmonious sequence of action.

Field-independent  Seeing the world in terms of its Indirect instruction  Teaching strategies that emphasize
specific parts. concept learning, inquiry, and problem solving to teach
concepts, patterns, and abstractions.
Formative evaluation  Data collection practices for im-
proving classroom instruction using curriculum-based Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act
measures (CBM) applied continuously throughout the (IDEIA)  A legislative mandate affirming that children
school year to measure student progress. with disabilities are entitled to a free and appropriate pub-
lic education and ensuring that special education students
Full-group discussion  Student exchanges, with successive have access to all the potential benefits that are available
interactions among large numbers of students. to regular education students.

Functional errors  Incorrect or partially correct answers Induction  Reasoning used to draw a conclusion or make a
that can enhance the meaning and understanding of con- generalization from specific instances.
tent and provide a logical stepping stone for climbing to
the next rung of the learning ladder. Inner speech  A learner’s private internal dialogue that
takes the place of the teacher’s prompts and questions and
G self-guides the learner through similar problems.

Generalization  Responding in a similar manner to stimuli Instructional variety  The teacher’s variability or flexibil-
that differ but are bound by a central concept. ity of delivery during the presentation of a lesson.

Gestural prompts  Modeling or demonstrating for learners InTASC standards  The ten principles describing what teach-
the skill being taught. ers should know and be able to do, according to the Interstate
New Teacher Assessment and Support Consortium.
Goals  Derived from standards to more specifically identify
what must be accomplished and who must do what for Integrated bodies of knowledge  Units and lessons that
standards to be met. stress the connections between ideas and the logical
c­ oherence of interrelated topics.
Gradual Release model  A model of instruction that
­requires that the teacher shift from assuming all the Integrated thematic teaching  Relating content and mate-
­responsibility for presenting content to students increas- rial from various subject areas.
ingly accepting responsibility for their own learning,
terminating in content mastery.

Glossary  437

Interactive individualized practice activities Lessons Mastery learning  An instructional strategy based on the
on CD-ROM that use questions and prompts to actively principle that all students can attain lesson and unit objec-
e­ ngage learners and give them immediate feedback. tives given appropriate instruction and sufficient time to
learn.
Interactive White Board (IWB)  An interactive display
screen that is connected to a computer and allows for Mental modeling  Demonstration of the decision-making
viewing, input, and collaboration by multiple users. process to help students internalize, recall, and generalize
problem solutions to different content at a later time.
Intercultural competence  The teacher’s ability to act
as a translator and intercultural broker between stu- Metacognition  Mental processes that assist learners to
dents of different cultures, ethnicities, and socioeco- reflect on their thinking by internalizing, understanding,
nomic levels. and recalling the content to be learned.

Interdisciplinary unit  A laterally planned unit of study in Metacognitive knowledge  Thinking about one’s thinking
which topics are integrated to focus on a specific theme. to become aware of one’s level of knowledge.

Intermittent reinforcement  Reinforcing a behavior at Metacommunication  The pattern of the teacher’s body
random or on an intermittent schedule to maintain it at its posture, language, and eye contact that is recognized by
present level. the learner and acted on according to the message being
conveyed, intentionally or not.
K
Moderating tasks  The means by which the teacher orients
Key behaviors  The five behaviors essential for effective students to the objective of the discussion; provides new
teaching: lesson clarity, instructional variety, teacher task or more accurate information; reviews, summarizes, and
orientation, engagement in the learning process, and relates opinions and facts; and redirects the flow of infor-
student success rate. mation and ideas back to the objective.

L Monitoring  The process of observing, mentally recording,
and, when necessary, redirecting or correcting students’
Lateral unit planning  Planning units that integrate behaviors.
knowledge across disciplines or content areas to convey
relationships, patterns, and abstractions. Moodle  A free and open source class management system
for creating a personal communication tool by which the
Learning activities  The means of achieving learning teacher can maintain contact with students in or outside of
outcomes. the classroom.

Learning conditions  The specific conditions under which N
learning will occur.
Natural reinforcers  Internal rewards or reinforcers that are
Learning outcome  An observable and measurable behav- naturally present in the setting where a behavior ­occurs.
ior; the end product of an instructional lesson or unit.
Negative reinforcement  Avoiding a painful, uncomfort-
Learning style  The instructional and classroom conditions able, or aversive state to achieve a more desirable state.
under which an individual prefers to learn.
No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB)  A legislative mandate
Legitimate leadership  Having influence because of one’s to improve educational opportunities for every child—­
title or role rather than one’s nature. regardless of ethnicity, income, or background.

Lesson clarity  The notion that the teacher’s presentation Nonexamples  Items that fail to represent the concept ­being
to the class should make points clear to learners at dif- illustrated by purposely not including one or more of the
ferent levels of understanding and explain concepts in attributes essential for recognizing them as members of a
logical, step-by-step order; the oral delivery should be larger class.
direct, ­audible to all students, and free of distracting
mannerisms. Norm-referenced test (NRT)  Compares a student’s
­performance to that of a norm group, or a large, represen-
Low-profile classroom management  Coping strategies tative sample of learners.
teachers use to stop misbehavior without disrupting the
flow of a lesson. Norms  Shared expectations among group members
­regarding how they should think, feel, and behave.
M
O
Marks and grading systems  Based on comparison, usu-
ally of students with one or more of the following: other Objectives  Statements that convey to learners the specific
students, established standards, aptitude, achievement ­behaviors to be attained, the conditions under which the be-
versus effort, and achievement versus improvement. haviors must be demonstrated, and the proficiency at which
the behaviors must be demonstrated.

438  Glossary

Ordered turns  Systematically going through the class and Prosocial behavior  Appropriate attitudes and values that
expecting each student to respond when his or her turn children learn from close and meaningful encounters
comes. among family members and in the classroom.

Organizational environment  The teacher’s visual or Psychomotor domain  Behaviors that relate to the coordi-
physical arrangement of the classroom. nation of physical movements and performance: imitation,
manipulation, precision, articulation, and naturalization.
P
Q
Pair or team discussions  Best used when the task is
highly structured, some consensus about the topic already Question sequence  Structuring, soliciting, and reacting,
exists, and the orienting instructions fully define each with many possible variations.
member’s role.
R
Passive responding  Listening to the teacher’s answer,
reading about the correct answer, or listening to class- Race to the Top (RTT)  A federally sponsored program
mates recite the right answer. providing competitive grants to State and local K-12
schools intended to spur innovation and reform.
Passive uninvolvement  When a group member does not
care about the goal of the group and becomes silent. Reacting  The teacher’s responding to students' answering
of questions.
Peer tutoring  One student teaches another at the same
grade and age level. Really Simple Syndication (RSS)  A technology that al-
lows users to subscribe to a particular blog, podcast, or
Performance assessments  Learners show what they know video blog and have it automatically downloaded to their
by using complex cognitive skills to perform authentic, real- electronic devices (e.g., computer, MP3 player, or smart
world tasks; tests that measure a skill or behavior d­ irectly, as phone).
they are used in the world outside the classroom.
Reciprocal distancing  The effect of teachers from one
Physical prompt  Using hand-over-hand assistance to culture interpreting children’s behaviors differently than
guide the learner to the correct performance. teachers from another culture.

