Ideas and Art in Asian Civilizations

286╅╇ For Further Reading

Smith, Bradley. Japan: A History in Art. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1964. The virtue
of this 295-page volume is the predominance throughout of painting. There are some
images of sculpture but virtually none of architecture and other arts. The images of
painting are large, sometimes with oversize details, all in color, which makes their
study much easier than trying to make out small-scale versions found in most art books.
Each section is prefaced by a useful parallel chronology of history and art. At the end
there is a short bibliography and a list of all artifacts by historical period.

Swann, Peter. A Concise History of Japanese Art. Tokyo, New York, and San Francisco:
Kodansha International, 1979. An excellent, usefully documented survey in 317 pages,
with 177 illustrations of mostly inferior quality. The author is helpful with the identifica-
tion of stylistic shifts in the various arts and their relationship to Chinese counterparts.
His visual analyses of artifacts are perceptive and detailed.

Watson, William (ed). The Great Japan Exhibition: Art of the Edo Period, 1600–1868.
London: Wiedenfield and Nicolson, 1981–1982. A sumptuously illustrated (412
images in color and black and white), instructive journey across some 250 years of
Japanese art.

Yoshikawa, Isao. Japanese Stone Gardens: Appreciation and Creation. Tokyo: GraphiÂ

For Further Reading╅╇ 287

thinking with examples drawn from the Ancient Near East but applicable to any
civilization.
Fraser, J.T. (ed.). The Voices of Time: A Cooperative Survey of Man’s Views of Time as
Expressed by the Sciences and the Humanities. 2nd ed. Amherst: University of Mas-
sachusetts Press, 1981. The helpful essays in this volume are by Nakamura (India and
Japan) and Needham (China).
Hucker, Charles O. The Traditional Chinese State in Ming Times, 1368–1644. Tucson:
University of Arizona Press, 1961. A compact 85-page topical account of the Ming
dynasty with documentation. Accessible political, economic, and social background
for ideas and art.
Jaffrelot, Christophe. The Hindu Nationalist Movement in India. New York: Columbia
University Press, 1993. The best documented account of Hindu nationalism, its origins,
and rise to power.
Keay, John. India: A History. New York: Grove Press, 2000. A detailed, well-written,
accessible recent history that sorts out the complexities of India’s teeming, chaotic,
sprawling past.
Koller, John M. Oriental Philosophies. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1970. A short
but clear exposition of Brahmanism, Hinduism, the Six Classical Systems, Buddhism
(including Zen), Confucianism, Taoism, and Neo-Confucianism. There is nothing on
Jainism.
Langer, Suzanne. Philosophy in a New Key: A Study in the Symbolism of Reason, Rite,
and Art. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1942. Useful to this book are
Chapters 2, 4, and 10. She argues that “ ‘Artistic truth,’ so-called, is the truth of a
symbol to the forms of feeling—nameless forms, but recognizable when they appear
in sensuous replicas” (p. 213).
Mann, Susan. Women’s and Gender History in Global Perspective: East Asia, China, Ja-
pan, Korea. Washington, DC: American Historical Association, 1999. A pamphlet-size
work (sixty pages) that contains a fuller account of the condition of women in China
and Japan in the traditional period than is available in the usual historical narratives.
Mitchell, Donald W. Buddhism: Introducing the Buddhist Experience. Oxford, UK: Oxford
University Press, 2002. In 360 pages the major historic forms of Buddhism—Indian,
Chinese, Tibetan, Korean, Japanese, Southeast Asian, and modern—are discussed in
considerable detail. Useful bibliographies concluding each of the eleven chapters sug-
gest how extensive the literature is on the history, beliefs, and practices of Buddhism.
There is a glossary of technical terms.
McArthur, Meher. Reading Buddhist Art: An Illustrated Guide to Buddhist Signs and
Symbols. London: Thames and Hudson, 2002. An informative survey of 31 Buddhist
figures sitting, standing, and lying; their attributes and ritual objects; symbols; Bud-
dhist sites; and more in 203 pages, including 304 illustrations, maps, and a glossary
of technical terms.
Munsterberg, Hugo. Dictionary of Chinese and Japanese Art. New York: Hacker Art
Books, 1981. The alphabetical entries take up 352 pages and are informative about
artists, artifacts, techniques, and historical landmarks.
Panofsky, Erwin. Studies in Iconology: Humanistic Themes in the Art of the Renaissance.
New York: Harper & Row Publishers, 1962. First published in 1939, the discussion

288╅╇ For Further Reading

of iconography and its relation to meaning in the introduction is applicable to any
civilization.
Schapiro, Meyer. “Style.” In A Modern Book of Esthetics: An Anthology, edited by Melvin
Rader. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1962. An illuminating account of what
style is and how it works.
Spear, Percival. A History of India: From the Sixteenth Century to the Twentieth Century.
Vol. 2. New York: Penguin Books, 1990. The compÂ

t

Selected Websites

Online Museum Resources on Asian Art

http://afemuseums.easia.columbia.edu/cgi-bin/museums/search.cgi
Columbia University hosts this comprehensive, annotated guide to nearly 100 museums
with Asian art collections online, with search options for size of collection or regional
focus and extensive links to supplementary and topical materials.

General

Asian Art Museum

http://www.asianart.org
This San Francisco museum holds one of the most comprehensive collections of Asian
art in the world. The online collection is keyword-searchable.

Freer Gallery of Art and the Arthur M. Sackler Gallery

http://www.asia.si.edu/collections/default.asp
The Smithsonian Institution’s Freer Gallery of Art and Arthur M. Sackler Gallery contain
some of the most important holdings of Asian art in the world. Thousands of objects from
the collections may be viewed online.

http://www.asia.si.edu/exhibitions/online/buddhism/default.htm
This gallery guide focuses on items related to Buddhism.

Internet Sacred Text Archive

http://www.sacred-texts.com/index.htm

This site provides the English-language translations of hundreds of texts from ancient

India, China, and Japan, including texts related to Buddhism, Confucianism, Hinduism,

and Taoism. 289

290╅╇ Selected Websites

Kyoto National Museum

http://www.kyohaku.go.jp/eng/syuzou/index.html
This site features a selection of Masterworks from China, Japan, Korea, and South Asia,
plus an online searchable database of artworks and artifacts held by the Kyoto National
Museum.

Metropolitan Museum of Art: Works of Asian Art and the
Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History

http://www.metmuseum.org/works_of_art/asian_art
This is a database of the Asian art collections at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New
York.

http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/
The Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History includes coverage of East Asia and South and
Southeast Asia.

India

Digital South Asia Library

http://dsal.uchicago.edu
This site, a project of the Center for Research Libraries and the University of Chicago,
has links to a variety of Internet-based South Asian and Indian resources.

The Huntington Archive

http://huntingtonarchive.osu.edu/index.php
Ohio State University’s John C. and Susan L. Huntington Photographic Archive of
Buddhist and Asian Art contains thousands of original slides and photographs.

China

CAFA Art Museum, Art Collections

http://www.cafamuseum.org/en/AllCollections
The CAFA Art Museum in Beijing has ancient works of Chinese art in a variety of
media.

Selected Websites╅╇ 291

Hong Kong Museum of Art: Chinese Art and Antiquities Collections

http://www.lcsd.gov.hk/CE/Museum/Arts/english/collections/collections.html
This site includes brief introductions to the collections and a collection databank.

National Art Museum of China (NAMOC), Collections

http://www.namoc.org/en/Collection/Highlights/Fine_Arts/index.html
This site is organized by type of artwork.

Japan

E-Museum: National Treasures & Important Cultural Properties of
National Museums, Japan

http://www.emuseum.jp/top?d_lang=en
The e-museum features a searchable database of Japanese art and historical artifacts.

The Virtual Museum of Japanese Arts

http://web-jpn.org/museum/menu.html
This site is organized by type of art or cultural activity.

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Index

Page numbers in italics indicate illustrations

Advaita Vedanta, 31 Atman-Brahman doctrine, xi, 3–4, 28,
Agni, 55 31–32, 33, 36
Ainu, 195
Ajanta cave temples, 49, 51, 116 Bamboo
Alberti, Leon, 141 in Chinese architecture, 149
Album leaves, of landscape scenes, 168 in Chinese art, 144, 145, 172
Alexander the Great, 13, 15 in Japanese architecture, 234
Altar of Heaven, Peking, 133–136, 135
Altruism, Confucius on, 122 Basho, Matsuo, 212–213, 236
Amaterasu (Sun Goddess), 197, 199, 204 Bhagavad-Gita (Song of the Lord), 25–26,
Amida Buddha, 223, 229, 269
Amitabha, 52, 116, 117, 119 32, 57, 58, 60, 65, 263
Analects of Confucius, 100, 103, 112, Bhagavata Purana (Purana of the Lord), 27
Bhaja cave temples, 49, 50
120–121, 123, 125 Bhakti yoga, 26
Ananta (serpent), 63, 65 Big Bang, 21
Ancestor worship, 124, 132, 133, 265 Bird symbol, 145
Andromeda, 21 Block prints, Japanese, 253–256, 254, 255
Animal masks, Chinese, 132, 133 Bodhidharma, 117
Architecture. See Chinese architecture; Bodhisattvas, 52, 53–54, 54, 119, 120, 262
Book of Changes (I ching/Yi jing), 7, 99,
Hindu temples; Japanese architecture
Aristocracy, Japanese, 199–200, 201 102, 102–103, 132, 142, 184
Aristotle, Posterior Analytics, 136 Book of Filial Piety, 103
Arjuna, 65 Book of Five Rings, The (Go Rin No Sho),
Artha, 56, 57
Arthashastra (Treatise on Worldly Gain), 210–212
Book of History, 99, 100–101
24, 56 Book of Mencius, 100, 103–104, 123, 125
Art history, 12n4 Book of Odes, 99, 100
Artisans, 96, 201 Book of Rites, 100, 125
Aryans, in India, 13, 14–15, 18, 35, 262 Book of Songs, 90
Asceticism, Jain, 38–39 Brahma, 20
Ash-glaze stoneware, 235, 235 Brahman, 3, 18, 60
Ashikaga period, in Japan, 199 Brahman bull, 16, 16
Ashoka, 16 Brahmanism, 15, 16, 18, 20, 31–32, 35–36,
Ashokan lion capital, 7, 7
Asian civilizations 262
Brushes, 160–161, 161, 238–239
cultural universals of, 3–6 Brushstroke, 162, 172, 175, 239
forces of change in, ix Buddha (Siddhartha Gautama)
geographical areas of, xi, xii, xiii
longevity of, 261 death of, 44–45
written languages of, x–xi Fire Sermon, 42, 44, 48
images of, 17, 41, 41, 45, 48–49, 49, 53,