Podcast  A video blog that students can download to their Reciprocal teaching  A type of classroom group dialogue
computer or mobile phones to view the content. in which the teacher expects students to make predictions,
ask questions, summarize, and clarify the text.
Portfolio assessment  A collection of work that shows a
learner’s growth in proficiency, long-term achievement, Redirecting probes  Questions that restructure a discus-
and significant accomplishments in a given academic area. sion with follow-up to get students back on track.

Positive Behavioral Intervention and Support (PBIS) A Referent leadership  Being seen as trustworthy, fair, and
school-wide program of largely preventative interventions concerned about students.
employing the concept of behavioral modification as a
means of reducing problem behaviors, such as disruption, Reflective practice  Teaching that is inspired by the tacit or
noncompliance, and aggression. personal knowledge gained from day-to-day experiences.

Positive reinforcement  Providing a desired stimulus or Reflective teacher  A teacher who is thoughtful and self-
reward after a behavior increases in frequency. critical about his or her teaching.

Presenting and structuring  The direct instruction strat- Reliability  Refers to whether a test consistently yields the
egy for presenting new material in small steps consistent same or similar scores.
with students’ previous knowledge, ability level, and ex-
perience, so learners master one point before the teacher Remediation approach  One in which the teacher provides
introduces the next point. learners with the prerequisite knowledge, skill, or behav-
ior needed to benefit from planned instruction.
Probe  A question that immediately follows a student’s
response to a question. Response to Intervention  A legislative mandate intended
to improve educational outcomes for all students by in-
Problem-based learning skills  Organizing instructional tegrating assessment, instruction, and decision making
tasks around loosely structured or ill-defined problems by using repeated curriculum-based measures rather than
that learners solve by using knowledge and skills from once-a-year summative assessments to assess student
several disciplines. progress.

Procedural knowledge  Action sequences or procedures Restricted-response essay question  One that poses a
used in a problem-solving or decision-making task; learn- ­specific problem for which the student must recall proper
ing action sequences or procedures to follow; knowledge information, organize it suitably, derive a defensible
of how to do things. c­ onclusion, and express it according to specific criteria.

Project-based learning  Promoting intrinsic motivation by Reward leadership  Being able to confer privileges,
organizing instruction around the tasks most likely to in- ­approval, or tangible compensation.
duce and support learner interest, effort, and ­persistence.

Glossary  439

Rigor and relevance framework  A framework for the Standards  General expressions of educational values that
continuum of thinking in the cognitive, affective, and provide a sense of direction in decision making.
­psychomotor domains encountered and expected of learn-
ers beyond the classroom and in adult life. Stem  The statement part of a multiple-choice item.
Structuring  How the teacher uses questions to direct
Rubrics  Rating scales that express criteria for assessing
essay or portfolio content. learning.
Student-centered learning  Allows the student to select
Rule–example–rule order  Giving a rule, then an example
of the rule, and then a repetition of the rule. the form and substance of the learning experience.
Student success rate  The rate at which students under-
Rules and procedures  Rules related to academic work, class-
room conduct, information the teacher must communicate stand and correctly complete exercises and assignments.
the first day, and information that can be communicated later. Summative evaluation  Data collection practices for

S presenting the overall progress of students, usually from
one year to the next, using standardized tests.
Self-directed learning  An approach to both teaching and Surface behaviors  The normal developmental behaviors
learning that actively engages students in the learning that children perform when confined to a small space with
process to acquire higher order thinking skills. a large number of other children.
Synchronous learning  Placing information and messages
Small-group discussions  About four to six students per online for the learner to receive and process immediately.
group. System perspective  Planning lessons to be part of the
larger system of interrelated learning, or the unit.
Social bookmarking  An application that facilitates build- Systems-ecological perspective  Viewing the learner as an
ing an easily accessible online bookmark warehouse that ecosystem in which the major systems include the fam-
becomes searchable to members or the public. ily, school, and peer group, and behavior is considered a
product of the learner and the demands and forces operat-
Social competence  The factors that, in addition to ing within the systems of which he or she is a member.
intelligence, contribute to learners’ success, including
motivation, health, social skills, quality of teaching, prior T
knowledge, emotional well-being, and family support.
Tacit knowledge  The teacher’s reflection on what works
Social environment  The interaction patterns the teacher in the classroom, as discovered over time and through
promotes in the classroom. personal experience.

Social framing  The context in which a message such as a Task specialization  Breaking a larger task into smaller
lesson is received and understood. subparts on which separate groups work.

Social learning theory  The study of how people learn Task structure  In cooperative learning, specifying the
from observing others. goal, structuring the task, teaching and evaluating the col-
laborative process, monitoring group performance, and
Social presentation  A Web 2.0 application that helps debriefing.
learners share and work together to organize and con-
struct knowledge for online presentation. Teacher-mediated dialogue  An exchange in which the
teacher helps learners restructure what is being learned
Socioeconomic status (SES)  An approximate index of using their own ideas, experiences, and thought patterns.
one’s income and education level.
Teacher-mediated learning  Adjusting the instructional
Sociolinguistics  The study of how cultural groups differ in dialogue to help students restructure their learning and
the courtesies and conventions of language, rather than in the construct their own meanings from the content.
grammatical structure of what is said.
Teacher task orientation  How much classroom time the
Soliciting  Question-asking behavior that encourages teacher devotes to the task of teaching an academic s­ ubject.
students to act on and think about the material.
Teaching concerns  The concerns with which teachers
Soliciting probes  Questions that ask for new information most strongly identify at different periods in their careers.
after a response that is partially correct to push the learner
to a more complex level of understanding. Team-oriented cooperative learning  Using teams of diverse
learners to increase the collaborative skills, self-e­ steem, and
Special populations  Groups of learners with physical, achievement of individual learners.
learning, visual, psychological, and/or communication
disabilities that may impair learning. Test blueprint  A table that matches the test items to be
written with the content areas and levels of behavioral
Stages of group development  A series of stages—forming, complexity taught.
storming, norming, and performing—during which the group
has certain tasks to accomplish and concerns to resolve. Thematic units  A variety of activities and materials
f­ocused in several related content areas and taught using
Standardized tests  Administered and scored according different instructional strategies.
to specific and uniform procedures; used to determine a
student’s performance level relative to that of others of
similar age and grade.

440  Glossary

Think, pair, share  A technique in which students work- Vertical unit planning  A method of developing units in
ing in pairs learn from one another and get to try out their a discipline by arranging the content to be taught hierar-
ideas in a nonthreatening context before presenting them chically or in steps and in an order that ensures that all
to the class. task-relevant prior knowledge required for subsequent
lessons has been taught in previous lessons.
Thinking curriculum  One that focuses on teaching learn-
ers how to think critically, reason, and solve problems in Virtual worlds  An interactive Internet environment in
authentic, real-world contexts. a two- or three-dimensional format in which learners
are immersed in online role-playing for instructional
Track system  A system in which some sections of instruction ­purposes.
are allocated to lower- and/or higher-performing students.
W
Tutorial and communication technologies  Methods that
are flexible, allow rapid movement within and across Web 2.0 technologies  The most dominant information and
content, provide immediate feedback on accuracy of communication technology on the Internet that is an im-
r­esponses, and gradually shift responsibility for learning portant means for facilitating learning and instruction in
from the teacher to student. the classroom.

U Wait-time 1  The amount of time a teacher gives a learner
to respond when first asked a question.
Unguided discovery learning  To maintain high levels of stu-
dent interest, selecting content based on student problems or Wait-time 2  The amount of time that passes after a learner’s
interests and providing individually tailored feedback. first response until the teacher or another student a­ ffirms or
negates the answer.
V
Wiki  A website where users assigned in groups can create
Validity  Refers to whether a test measures what it says it content collaboratively.
measures.
Z
Verbal prompts  Cues, reminders, or instructions to learn-
ers that help them correctly perform the skill being taught. Zone of maximum response opportunity  The level of
content difficulty and behavioral complexity from which
Vertical relationships  Successful relationships with the learner can most benefit.
­parents and teachers that meet learners’ needs for safety,
security, and protection.

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Name Index

Abrami, P., 90 Brown, A., 16, 330 Dawes, L., 308
Adams-Bullock, A., 33, 402 Bruce, B., 354 Delgado-Gaitan, C., 48, 58, 90, 239, 240,
Ageyev, V., 287, 326 Bruff, D., 212
Airasian, P. W., 202 Buehl, D., 74, 358 344
Alberto, P. A., 102, 267 Bullough, R., 27 Delong, L., 107
Albright, M., 211 Burbules, N., 354 Delpit, L., 46, 122, 276
Alexander, P., 254, 287, 304 Burke, K., 131, 399, 405 Demaray, M., 107
Algozzine, R., 412 Burnette, J., 296 Dewey, J., 18, 145, 324
Allen, S., 209 Burns, M., 413 Diaz-Rico, L., 21
Anderson, J. R., 254, 287 Dickinson, D., 41
Anderson, L., 108, 109, 252 Campbell, B., 41 Dillon, D., 122
Anderson, L. W., 144, 145, 156, 202, 232 Campbell, L., 41 Dillon, J. T., 226
Angelillo, J., 256, 257, 258, 268 Canter, L., 102 Dillow, S., 69
Antón-Oldenburg, M., 47 Carin, J., 20 Dodge, K., 54
Ariza, E., 21, 120 Carter, M., 72 Doll, B., 91
Armstrong, T., 41 Carter, N., 55, 70, 120, 121 Dowdy, J., 46, 122
Ashman, A., 352 Cartledge, G., 53 DuFour, R., 55, 171, 177
Ausubel, D. P., 175, 287, 296 Castaneda, C., 72 Dunlosky, J., 324
Aw, W.L., 131, 203 Chaffee, J., 13 Dunn, R., 89
Chaille, C., 15, 18, 287 Dweck, C., 343
Banks, C., 47, 48, 60, 239, 241 Chandon W., 16, 17 Dyches, T., 55, 70, 120, 121
Banks, J., 47, 48, 60, 239, 241 Chapman, C., 41
Beers, J., 201 Chappuis, J., 401 Eaker, R., 55, 171, 177
Beghetto, R., 90 Cheesman, E. A., 212 Echevarria, J., 21
Beisenherz, P., 16, 223 Chen, G., 226, 276 Edwards, I., 413
Benard, B., 91 Cheney, D., 102 Edwards, S., 330
Bennett, C., 369 Chuska, K., 8 Egbert, J., 21
Bennett, S., 202, 217 Clark, C., 158 Eggen, P., 226
Berliner, D., 61, 65 Clausen-Grace, N., 338 Eisner, E., 138, 156
Bernstein, J., 51 Collier, V., 48, 91, 240 Emmer, E., 7, 8, 11, 15, 81, 86, 102, 108,
Binder, J., 91 Compton-Lilly, C., 60
Bishops, A., 217 Conant, A., 20 109, 252
Bixby, J., 324 Conery, L., 287 Englehart, M., 140, 144, 156, 202
Bloom, B., 140, 144, 145, 156, 202, 260 Coontz, S., 58 Epstein, J., 55, 58
Blumenreich, M., 8, 16 Corey, S., 224 Erickson, H., 168, 289
Bode, P., 21, 59, 312 Costa, A., 12, 400 Ernst-Slavit, G., 21
Bohley, M., 203, 207 Coulson, R.L., 201 Evertson, C., 7, 8, 11, 15, 81, 86, 102, 108,
Bonk, C. J., 209, 211 Cruikshank, K. A., 202
Bordessa, K., 366 Curran, M., 89 109, 252
Borich, G., 7, 8, 17, 26, 40, 69, 131, 134, Curtis, D., 72
Curwin, R., 102, 312, 342 Falk, B., 8, 16
136, 151, 168, 203, 208, 223, 269, 287, Cushner, K., 37, 53, 369 Farkas, M., 207
298, 325, 387, 388, 393, 398, 401, 414 Farkas, P., 91
Boss, S., 341, 342 Dahllof, U., 263 Fasset, D., 7
Bowers, C., 89, 276, 312, 369 Dalgarno, B., 217 Feltovich, P. J., 201
Boyd, F., 276 D'Amico, J., 37 Ferguson, O., 92
Brehm, K., 91 Dantonio, M., 16, 223 Fisch, C., 122
Briggs, L., 180 Darling-Hammond, L., 37, 302 Fisher, D., 274
Brock, C., 276 Davis, A., 49 Flinders, D., 89, 276, 312, 369
Brophy, J., 3, 7, 8, 11, 12, 15, 21, 60, 90 Folkes, V., 343
Ford, D., 53
Forsterling, F., 343