53, 117, 119, 119

293

294╅╇ Index

Buddha (Siddhartha Gautama) (continued) Bushido (samurai code), 200, 269
life of, 41–42 Butterfly symbol, 145
mind culture of, 3 Byodo-in, Uji, 206, 206, 268–269
transcendent conception of, 119 Calligraphy

Buddha Maitreya, 119, 119 Chinese, 1, 89, 91–92, 94, 112, 160–164,
Buddha principle, 51 161, 163, 164, 165, 170, 265–266
Buddhism. See also Buddha
Japanese, 1, 160, 199, 233, 238, 245,
Chinese, 113–119 245
cosmology of, 20, 21
early, 15, 16, 17, 18 Calligraphy brushes, 160–161, 161
Eight-Fold Path, 10, 33, 42–44, 45, 49, Cantonese language, x, 88
Caste system (jati), Indian, 17, 19, 262
70, 262 Cave shrines, Buddhist, 116
Four Noble Truths, 42 Cave temples
influence in China, 94
Mahayana (Great Path), 10–11, 51–54, Buddhist, 49–50, 51, 264
Hindu, 62, 62, 74
115, 118–119, 219, 222, 246, 262 Central Asia, xi, xiii
meditation. See Meditation Ceramics
monastic ideal of, 50–51 Chinese, 139–140
spread of, 5, 220, 261 Japanese, 234–235, 235
symbols of, 141 Ch’an Buddhism, 116–117, 238
Theravada, 45, 51, 115, 222 Chandogya Upanishad, 36–37
way of thinking, 70 Chang Hung (Zhang Hong), 169
Buddhism, Japanese, 5–6, 226, 268. See Charvaka school, 28, 32–33
Ch’eng I (Cheng Yi), 129–130
also Zen Buddhism Cheng-t’u (Pure Land), 116, 229
and Chinese influence, 204 Ch’i (energy), 108, 162
devotional, 228–229 Ch’ien-lung (Qianlong) emperor, 94, 94,
and Heian aesthetics, 246
Heian sects, 220, 221–222 157, 159
impermanence, idea of, 231–232 Ch’in (Qin) dynasty, 11, 85, 88, 98, 106
Nara sects, 220, 231 Chinese architecture, 140, 266. See also
and natural world, 4
shared features of, 219 Forbidden City
and Shintoism, 227–228 Buddhist temples, 114
and state, 219–220, 226 city/town planning, 150
Buddhist art and sculpture cosmological symbols in, 141
Buddha images, 41, 41, 45, 48–49, 49, 53, landscape design, 159–160
naturalism in, 149
117, 119, 119 roofs, 149, 149–150, 191 n115
cave, 50, 51, 117, 264 structural system of, 149, 149–150
of Ch’an sect, 117, 118 symbolism in, 147–148
of Pure Land sect, 116, 117 traditional style of, 146–147, 150–151
stupas (shrines), 47–48, 264 Chinese arts and crafts. See also Landscape
Buddhist shrines (stupas), 45–48, 46, 47,
painting, Chinese
48, 116 animal masks, 132, 133
Buddhist temples beauty, ideal of, 140–141
bronzes., 133, 133, 134, 265
cave, 49–50, 51 in Buddhist cave shrines, 116, 117
in China, 114, 167, 240 calligraphy, 1, 89, 91–92, 94, 112,
in India, 49–50, 51, 52
in Japan, 219, 220, 233, 235, 235, 239, 160–164, 161, 163, 164, 265–266
Ch’an painters, 117, 118
239–240, 241–243, 242 harmony and balance in, 141
prayer wheel in, 52 jade carvings, 142, 142–144, 143, 144
Bureaucracy, Chinese imperial, 92 portrait painting, 170
Burial suits, jade, 144, 144
Burma, tribute missions in China, 94

Index╅╇ 295

Chinese arts and crafts (continued) City planning, Chinese, 150
in sacrificial rites, 132–133, 132–134, Classic of History, 100
133, 134 Classified Record of Ancient Painters, 174
sculpture, 139, 139–140, 140 Class system
stylistic motifs of, 9
symbolism in, 7, 141–146 Chinese, 92–93, 96, 265, 266
Taoist influence on, 112–113, 162 Indian (varna), 17, 18–19, 24, 262
Japanese, 201–202
Chinese civilization Clerical style of calligraphy, 163, 163
class system in, 92–93, 96, 265, 266 Cloud symbol, 142, 142
cosmology of, 97–99, 113, 141, 173, 204 Color
dynastic system of, 84–87 in Chinese art, 175–176
and foreigners, 93–94, 138 in Japanese art, 238–239, 254
geography of, 84 Confucianism
historical literature of, 105 in contemporary China, x
influence on Japan, 197, 198–199, 204, cosmology of, 97, 120
237–243, 268 and dynastic system, 86
landmark features of, 83 Han dynasty, 127–128, 266
literature of, 90, 99–105 idealist wing of, 125–126, 129
longevity of, 83–84, 261, 264–265 in Japan, 5, 216, 224–225, 226, 253, 268,
meanings and beliefs of, 10–11
and modern China, 266–267 269
philosophical/religious thought of, 106– and landscape painting, 167–168,
131
Buddhism, 113–119 172–173, 175, 266
Confucianism, 106, 107, 119–131, literature of, 93, 99–105
265–266 moral philosopy of, 11, 106, 121–131
Taoism, 106, 107–113, 265 Neo-Confucianism, 128–131, 167, 173,
in Warring States Period, 106, 107, 108
religious practices of, 131–136 191n96, 224, 231, 266
social basis of, 95–96 realist wing of, 126–127
symbols of, 7–8 and scholar-gentry, 93
tribute system in, 94 spread of, 5
values of, 4 as state ideology, 265
village economy in, 88 stylistic motifs of, 9, 10, 10
way of thinking, 136–138 surviving artifacts of, 1
written language of, x, 88–92, 89, 90, 113, Confucius, xi, 1, 4
198, 265 Analects of, 100, 103, 112, 120–121, 123,

Ch’ing (Qing) dynasty, 85, 151, 186–187 125
landscape painting of, 169, 184–188 ethical system of, 121–125
life of, 119–121
Chomei, Kamo no, 209–210, 250 Conscientiousness, Confucius on, 123
Chou (Zhou) dynasty, 100, 101, 102, 265 Cosmological symbols, 141–142, 142
Christianity, 21, 34, 67 Cosmology
Chinese, 97–99, 113, 141, 173, 204
in Japan, 226 Indian (Jain-Buddhist-Hindu), 20–22, 204
Chuang-tzu, 110, 226 Japanese, 203–205
Chuang-tzu (Zhuangzi), 107, 108, 110–112, Western, 21
Courtesans Forbidden to Lose Their
136, 265
Chu Hsi (Zhu Xi), 93, 103, 105, 120, 129, Tempers (Kiseki), 218
Courtyards
130, 191n96, 224–225, 231, 238, 266
Chu Hsi school, 130 in Forbidden City, 153–154
Chun-tzu (gentleman), xi, 121, 122, 123, walled houses, 150, 150
Crane symbol, 145
124 Creation myths, Japanese, 194, 204, 230
Chu Ta (Zhu Da), 184, 185, 185 Cultural traditions
Circle symbol, 7 learning from, 2–3

296╅╇ Index

Cultural traditions (continued) Fire, in Five Elements, 97, 98
survival of, x, 1 Fire Sermon, 42, 44, 48
uniqueness of, 6 Fish symbol, 145
universals of, 3–6 Five Classics (Wu ching/Wu jing), 99–105,

Cursive style, 162 265
Daimyo, 199, 200, 252–253, 269 Five Elements, 97, 98–99, 120, 128, 147,
Dance, Indian, 63–64, 64
Darshan, 66, 263 204, 265
Death, and samurai code, 200 Floating world culture, 252, 253, 270
Deer symbol, 145 Floating world writers, 216–218, 270
Descent of the Ganges at Mamallapuram, Forbidden City

59, 59 aerial views of, 151, 154
Devi, 57 bridges in, 154, 154
Dharma, 19, 20, 55, 56, 57, 58, 263 dragon motif in, 146, 146, 155, 156
Diagram of the Great Ultimate, 7 garden in, 156, 157, 157–158, 158
Diamond Sutra, 117 gates of, 151, 152, 152, 154, 156
Digambaras sect, Jain, 39 Great Halls of, 153, 153, 154, 154–156,
Divination, 132, 163, 204
Doctrine of the Mean, 100, 103, 104, 125, 155
layout of, 148, 148, 151–154, 152
131 meaning of name, 151
Dogen, 223–224, 232 Foreigners, in China, 93–94, 138
Dragon symbols, 141, 142, 142, 145–146, Four Beginnings, 130–131
Four ends of life, 54–57
146, 155 Four Noble Truths, 42
Dream paradox, of Chuang-tzu, 111 Four stages of life, 19, 57–58
Dutch school (rangaku), 231 Friendship, Confucius on, 122
Duty, in Japanese culture, 11 Fujiwara clan, 199
Earth, in Five Elements, 97, 98 Gandhi, Mahatma, 38
East Asia, xi Ganesh, 61
Edo (Tokyo), 200, 252, 269–270 Ganesha myth, 68, 68–69
Education Ganga (river goddess), 62, 72, 73
Ganges River, 62, 63
Chinese system of, 92–93 Ganjin, sculpture of, 241, 241
Confucian, 125 Gardens
Eight-Fold Path, 10, 33, 42–44, 45, 49, 70, Chinese, 159, 159–160
in Forbidden City, 156, 157, 157–158,
262
Eisai, 223, 250 158
Energy (ch’i), 162 Japanese, 197, 232, 248, 248
Family Genji Scroll, 244, 244–245
Genroku era, 252
Chinese, 95, 103, 113, 202 Gibbon symbol, 144
in Confucian philosophy, 123, 125 Gods and goddesses
Indian, 19, 58 Hindu, 27, 35, 57, 59–69, 72–73, 73, 262,
Japanese, 202, 225–226
in urban society, 253 263
Fan K’uan (Fan Guan), 168, 177, 179, 186 Mahayana Buddhist, 118–119
Traveling Among Streams and Mountains, in sacrificial rites, 133
Shinto, 197, 204, 228, 230
176, 180, 182 Graham, A.C., 90
Female principle, 95 Great Eastern Temple (Todai-ji), 219
Feng shui, 147, 147 Great Learning, 100, 103, 104–105, 125,
Festival symbols, 141
Feudalism, in Japan, 193–194, 198, 202 131, 134
Filial piety, doctrine of, 95, 123, 225–226 Great Message of Forests and Streams, The