450

Fosnot, C., 15, 287 Hintze, P., 413 Name Index  451
Free, J., 90 Hoegh, J., 133, 399
Frey, N., 274 Hoffman. C., 69 Krathwohl, D., 140, 144, 145, 156, 202
Fuller, F., 27, 30 Hoffman, L., 46 Krathwohl, D. R., 144, 145, 156, 202, 232
Furst, E., 140, 144, 156, 202 Holubec, E. J., 357 Krauss, J., 287, 341, 342
Horner, R., 102 Kreidler, W., 74
Gage, N., 61, 65 Hosp, J., 413 Ku, D., 52
Gagné, E., 254 Hosp, K., 413 Kubiszyn, T., 134, 136, 387, 388, 393,
Gagné, R., 180 Howard, T., 47
Gallaway, K., 37 Howell, M., 413 398, 414
Gallimore, R., 240 Howland, J. L., 200, 216 Kuh, G., 21
Gamoran, A., 90 Huffman, K., 254, 271 Kumpulainen, K., 287
Gardner, H., 41–43, 45, 324 Hunter, M., 287
Gardner, R., 53 Lajoie, S., 200, 201, 218
Gerrig, R., 74 Imbeau, M., 37, 177 Landsman, J., 72
Ghere, G., 36, 160 Irvine, J., 52, 369 Lanning, L., 289
Gholar, C., 276 Irvine, P. D., 46, 47 Lantieri, L., 43, 45
Gillies, R., 352 Isecke, H., 163 Larson, E., 159
Gindis, B., 287, 326 Larson, J., 46, 47
Ginott, A., 103 Jacobs, E., 370 Lazar, A., 240
Ginott, H., 103 Jacobson, M. J., 201 Leiding, D., 61
Glasgow, N., 7, 21 Jensen, G., 259 Letts, N., 71
Glasser, W., 71, 103, 104 Johnson, D., 310, 352, 358, 359, 361, 373 Levin, H., 48
Glenn, J., 324 Johnson, D. W., 357 Levine, D., 71, 260
Goddard, W., 103 Johnson, R., 310, 352, 358, 359, 361, 373 Lewin, L., 16
Gold, M., 78 Johnson, R. T., 357 Lewis, C., 72
Goleman, D., 43, 45 Jolliffe, W., 370 Libal, A., 51
Good, T., 3, 7, 12, 15, 21, 60, 90 Jonassen, D., 200, 216 Lightfoot, P., 401
Goodlad, J., 71 Jonassen, D. H., 200, 208 Lindsley, O. R., 271
Gootman, M., 71 Jondahl, S., 92 Lippitt, R., 78
Graham, C. R., 209, 211 Jones, B., 11, 102 Llewellyn, D., 20, 287
Graham, J., 337 Jones, F., 11, 102 LoGerfo, L., 90
Graham, S., 343 Jones, J., 11, 102 Loh, W., 370
Grant, K., 48, 344 Jones, L., 103, 104 Lou, Y., 90
Graves, A., 21 Jones, P., 11, 102 Loughran, J., 160
Green, H., 206 Jones, V., 103, 104 Lowther, D., 200
Gregory, G., 41 Joubert, M., 201, 204 Lubliner, S., 329
Griggs, S., 89 Lundgren, U. P., 263
Grigorenko, E., 46 Kagan, M., 357 Lustig, M., 47, 122, 276, 296, 312
Gunawardena, C. N., 203, 207 Kagan, S., 104, 353, 357 Lutz, G., 413
Kallick, B., 12, 400
Haas, M., 289 Kauchak, D., 226 Mackenzie, R., 81
Hannon, C., 206 Keene, E., 324 Malecki, C., 107
Hanson, E., 58, 292 Keiper, T., 159 Many, T., 55, 171, 177
Hao, Y., 131, 203, 208, 298 Keller, M., 413 Marra, R. M., 200, 216
Harada, V., 342 Keller-Margulis, M., 413 Martini, M., 54
Harpine, E., 51 Kelley, M., 338 Marzano, R., 7, 8, 12, 133, 144, 159, 223,
Harrow, A., 147 Kellough, R., 168, 170, 289
Hartle, L., 55 Kendall, J., 144, 232 224, 226, 232, 256, 258, 276, 399, 400
Hartman, H., 36 Kennedy, G., 217 Masia, B., 145
Hartnell-Young, E., 204 Kepp, K., 209 Maslow, A., 323
Hartup, W. W., 51 Khan, B. H., 209 Matont, K., 202
Hawk, P., 33, 402 Kieff, J., 61 Mayer, R., 254, 287, 304
Haynes, H., 224 Kincheloe, J., 47 Maynard, A., 54
Heflebower, T., 8, 12, 159, 276, 400 King, B., 399 McClelland, A., 37, 53, 369
Henson, K., 15, 18 Kinzie, J., 21 McDaniel, E., 276
Hermans, M. B., 203, 207 Kirio, C., 342 McDermott, R., 201
Hicks, C., 7, 21 Koester, J., 47, 122, 276, 296, 312 McNary, S., 7, 21
Hilberg, R., 53 Kohn, A., 323 McTighe, J., 7, 163, 289
Hill, W., 140, 144, 156, 202 Kolencik, P., 332 Mendler, A., 69, 102, 312, 342
Hillwig, S., 332 Kounin, J., 84 Mendler, B., 69, 102, 312, 342
Hintze, J., 413 Kozulin, A., 287, 326 Metcalf, J., 324
Miller, H. M., 47
Miller, M. J., 23
Miller, S., 287, 326
Mims, C., 200

452  Name Index Rothschild, B., 121 Thomas, W., 48, 91, 240
Rothstein-Fisch, C., 312 Thurstone, L. L., 41
Minocha, S., 202 Routman, R., 274 Tileston, D., 10
Montie, J., 36, 160 Rovai, A. P., 210 Tischler, M., 21
Mooney, C., 50 Rowe, M. B., 236 Tobin, K., 236
Moore, D., 224 Roy, P., 357 Tombari, M., 17, 26, 40, 151, 269, 325,
Moore, K., 147 Rozendal, M., 276
Morris, M., 204 Russell, J., 200 388, 401
Mshelia, A., 52, 369 Ryan, M., 72, 287 Tomlinson, C., 37, 177
Muijs, D., 7 Tomlinson-Clarke, S., 89
Mulhall, P., 160 Sable, J., 46 Troutman, A. C., 102, 267
Safford, P., 37, 53, 369 Trumbull, E., 312
Nadler, G., 16, 17 Samovar, L., 276 Tucker, J., 413
Nelson, B., 89 Sanchez, D., 203, 207 Turnbull, A. P., 58
Nessel, D., 337 Sattes, B., 8, 223 Turnbull, E., 122
Neuliep, J., 46, 47 Saunders, P., 7 Turnbull, H. R., 58
Nieto, S., 21, 59, 312 Savage, T., 71 Turner, L., 58
Nosich, G., 131 Schmid, E. C., 212 Tuttle, R., 203, 207
Novak, J., 172 Schmidt, P., 240 Tyler, R. W., 129–130
Schmuck, P., 51, 70, 72, 73
Oczkus, L., 46, 329, 330 Schmuck, R., 51, 70, 72, 73 Ure, D., 209
Ogbu, J., 49, 312 Schneidert, C., 202
Ogle, D., 201 Schroeder, A., 202 Valencia, R., 48, 49, 53, 58, 241
Ong, A., 298 Schunk, D., 60, 287 Voltz, L., 89
O'Reilly, T., 203 Seganti, C., 101 Vygotsky, L., 145, 324, 326
Ormrod, J., 226 Senn, P., 287
Overton, T., 90 Serdvukov, P., 287 Walker, B., 102
Shank, P., 211 Walqui, A., 8, 312
Pabuccu, A., 150 Shapiro, E., 413 Walsh, J., 8, 223
Pagliaro, M., 168 Simms, J., 133, 223, 224, 226, 399 Warren, J., 7
Palincsar, A., 16, 329, 330 Simonson, M., 211 Waxman, H., 53
Palloff, R. M., 209, 210 Sims, M., 89 Waycott, J., 217
Parker, D., 413 Slavin, R., 90, 366, 373 Wehrman, J. D., 212
Patrick, P., 224 Smaldino, S., 200 Weinstein, C., 89
Peery, A., 224 Smaldino, S. E., 211 Wenger, E., 201, 203
Peterson, P., 158 Smith, J., 21 West, R., 58
Piaget, J., 18, 145, 287, 322, 324 Snyder, W. M., 201 Whitson, S., 121
Pickering, J., 7, 8, 12, 159, 258, 276, 400 Soar, R., 71 Whitt, E., 21
Pintrich, P., 60 Sommers, W., 36, 160 Wiggins, G., 7, 163, 289
Pollock, J., 7, 258 Soulier, S., 52 Wincel, M., 353
Popham, J., 7 Spence, J., 90 Winograd, G. R., 212
Porter, R., 276 Spiro, J., 201 Wishart, J., 201, 204
Powell, S., 69 Sprenger, M., 52 Wolf, D., 324
Power, M., 370 Sprick, R., 102 Wolpert, E., 60, 61
Prater, M., 55, 70, 120, 121 Stadler, F., 303 Wong, H. K., 92
Pratt, K., 209, 210 Stanzione, L., 81 Wong, R., 92
Prensky, M., 202 Starasta, W., 226, 276 Wood, K., 168
Prinstein, N., 54 Stegelin, D., 55 Woolfolk, A., 296, 363, 364
Pruitt, E., 95 Steinberg, S., 47 Wright, K., 55
Putnam, J., 74, 90 Stepien, W., 287
Sternberg, R., 45, 46 Yamamoto, S., 342
Raven, B. H., 70 Stiggins, R., 401 Yanoski, D., 133, 399
Ray, J., 48, 344 Stipek, D., 226, 328 Yekovich, C., 254
Ready, D., 90 Sunal, C., 289 Yekovich, F., 254
Redding, N., 400 Sunwolf, T., 75 York, D., 52, 369
Reppucci, N., 343 Synder, T., 69 York-Barr, J., 36, 160
Reynolds, D., 7 Ysseldyke, J., 412
Reynolds, N., 401 Tapscott, D., 202
Rich, R., 401 Taylor, M., 165, 208 Zimbardo, P., 74
Richmond, C., 203, 207 Teo, N., 302 Zucker, S., 91
Riggs, E., 276 Terwei, J., 352 Zvacek, S., 211
Roberts, P., 168, 170, 289 Tharp, R., 53, 240
Roberts, S., 95
Rothenberg, C., 330

Subject Index

Abilities Behavioral antecedents, 106 first day planning, 92–94
general, 39–41 Behavioral objectives group development stages and, 72–77.
specific, 40–46
criterion levels and, 137–139 See also Group development stages
Abuse, child, 121 explanation of, 134 humanist tradition of, 102–105
Academic achievement learning conditions and, 136–137 integrated approach to, 109–116
learning outcomes and, 134–136 low-profile, 109–112
comparison of, 395–396 method to simplify, 139–140 problem areas in, 84–89
cooperative learning and, 353 misunderstandings about, 150–152 tradition of, 102, 107–109
teacher’s role in, 59–60 Behavior modification, 105–107 trust and leadership for, 70–72
Acceptance, unconditional, 69–70 Behaviors. See also Misbehavior Classroom response system, 211–212
Accountability, 77 authentic, 142, 150–151 Classrooms
Achievement tests, 225. See also Tests centering, 73 cooperative task structure in. See Task
Active listening, 118 disruptive, 111–112
Active responding, 271 distancing, 73 structure
Active teaching. See Direct instruction influence of home/family on, interaction in, 3–6
Active uninvolvement, 358 as learning communities, 94–95
Activity structure, 16, 336–337 116–117 rules and procedures for, 81–84, 93
Adaptive teaching prosocial, 352 seating arrangements in, 79, 80
benefits of, 38 surface, 109 social dialogue of, 332, 333–337
compensatory approach, 37–38 Bias, teachers and, 60–61 Classroom strategies. See Teaching strategies
explanation of, 37 Blended learning, 209 Closure, 87–89, 94
remediation approach, 37 Blogger (Google tool), 204–205 Cognition, distributed, 201
Advance organizers, 16, 287, 296–297, Blogs, 203, 205 Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency
300, 301–302 Blueprints, tests, 378–379 (CALP), 48
Affective domain, 140, 145–147, 151–152 Branching, 327 Cognitive domain
Alternate form, reliability of tests, 393 Bullying, 121 analysis and, 143
Analysis, objectives for, 143 application and, 143
Analysis questions, 231–232 CALP. See Cognitive Academic Language behaviors for, 151–152
Anger, 104 Proficiency (CALP) comprehension and, 142
Antecedent control, 106 evaluation and, 143–144
Antecedents, 111 Case histories and licensure preparation, explanation of, 140–142
Anticipation, 110–111 28–29, 62–63, 95–96, 123, 152–153, knowledge and, 142
Application, objectives for, 143 194–195, 217, 277–278, 313, 345–346, synthesis and, 143
Application questions, 230–231 370–371, 415 Cognitive learning strategies
Applied behavior analysis comprehension monitoring and, 338
behavior modification and, 105–107 CD-ROMs, instructional, 179 elaboration/organization as, 337–338
explanation of, 102, 105 Cell phones, 212 explanation of, 337
Aptitudes, 41, 395 Centering behavior, 73 problem solving, 338–341
Articulation, objectives for, 148–149 Characterization, objectives for, 147 Cognitive processes, learning, 287–290
Assessment portfolio. See Portfolios Child neglect/abuse, 121 Cognitive science, 144–145
Assignments, 86–87 Class meetings, 76–77 Common Core State Standards, 21, 25,
Asynchronous learning, 209 Classroom climate 133, 200
At-risk learners, 90–91 Communication, congruent, 103–104
Attention, learners, 268 explanation of, 77 Comparative relationships, 266
Attention-gaining instructional event, nurturing, 70 Compensatory approach, 37–38
180–181 organizational environment and, 78, Competitive climate, 78, 79
Attitudes, 352 Completion tests, 386
Attribution theory, 343 79–81 Comprehension, 142
Authentic behaviors, 142, 150–151 social environment and, 77, 78–79 Comprehension questions, 230
Authenticity, 183 Classroom management Concept learning, 297–298
Authentic tests, 141–142 applied behavior analysis tradition in, Concept map, 172, 208
Authoritarian climate, 78 Concurrent validity, tests, 393
105–107
connecting with learners and, 69–70 453
criteria for, 102
culturally responsive, 89–91, 122
democratic approach to, 76–77