(Kuo Hsi), 180

Index╅╇ 297

Great Stupa at Sanchi, 45, 47, 48 Hindu temples (continued)
Great Wall, 85, 87, 87, 90 erotic motifs in, 77–78
Gupta Empire, 17, 17–18 in Indian life, 80–81
Guru, 58 sculptures, 62, 62, 63, 65, 65, 66, 71, 72,
Hachiman (god of war), 228 73, 73, 74
Haiku, 205, 212–214, 236 structural system and styles of, 74,
Hall of Supreme Harmony, Forbidden City, 76–80

152–153, 155, 155, 253 Hiragana system of written Japanese, 198
Han dynasty, 85, 100 Hiroshige, Utagawa, 256–257, 257
Historical literature, Chinese, 105
arts of, 141–142, 142, 143 History of the Former Han Dynasty, 105
collapse of, 114, 128, 266 Hojoki (An Account of My Hut), 209–210
Confucianism in, 127–128, 266 Hokkaido, 194
earth sign of, 98–99 Hokusai, Katsushika, 256, 257, 257
Han Fei-tzu (Han Feizi), 127 Homeless wanderer stage of life, 58
Hanlin Academy, 92 Honshu, 194
Han Yü, 129 Horyu-ji temple, Nara, 239, 239, 240,
Harappan civilization, 14
Harihara, 61–62 240
Heian period, Japan Houses, courtyard, 150, 150
aesthetic of, 210, 243–246, 268–269 Hsia Kuei (Xi Gui), 179, 181, 182
Buddhist sects in, 220, 221–222 Hsiao-jen (inferior man), 121
factionalism in, 233 Hsieh Ho (Xie He), 174, 180
literature of, 205–210, 268 Hsun-tzu (Xunzi), 126–127, 130, 266
political development in, 197–198, 199, Hsu Wei, 144, 145
Huang Kung-wang (Huang Gongwang),
201
Hideyoshi, Toyotomi, 202, 252 168, 168, 182
Hinduism Hua Yen (Hua Yan), 184

arts and architecture. See Hindu sculpture; An Autumn Scene, 185, 185
Hindu temples Human nature, in Confucianism, 11,

Atman-Brahman doctrine, xi, 3–4, 28, 122–127, 128
31–32, 33, 36 I ching/Yi jing (Book of Changes), 7, 99,

cosmology of, 20–22 102, 102–103, 132, 142, 184
domestic worship, 66 Iconography, 11, 12n5
four ends of life, 54–57 Imperial symbols, 141
four stages of life, 19, 57–58 Impermanence, Buddhist idea of, 231–232,
literature of, 22–33, 56–57, 263
mythology of, 59–69, 262, 263 268
origins of, 16 Incarnations, of Hindu gods/goddesses, 60,
polytheism of, 27, 35, 263
surviving artifacts of, 1 62
Upanishads, 23, 36–37, 67 Indian art and architecture, 263–264. See
Vedic Brahmanism, 35–36, 262
way of thinking, 69–70 also Hindu sculpture; Hindu temples
Hindu sculpture beauty, ideals of, 71
beauty, ideals of, 71 Buddha images, 41, 41, 45, 48–49, 49, 53,
erotic, 77–78
mythological figures, 59, 59, 60, 60–61, 117, 119, 119
Buddhist stupas (shrines), 45–48, 46, 47,
61, 63, 63–64, 64, 72–73, 73
styles in, 72–74 48, 264
as vehicle for religion, 263 Buddhist temples, 49–50, 51, 52
Hindu temples, 9, 9, 263–264 Jain temples, 40, 40
cave, 62, 62, 74 Indian civilization
class and caste system of, 17–20, 262
cosmology in, 20–22, 204
Hindu literature in, 22–23, 56–57, 263
Hindu mythology in, 59–69