454  Subject Index

Confidence, 69 Dialogue, 312 Engaged learning time, 10, 11–12
Congruent communication, 103–104 Differentiated instruction, 38–39 Engagement. See Learner engagement
Constructivism, 18, 94–95, 287, Diffusion, 75 Engagement rate
Digital games, 206–207
322–324 Digital portfolio, 32–33, 402 classroom management and, 108
Constructivist teaching strategies, 18, Direct instruction explanation of, 11
Enthusiasm, 21
287–290 appropriateness of, 258–259 Erikson’s personality theory, 50–52
Content assessment of, 392 Error correction, as direct instruction
culturally responsive, 276–277 strategies, 269–271
organization of, 295–302 example of, 259, 260–262 Essay tests
presentation, and lesson plan, 183–184 explanation of, 254, 255–258 explanation of, 386, 388
for unit/lesson plans, 164 forms of, 275 extended-response essay questions, 388,
validity of, 393 indirect instruction vs., 290–291
Content questions, 16–17 lesson plan example, 275–276 389
Convergent questions, 225–226 Direct instruction strategies restricted-response essay question, 388
Cooperative climate, 78, 79 feedback and correcting errors as, scoring, criteria for, 390–391
Cooperative learning, 47 writing questions for, 389–390
assessment of, 392 269–271 Evaluation
components of, 354–355 guided student practice as, 266–269 formative vs. summative, 396–397
culturally responsive, 369–370 independent practice as, 271–273 objectives for, 143–144
example of, 363–364 monitoring and diagnosing as, 262–263 questions, 233–234
explanation of, 104, 352 presenting and structuring as, 263–266 Examples, 304–305
outcomes of, 352–353 reviews as, 273–275 Existential intelligence, 41
principles of, 104–105 Disciplinary unit plans Expert leadership, 70–71
role functions, 359–360 explanation of, 165 Expressive objective, 138
task structure and. See Task structure teaching activities, visualizing, 165–166 Extended-response essay questions, 388, 389
team-oriented, 366–368 visualizing sequence of activities for,
Corporal punishment, 116 Factual knowledge, 141
Correctives. See Feedback 166–168 Families. See also Parents
Course management technology, 208–212 written, format for, 168, 169
Criterion levels, 137–139 Discipline. See Punishment effect on learning, 55–58
Criterion-referenced tests (CRT), 376–378 Discrimination, 291 influence on classroom behavior, 116–117
Cross-age tutoring, 178 Display/show portfolio, 402 involvement of, 119–120
Cross-links, concept map, 208 Disruptive behavior, 111–112 linking mechanisms between schools
CRT. See Criterion-referenced tests (CRT) Distancing behavior, 73
Crystallization, 75 Distributed cognition, 201 and, 56
Cultural deficit model, 49 Divergent questions, 225–226 single-parent, 58
Cultural difference model, 49 Diverse learners. See also Cultural teacher conference with. See Teacher-
Cultural diversity. See also Diverse diversity
learners bias and, 60–61 family conference
academic achievement and, 59 classroom management for, 89–91, 122 Family–school linking mechanisms, 56, 57
classroom management and, 89–91, 122 cooperative learning and, 369–370 Feedback
cooperative learning and, 369–370 direct instruction and, 276–277
direct instruction and, 276–277 effective teaching with, 21–22 as direct instruction strategy, 269–271
impact on learning, 46–47 indirect instruction and, 312 methods to provide, 185, 186
indirect instruction and, 312 language and, 48–49 Field-dependent learners, 52–53, 369
language and, 48–49 lesson planning for, 177–179 Field-independent learners, 52–53, 369
and learning style, 53 questioning for, 239–241 Focus question, concept map, 208
lesson planning and, 177–179 self-directed learning and, 344–345 Follow-up materials, 178
questioning and, 239–241 socioeconomic variations and, 21, 36, Formative evaluation vs. summative
self-directed learning and, 344–345 evaluation, 396–397
socioeconomic status and, 21, 36, 47–48 47–48 Forming, group development stage, 72, 73
statistics related to, 69 Full-class prompting, 267–268
Cultural frame of reference, 49 edTPA. See Teaching Performance Full-group discussion, 308
Culture, effects on learning, 46–47 Assessment (edTPA) Functional errors, 328–329
Culture-specific questioning, 239
Curriculum Educational standards. See Standards Generalization, 291
elements of, 39 Effective teachers. See also Teachers Gestural prompts, 267
standards for, 132–133 Goals
thinking, 131 and classroom management, 108–109
Curriculum guides, 161–162 for diverse learners, 21–22 development of, 129–130
explanation of, 3–6 explanation of, 129
Debriefing, 364–366 helping behaviors of. See Helping specification of, 355–356
Declarative knowledge, 141 Goals 2000: Reforming Education
Deduction, 302–304 behaviors, teachers to Improve Student Achievement
Deflection, 111 key behaviors of. See Key behaviors, (Department of Education), 130
Goal theory, 343–344
teachers Google, 204–205
socioeconomic variations and, 36 Grading system, for tests, 394–396,
Elaboration, as cognitive learning strategy, 405–409
337–338

Gradual release model, 274–275 Induction, 302–304 Subject Index  455
Group development stages, 72–77 Inner speech, 332–333
Inquiry learning, 298–301 Knowledge
forming, 72, 73 Instructional events, lesson plan acquisition of, 254
norming, 74–75 declarative/factual, 141
performing, 75 attention-gaining event, 180–181 integrated bodies of, 289–290
storming, 73–74 communication about objective, metacognitive, 141
Group discussions, 308–310 objectives, 142
Grouping, task-ability, 178 181–182 procedural, 141
Groups content presentation, 183–184 tacit, 160
composition of, 357–358 eliciting desired behavior, 184–185
monitoring performance of, 363 explanation of, 179 Knowledge questions, 229–230
size of, 357 feedback, providing, 185, 186
tasks in, 357–361 outcome, assessment of, 185–186 Language
Guided student practice, 266–269 prerequisite learning, stimulating recall and culturally responsive questioning,
240–241
Helping behaviors, teachers, 14–22 of, 182 proficiency, and learning, 48–49
lesson content, structuring of, 15–16 Instructional strategies. See Teaching
probing, 19–20 Language arts, lesson plan, 192
questioning as, 16–19 strategies Lateral unit planning, 165
student ideas/contributions, usage of, Instructions. See also Teaching Leadership, trust and, 70–72
14–15 Learner engagement
differentiated, 38–39
History, educational standards for, integration of technologies into, in learning process, 10, 11–12
132–133 success rate and, 12
212–217 using student ideas and contributions
Horizontal relationships, 51 variety in, 8–9, 184
Humanist tradition, classroom InTASC standards, 23–24, 28, 32–33 for, 15
Integrated bodies of knowledge, 289–290 Learners. See also Diverse learners
management Integrated thematic teaching, 171–172
congruent communication, 103–104 Intelligence at-risk, 90–91
cooperative learning, 104–105 characteristics of, 45–46 attention, 268
explanation of, 102 existential, 41 field-dependent, 52–53
Humor, 312 misconceptions of, 40 field-independent, 52–53
Hypermedia, 201 multiple. See Multiple intelligences ideas, as indirect instruction strategy,
social-emotional, 43
IDEAL (problem-solving system), 340 Interaction, classroom, 3–6 307–308
IDEIA. See Individuals with Disabilities Interactive individualized practice interaction among, 354
activities, 179 monitoring, 84–85
Education Improvement Act (IDEIA) Interactive White Board (IWB), 213–217 prior knowledge of, 163
“I messages, ”118–119 Intercultural competence, 122 and project-based learning, 342
Imitation, objectives for, 147–148 Interdisciplinary unit plans self-evaluation by, 308
Incentives, 115–116 explanation of, 168, 169–171 special, academic progress assessment
Independent practice, 271–273 guidelines for, 175–176
Indirect instruction integrated curricula for, 171–172 of, 409–414
objectives for, 170–171 success rate of, 12–14
assessment of, 392 obstacles to, 175 teacher knowledge of, 159
changing views of, 307 theme development for, 171 teachers and, interaction between, 354
culturally responsive, 312 visualization of, 172–173 using ideas and contributions of, 14–15
direct instruction vs., 290–291 written format for, 173–174 Learning, 179
example of, 284–287, 292–295 Internal consistency, reliability of tests, asynchronous, 209
explanation of, 255 393 blended, 209
group discussions in, 308–310 International Reading Association (IRA), categories of, 252–255
lesson plan example, 311 28 cognitive processes of, 287–290
Indirect instruction strategies Internet, 199, 201. See also Technology concept, 297–298
content organization as, 295–302 Interstate New Teacher Assessment cooperative. See Cooperative learning
deduction as, 302–304 and Support Consortium (InTASC) culture and, 46–47
examples as, 304–305 standards, 23–24, 28, 32–33 general abilities and, 39–41
function of, 291–292 IRA. See International Reading home life and, 55–58
induction as, 302–304 Association (IRA) individualized, 327
list of, 293 IWB. See Interactive White Board (IWB) inquiry, 298–301
nonexamples as, 304–305 language proficiency and, 48–49
questioning as, 305–307 Jigsaw II, 367 mastery, 258, 259–260
student ideas as, 307–308 online, 209–210
student self-evaluation as, 308 Key behaviors, teachers, 7–14 peer groups and, 54–55
Individualistic climate, 78, 79 engaged learning time, 10, 11–12 personality and, 50–53
Individualized learning, 327 instructional variety, 8–9 potential for, 69–70
Individuals with Disabilities Education lesson clarity, 7–8 prerequisite, recall of, 182
Improvement Act (IDEIA), 36, 405, student success rate, 12–13 problem-based, 338–341
411–413 teacher task orientation, 9–10 problem-centered, 299, 302
project-based. See Project-based

learning
self-directed. See Self-directed learning

456  Subject Index

socioeconomic status and, 47–48 Misbehavior. See also Behaviors Pair/team discussions, 310
specific abilities and, 41–46 respond to, 112–113 Parents
student-centered, 308 types of, 112–113
style. See Learning style involvement of, 119–120
synchronous, 209 Modeling, 268–269 participation of, 58
teacher-mediated, 325–327 Moderating tasks, 309–310 partnership between teachers and, 55–58
unguided discovery, 308 Monitoring, 84–85 Participation, structure of, 240
Learning activities, 135, 136 Part-whole relationships, 264
Learning centers, 178 comprehension, 338 Passive responding, 271
Learning communities, 94–95 Moodle, 210–211 Passive uninvolvement, 358
Learning conditions, 136–137 Motivation, 87, 88, 269 PBIS. See Positive Behavioral Intervention
Learning outcomes, 134–136 Multiple-choice tests, 382–386 and Support (PBIS)
Learning process, 10, 11–12 Multiple intelligences PCK. See Pedagogical content knowledge
Learning strategies, 91 (PCK)
Learning style in classroom, 43–44 Pedagogical content knowledge (PCK), 160
cultural differences in, 53 explanation of, 41–42 Peer groups, 54–55
explanation of, 52 Mutual trust, 69 Peer tutoring, 178
Least-to-most intrusive prompting, Percentile ranks, 397
267 National Board for Professional Teaching Performance assessment. See also Tests
Legitimate leadership, 71 Standards (NBPTS), 23, 28 examples of, 400–401
Lesson plans, 174, 176–179. See also Unit explanation of, 141, 399
plans National Council of Teachers of portfolios for. See Portfolios
content for, 164 Mathematics (NCTM), 28 Performing, group development stage,
decision making for, 161–164 75
direct instruction, 275–276 National Governors’ Conference, 55 Periodic review, 273
for diverse learners, 177–179 Naturalization, objectives for, 149 Personality, and learning, 50–53
examples of, 186–194 Natural reinforcers, 114 Physical prompt, 267
factors to consider for, 163 NBPTS. See National Board for Plans/planning
indirect instruction, 311 disciplinary unit. See Disciplinary unit
instructional events for. See Instructional Professional Teaching Standards
(NBPTS) plans
events, lesson plan NCLB. See No Child Left Behind Act first day, 92–94
objectives and, 161–162 (NCLB) interdisciplinary unit. See
prior knowledge of learners and, 163 NCTM. See National Council of Teachers
process to begin, 176–177 of Mathematics (NCTM) Interdisciplinary unit plans
standards and, 161–162 Negative reinforcement, 105 knowledge requirements prior to,
Lessons No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB), 21,
clarity of, 7–8 410–411 159–160
content, structuring of, 15–16 Nonexamples, 304–305 lesson. See Lesson plans
Licensure preparation. See Case histories Norming, group development stage, 74–75 strategies to begin, 176–177
and licensure preparation Norm-referenced test (NRT), 376–378 PLT Tests. See Principles of Learning and
Listening skills, 118 Norms, classroom, 74–75 Teaching (PLT) Tests
Literature, lesson plans, 189–191 NRT. See Norm-referenced test (NRT) Podcasts, 204–205
Low-profile classroom management, Portfolios
109–112 Objectives assessment, 402
for affective domain, 146–147 building, 403–405
Manipulation, objectives for, 148 behavioral. See Behavioral objectives conference, 405
Marking system, for tests, 394–396 for cognitive domain, 142–144 rating forms for, 406–409
Mastery learning, 258, 259–260 cultural roots of, 152 rationale for, 401–402
Matching tests, 380–382 explanation of, 129 report card grades and, 405
Mathematics instruction expressive, 138 rubrics, 405
and lesson-planning process, 161–162, types of, 402. See also specific types
constructivist approach to, 289 181–182 Positive Behavioral Intervention and
lesson plan for, 193 purpose of, 134 Support (PBIS), 105, 107
McREL. See Mid-continent Regional simplification of, 139–140 Positive reinforcement, 105
Educational Laboratory (McREL) Practice
Mental modeling, 324 Objective tests guided student, 266–269
Metacognition advantages and disadvantages of, 387 independent, 271–273
explanation of, 324 completion, 386 Praise, measuring individual, 6
self-directed learning and, 324–325 matching, 380–382 Praxis I: Pre-Professional Skills Tests, 25
Metacognitive knowledge, 141 multiple-choice, 382–386 Praxis II: Subjects Assessments, 25, 28
Metacommunication, 276 true/false, 379–380 Praxis III: Teacher Performance
Mid-continent Regional Educational Assessments, 25
Laboratory (McREL), 28 Online learning, 209–210 Praxis II Series Elementary Education:
Ordered turns, 268 Curriculum, Instruction, and Assessment
Organization Test, 131

as cognitive learning strategy, 337–338
objectives for, 146–147
Organizational environment, 78, 79–81
Overcorrection, punishment procedure, 106

Subject Index  457

Praxis™ Series: Professional Assessments wait time between, 236–238, 239 Sane messages, 103
for Beginning Teachers, 25 writing for essay tests, 389–390 Schools