298╅╇ Index

Indian civilization (continued) Japanese architecture (continued)
historical foundation of, 13–18, 261–262 teahouse, 236, 236–237, 237, 250–251
Aryan invasion, 14–15 uncluttered space in, 236, 236
early, 13 Zen aesthetic in, 247, 247–252, 248, 249,
Gupta Empire, 17, 17–18 250, 251, 269
Indus Valley, 14, 14, 15
Mauryan Empire, 15–16, 17 Japanese arts and crafts
Mughal invasion, 13–14 asymmetry in, 235
longevity of, 261 calligraphy, 1, 160, 199, 233, 238, 245,
philosophical/religious thought of, 33–58 245
Buddhism, 41–54, 262 Chinese influence on, 237–239
Hinduism, 54–58, 262–263 color in, 238–239, 254
Jainism, 37–40, 262 Genji Scroll, 244, 244–245
Upanishads, 36–37 landscape paintings, 256, 256–257, 257
Vedic Brahmanism, 35–36 miniaturization in, 232–233
vs Western secular thought, 34, 264 natural materials in, 234–235
social basis of, 18–20 naturalness in, 234
way of thinking, 69–70 principles of, 234–237
and Pure Land Buddhism, 229
Indra, 55 sculpture, 240–241, 241, 242, 243
Indus River civilization, 14, 14, 15, 262 sumi painting, 238–239
Ink, calligraphy, 161 tea ceremony, 233, 250, 251–252,
Ink landscape paintings, Japanese, 256, 256 269
International Organization for urban aesthetic in, 253, 270
woodblock prints, 253–256, 254, 255
Standardization, xi Zen aesthetic in, 210, 236, 246, 269
Iohans, 119
Ishiyama-gire, 245, 245–246 Japanese civilization, 267–268
Islam aristocratic rule, 199–200, 201
Buddhism in. See Buddhism, Japanese
in India, 13–14, 231 Chinese influence on, 197, 198–199, 204,
monotheism of, 67 237–243, 268
salvation in, 34 clan rule of, 197–198, 201
Izanagi and Izanami, 194, 204, 230 Confucianism in, 5, 216, 224–225, 226,
Jade carvings, Chinese, 142, 142–144, 143, 253, 268, 269
cosmology of, 203–205
144 duties and obligations in, 11, 202, 203
Jainism, 16, 29 and emperor, 199
feudal era in, 193–194, 198, 202, 269
beliefs and practices, 37–40, 262 foreign influence on, 231
cosmology of, 20, 21–22 fragmentation of, 233
founding of, 15, 37 geography and landscape, 194–197, 195,
ideal of, 18 196.
saint images of, 39, 39 in Heian period. See Heian period
temples of, 40, 40 isolation of, 195
way of thinking, 70 longevity of, 261
Jain sculpture, 39, 39 mythology of, 194, 204, 229–230
Jain temples, 40, 40 nature, view of, 4, 5, 196–197, 203–204,
Japanese architecture, 233, 268–269 232, 234, 268
asymmetry in, 435, 435 philosophical/religious thought of,
Buddhist temples, 219, 220, 233, 235, 218–225
Shintoism in. See Shintoism
235, 239, 239–240, 241–243, 242 social structure of, 201–203
Chinese influence on, 239–240, 241 Taoism in, 226
natural materials in, 234 tribute missions in China, 94
polarities in, 236–237
shinden style, 243–244, 244, 248, 250
shoin style, 248–249, 249, 250

Index╅╇ 299

Japanese civilization (continued) Kegon Buddhism (Flower Wreath sect),
urban/secular culture in, 4–5, 201, 233, 220, 222, 242
252–253, 269–270
way of thinking, 230–233 Khandariya Mahadeva Temple, Khajuraho,
written language, x, 198–199, 238 77–78, 78

Japanese literature, 205–218 Kinkaku-ji (Golden Pavilion), Kyoto, 247,
Book of Five Rings, The (Musashi), 247
210–212
floating world writers, 216–218, 270 Kinship. See Family
Heian aesthetics portrayed in, 245, 268 Kiseki, Ejima, 218
Hojoki (An Account of My Hut), 209–210 Koan discipline, 223, 224
Noh plays, 214–218, 217 Kojiki (Records of Ancient Matters), 203,
Pillow Book, The (Shonagon), 207–208,
245 229
poetry Kokinshu (Collection of Ancient and
haiku, 212–214, 236
Ishiyama-gire, 245, 245–246 Modern Poems), 205, 206
Shinkokinshu (New Collection of Korea
Ancient and Modern Poetry),
208–209 Buddhism in, 220
short verse, 205, 233 tribute missions in China, 94
transience of nature in, 232 Korin, Ogato, 256, 256
Tale of Genji, The (Muraski), 198, 201, Kowtow ceremony, 192n117
205–207, 208, 212, 245, 268 Krishna, 60
Krita yuga, 20
Jen (human heartedness), 122 Kuang-hsu (Guangxu) emperor, 86
Jodo Buddhism, 204, 214 Kuan-yin (Guan-yin), 52
Jojisu sect, Japan, 220 Kukai, 221–222, 228
Judaism, 34, 67 Ku K’ai-chih (Gu Kaizhi), Fairy of the Lo
Jurchen Northern Sung (Song) dynasty, 85
Kabuki theater, 216, 255, 255 River, 171, 171
Kailasa temple, Ellora, 75, 75–76, 77 Kuo Hsi (Guo Xi), 8, 168, 169, 175, 176,
Kali, 60, 61
Kalidasa, 22–23, 57 177, 179, 180, 185
Kali yuga, 16, 20 Deep Valley, 8, 9, 177
Kalki, 61 Early Spring, 167, 181, 181, 182
Kalpa, 20, 21 Kusha sect, Japan, 220
Kama, 26, 56, 57 Kyushu, 194
Kamashastra (Treatise on Pleasure), 26–27 Lakshmi, 65
Kama Sutra, 26–27, 56 Landscape painting, Chinese
Kami (spirits), 204, 227 brushstroke in, 172, 175
K’ang Hsi Dictionary, 90 color in, 175–176
K’ang Yu-wei (Kang Youwei), 137 Confucian influence on, 167–168,
Kannon, sculpture of, 240–241, 241
K’ao Ch’i-p’ei (Gao Qipei), 172, 173, 184 172–173, 175, 266
Karma, 19–20, 20, 21, 33, 204–205, 219, development of, 165–167
display of, 168, 170
222, 262, 263 distance/depth in, 176, 176–177, 177
Karma yoga, 26, 27 figures in, 171, 171
Karmic matter, 38 functions of, 179
Kasyapa, 117 and gardens, 158, 160
Katakana system, of written Japanese, 198 harmony expressed by, 5
Katsura Imperial Villa, Kyoto, 249–250, materials used in, 169
of mountains, 167
250, 251 naturalistic symbols in, 144, 167
northern/southern schools, 183
personal element in, 173–174
poetry and calligraphy with, 170
scholar-gentry artists, 167, 172
Six Canons of, 174–179

300╅╇ Index

Landscape painting, Chinese (continued) Male principle, 95
studies of past masters, 178 Mamallapuram, Descent of the Ganges at,
styles in, 168–169, 179–188
Taoist influence on, 112–113, 167, 175, 59, 59
184, 266 Mandala, 221
yin-yang in, 173, 175 Mandarin dialect, 88
Mandarin duck symbol, 145
Landscape painting, Japanese, 256, Mandarin language, x
256–257, 257 Mandate of Heaven, 86, 100, 127, 128,

Language. See Written language 265, 266
Lao-tzu (Laozi), 107, 108–110, 226, 265 Manduka Upanishad, 36
Law of Manu, 19, 55, 56 Mantra, 221
Legalism, 11, 85, 107, 127, 265, 266 Manu Smriti (Law of Man), 24
Li, 124, 266 Man Who Spent His Life in Love, The
Li Ch’eng (Li Cheng), 167–168, 177, 179,
(Saikaku), 217, 218
180, 184, 186 Man’yoshu (Collection for a Myriad Ages),
Buddhist Temple in the Mountains After
205, 206, 208
Rain, 177 Marriage
Life of an Amorous Man, The (Saikaku),
in Chinese society, 95
218 in Indian society, 26–27
Li Ho (Li He), 90 in Japanese society, 253
Linga, 60, 61, 78 Masks
Lingaraja Temple, Bhuvaneshvar, 77, 78, Chinese, 132, 133
in Noh theater, 214, 215
79 Matsushima Bay, 196, 196
Lion symbols, 7, 7, 144 Mauryan Empire, 15–16, 17
Li Po (Li Bo), 106, 170 Ma Yuan, 179, 181, 182
Li Ssu (Li Si), 127 Mean, idea of a, 104
Literati (scholar-gentry) class, 92–93, 96, Meanings and beliefs, 10–11
Meditation
125, 157, 167, 172, 201 elimination of personal identity, 264
Literature. See also Japanese literature in silence, 115
sitting, 118, 223, 224
Confucian, 90, 99–105 Tendai, 221
Hindu, 22–33, 56–57, 263 walking, 116
Jain, 37 Zen, 223, 224
Liu Ling, 112 Mencius (Book of Mencius), 100, 103–104,
Lo-p’an (luopan) compass, 147, 147
Lo P’ing (Lo Ping), 184 125
Portrait of the Artist’s Friend I-an, 186, Mencius (Meng-tzu/Mengzi), 93, 101, 120,

186 125–126, 127, 130–131, 266
Lotus School, 115 Merchants, 96, 201
Lotus sutra, 115, 221, 229 Metal, in Five Elements, 97, 98
Lotus symbol, 7, 65 Mi Fei, 168, 180
Love, in Hindu literature, 22–23, 56, 57 Mill, John Stuart, 34
Loyalty, Confucius on, 123 Minamoto clan, 198, 209
Lu Chu-yuan (Lu Zhuyuan), 191n96 Ming dynasty, 93, 138
Mahabharata (The Great Bharata), 14, 16,
landscape painting of, 169, 182–183
22, 24–25 tombs of, 139, 140
Mahadevi, 60 Mirrors, cosmological motifs on, 141–142,
Mahavira, 37, 38–39
Mahayana Buddhism (Great Path), 10–11, 142
Miyabi, in Heian aesthetic, 208, 268
51–54, 115, 118–119, 219, 222, 246, 262 Miyajima Island, Shinto shrine of, 196, 196
Mahayuga, 20 Mohenjo Daro civilization, 14, 14, 15
Ma-Hsia school, 181 Moksha, 57
Maitreya Buddha, 52, 119, 119

Index╅╇ 301

Monasteries, Buddhist, 114, 221 Paper, calligraphy, 161, 161–162
Monism, 18 Paranirvana, 44–45, 46, 47
Moon God, 230 Parvati, 60, 61, 62, 68
Mo-tzu, 136–137 Peasants, 88, 96, 201, 202, 203
Mountain landscapes, 167 Peking. See Forbidden City
Mt. Kailasa, 63 Philosophies of India (Zimmer), xiiin1
Mt. Meru, 63 Phoenix symbol, 146
Mu Ch’i (Mu Qi), Persimmons, 117, 118, Pictographs, in Chinese written language,