Precision, objectives for, 148 Race to the Top (RTT), 409, 411–412 crises, 121–122
Precursors, 111 Reacting, as teacher behavior, 224 as learning communities, 94–95
Predictive validity, tests, 393 Reaction, to destructive behavior, 111–112 linking mechanisms between families
Principles of Learning and Teaching (PLT) Reading
and, 56
Tests, 25 constructivist approach to, 288 Science instruction
Probes, 234–236. See also specific educational standards for, 132
lesson plan, 186–188 constructivist approach to, 289
probes Really Simple Syndication (RSS), 204 educational standards for, 132
Probing, 19–20 Receiving, objectives for, 146 lesson plan for, 193–194
Problem-based learning, 338–341 Reciprocal distancing, 46 Selectivity, 183–184
Problem-centered learning, 299, 302 Reciprocal teaching, 46, 329–332 Self-directed learning
Problem-solving strategies, 74 Redirecting probes, 235 assessment of, 392
Procedural knowledge, 141 Referent leadership, 71 classroom dialogue and, 332
Process questions, 17–19 Reflective practice, 160 cognitive learning strategies for. See
Production, 269 Reflective teacher, 36
Project-based learning Regular reviews, 273 Cognitive learning strategies
Reinforcement/reinforcers, 106, 114. See culturally responsive, 344–345
explanation of, 341 also Rewards explanation of, 320–322
learner’s role in, 342 behavior modification and, 105–106 functional errors and, 328–329
tasks in, 341–342 in cooperative learning settings, inner speech and, 332–333
teacher’s role in, 342 metacognition and, 324–325
theories related to, 342–344 360–361 project-based learning strategies, 341–344
Prompts, in guided student practice, intermittent, 106 reciprocal teaching and, 329–332
267–268 natural, 114 sample dialogues of, 333–337
Prosocial behavior, 352 negative, 105 teacher-mediation and, 325–328
Psychomotor domain, 140, 147–149, positive, 105 teaching, 337
151–152 Relationships zone of maximum response opportunity
Punishment combinations of, 265–266
corporal, 116 direct instruction and, 264–266 and, 326–328
incentives vs., 115–116 horizontal, 51 Self-disclosure, 312
questions as, 244–245 vertical, 51 Self-efficacy theory, 343
Reliability, tests, 392, 393–394 Self-evaluation, learners, 308
Question-Answer-Feedback Sequences Remediation approach, 37 Sequential ordering, 264–265
form, 4 Resilient children, 91 SES. See Socioeconomic status (SES)
Response cost, punishment procedure, 106 Single-parent families, 58
Questions/questioning Response Form, 5 Small-group discussions, 310
analysis, 231–232 Responses, objectives for, 146 Social bookmarking, 205, 207
application, 230–231 Response to Intervention (RTI), 396, 409, Social competence, 41
complex/ambiguous/double, 241–242 413–414 Social context, learning and, 55–58
comprehension, 230 Restricted-response essay question, 388, Social-emotional intelligence, 43
content, 16–17 389 Social environment, 77, 78–79
convergent, 225–226 Retention, 269 Social framing, 312
culturally responsive, 239–241 Review, as direct instruction strategy, Social learning theory, 268
divergent, 225–226 273–275 Social presentation, 208
effective, 223, 238–239 Review materials, 178 Social rejection, 51
evaluation, 233–234 Reward leadership, 71–72 Social studies instruction, 289–290
explanation of, 223 Rewards Socioeconomic status (SES)
extended-response essay, 388, 389 in cooperative learning settings,
as helping behavior, 16–19 and learning, 47–48
as indirect instruction strategy, 305–307 360–361 variations in, effective teaching and,
levels of, 228–234 explanation of, 114–116
multiple-choice, 383–386 and reinforcement, 114–115 21, 36
probes, 234–236 Rhythm, conversational, 240 Sociolinguistics, 239
problems associated in usage of, Rigor and relevance framework, Soliciting, 224. See also Questions/
241–245 149–150
process, 17–19 RSS. See Really Simple Syndication (RSS) questioning
as punishment, 244–245 RTT. See Race to the Top (RTT) Special populations, 36
purposes of, 224 Rubrics, portfolios, 405 STAD. See Student Teams-Achievement
research on, 238–239 Rule-example-rule order, 266
restricted-response essay, 388, 389 Rules and procedures, for classrooms, Division (STAD)
sequences of, 227–228 81–84, 93 Standardized tests
synthesis, 232–233
targets of, 226–227 explanation of, 396–397
formative vs. summative evaluation,

396–397
helping students prepare for, 398–399
questions on, 225
teacher-made vs., 397

458  Subject Index

Standards, 23 partnership between parents and, norm-referenced, 376–378
Common Core State, 21, 25, 133, 200 55–58 objective. See Objective tests
for curriculum, 132–133 reliability of, 392, 393–394
explanation of, 129 reflective, 36 standardized. See Standardized tests
InTASC, 23–24, 28 role in academic achievement, 59–60 validity of, 392–393
and lesson-planning process, 161–162 role in project-based learning, 342 TFE. See Teaching Foundations Exams
origin of, 130–133 task orientation of, 9–10 (TFE)
Teaching, 179. See also Instructions TGT. See Teams-Games-Tournaments (TGT)
Stem, multiple-choice tests, 382 adaptive. See Adaptive teaching Thematic units, 171
Storming, group development stage, 73–74 categories of, 252–255 Think, pair, share technique, 310
Structuring complexity of, 22–23 Thinking curriculum, 131
concerns, 26 Thinking map, 172
function of, 224 culturally responsive, 122 Think sheets, 335
lesson content, 15–16 integrated thematic, 171–172 Time-out, punishment procedure, 106
Student-centered learning, 308 reciprocal, 46, 329–332 Title I schools, 21
Student engagement, 276–277 self-directed learning, 337 Track system, 90
Students. See Learners standards. See Standards Transitions, 85–86
Student Teams-Achievement Division transition to, 26–27 True/false tests, 379–380
(STAD), 366 Teaching Foundations Exams (TFE), 25 Trust
Study aids, 91 Teaching Performance Assessment and leadership, 70–72
Subject matter, teacher knowledge of, 159 (edTPA), 25–26 mutual, 69
Summarizing, 88–89 Teaching strategies Tutorial and communication technologies,
Summative evaluation, formative constructivist, 18, 287–290 177–178
evaluation vs., 396–397 for direct instruction. See Direct Tutoring, 178
Surface behaviors, 109 Tyler’s goal development approach, 129–130
Survival stage, teaching, 26–27 instruction strategies
Synchronous learning, 209 for field-dependent and field- Unconditional acceptance, of learners,
Synthesis, 143 69–70
Synthesis questions, 232–233 independent learners, 53
System perspective, for planning, 161 for indirect instruction. See Indirect Unguided discovery learning, 308
Systems–ecological perspective, 56–57 Unit plans. See also Lesson plans
instruction strategies
Tacit knowledge, 160 knowledge of, 159 disciplinary. See Disciplinary unit plans
TAI. See Team-Assisted Individualization for learners with multiple intelligences, inputs for, 161–164
interdisciplinary. See Interdisciplinary
(TAI) 43–44
Task orientation, teachers, 9–10 social environment and, 78 unit plans
Task specialization, 354–355 Team-Assisted Individualization (TAI), lateral, 165
Task structure 367–368 vertical, 164
Team-oriented cooperative learning U.S. history lesson plans, 189–192
characteristics of, 357–361 explanation of, 366
debriefing and, 364–366 Jigsaw II, 367 Validity, tests, 392–393. See also specific
goal specification and, 355–356 Student Teams-Achievement Division, types
teaching collaborative process and,
366 Values, 352
361–362 Team-Assisted Individualization, Valuing, objectives for, 146
Teacher behaviors Verbal deflection techniques, 111
367–368 Verbal markers, 16
helping, 7, 14–22. See also Helping Teams-Games-Tournaments, 367 Verbal prompts, 267
behaviors, teachers Teams-Games-Tournaments (TGT), 367 Vertical relationships, 51
Technology Vertical unit planning, 164. See also
key, 7–14. See also Key behaviors, applications for, 209–210
teachers benefits of, 201 Disciplinary unit plans
cell phones, 212 Virtual worlds, 205
Teacher-family conference classroom response, 211–212
establishment of, 117 course management, 208–212 Wait time, 236–238, 239
evaluation of, 119 gaming, 206–207 Warnings, 116
issues associated with, 120–122 integration into instruction, 212–217 Web 2.0 technologies, 202–205
preparation of, 117–119 virtual worlds, 205 Wiki, 203–204
strategies for, 118–119 Web 2.0, 202–205 Wikipedia, 203
Test-retest method, 393 Working portfolio, 402
Teacher-mediated dialogue, 15 Tests. See also Performance assessment Writing, constructivist approach to, 289
Teachers. See also Effective teachers achievement, 225
authentic, 141–142 Zone of maximum response opportunity,
affective nature of, 20–21 blueprints for, 378–379 326–328
and bias, 60–61 criterion-referenced, 376–378
conference with parents. See Teacher- essay. See Essay tests
marks and grading systems for, 394–396
family conference
as decision makers, 159–160
first-day strategies, 92–94
interaction between learners and, 354