167 89, 90
Mughals, in India, 13 Pillow Book, The (Makura no Soshi), 201,
Murasaki Shikibu, The Tale of Genji, 198,
207–208, 245
201, 205–207, 212, 245 Pinyin system of written language, xi
Muro-ji Temple Kondo, 235, 235 Poetry, Hindu, 22
Musashi, Miyamoto, 210–212 Poetry, Japanese
Mustard Seed Garden Manual of Painting,
haiku, 212–214, 236
174, 180 Ishiyama-gire, 245, 245–246
Mythology Shinkokinshu, 208–209
short verse, 205, 233
Hindu, 59–69, 262, 263 transience of nature in, 232
Japanese, 229–230 Polytheism, Hindu, 27, 35, 67
Nara period, Japan, 199–200 Portrait painting, 170
Buddhist sects, 220, 231 Post and lintel construction, 149, 149
Natural materials, in Japanese architecture, Prayer wheel, 52
Presentational symbols, 8
234 Processions, god/goddess symbols in, 66
Nature. See also Gardens; Landscape Puranas (Ancient Stories), 27
Pure Land Buddhism, 116, 229
painting, Chinese Purva Mimamsa-Vedanta school, 27–28,
in Chinese architecture, 144–146, 149
impermanence, Buddhist idea of, 231–232 30–32
Japanese view of, 4, 5, 196–197, 203– Rajarejesvara Temple, Tanjore, 79–80, 80
Rajrani Temple, Bhuvaneshvara, 71, 72
204, 232, 234, 268 Ramayana (Tale of Rama), 14, 16, 26
Neo-Confucian view of, 167–168 Raphael, The School of Athens, 141
in Shintoism, 4, 196, 227 Razan, Hayashi, 225
symbols of, in Chinese art, 141, 144–146 Records of the Historian, 105
temple setting in, 167 Red bat (fu) symbol, 141
Nembutsu, 223 Reincarnation, 21, 45, 52, 204–205, 263
Neo-Confucianism, 128–131, 167, 173, Rig Veda, 19, 23, 32, 35
Rikyu, 233, 250, 251, 252
191n96, 224, 231, 266 Rinzai Zen Buddhism, 119, 222–223, 248,
Neo-Taoism, 112–113, 128–129
Nephrite jade, 143, 143 250
Nichiren, 220, 229 Ritsu sect, 220
Nihongi (Chronicles of Japan), 204, 229 Roof construction, Chinese, 149, 149–150,
Nirvana, 3, 4, 11, 18, 33, 42, 44, 51, 115,
191 n115
219, 262 Running style of calligraphy, 163–164,
Nishi Honganji (Western Temple of the
164, 165
Original Vow), 214 Sabi, in Zen aesthetic, 246, 247–248
Ni Tsan (Ni Zan), 172, 184 Sacrificial rites, 132–135, 133, 134, 138
Saicho, 220, 221
Trees in a River Valley at Yu Shan, 182, Saikaku, Ihara, 217–218
182 Saint images, Jain, 39, 39

Noh theater, 214–218, 217
Okashi, in Heian aesthetic, 208, 268
Oracle bones, 146, 162
Ou-yang Hsun (Ouyang Xun), 89

302╅╇ Index Shiva (continued)
and Ganesha myth, 68
Salvation, 21, 34 incarnations of, 60
Samurai, 11, 197, 200, 202, 203, 225, temples dedicated to, 68, 75, 78
as yogi, 59, 60
252–253
Samurai code (bushido), 200, 269 Shogun and shogunate, 11, 193, 194, 198,
Sanchi, Great Stupa at, 45, 47, 48 199, 200, 233
Sankhya-Yoga, 27, 28–29
Sankin kotai system, Japan, 200 Shoin style of Japanese architecture,
Sanskrit, x, xi, 14, 16, 22, 113, 114 248–249, 249, 250
Scholar-gentry (literati) class, 92–93, 96,
Shomu, Emperor, 241, 242
125, 157, 167, 172, 201, 265, 266 Shonagon, Sei, 201, 207–208, 245
Scrolls, of landscape scenes, 168, 170 Shoren-in residence, Kyoto, 249, 249
Sculpture. See also Hindu sculpture Shotoku, Empress, 220
Shotoku, Prince, 197, 218, 237, 239, 240,
Chinese, 139, 139–140, 140
Japanese, 240–241, 241, 242, 243 250, 268
Seal style of calligraphy, 162, 163, 163 Shrines
Seami, 214, 216
Seidensticker, Edward, 205 Buddhist stupas, 45–48, 46, 47, 48
Seika, Fujiwara, 224–225 Hindu, 66
Sesshue Toyo, 238 Japanese Buddhist, 239–240, 240
Broken Ink Landscape, 213, 236, 236 Shinto, 9, 9–10, 196, 196, 227
Winter Landscape, 256, 256 Siam, tribute missions in China, 94
Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove, 112 Siddhartha Gautama. See Buddha
Shaivites, 64 Simplicity, Zen-inspired, 246–252
Shakti, 60 Smriti, 23
Shakuntala, 22–23, 57 Snake symbol, in Hindu mythology, 63
Shang dynasty, 89, 132, 133, 265 Soami, 248, 248, 249
Shankara Acharya, 27, 31, 32 Social class. See Class system
Sharaku, Toshusai, 255 Son of Heaven, Chinese emperor as, 93,
Shibui, xi, 208, 213, 248, 249, 269
Shih-ch’i (Shiqi), 186–187 94
Climbing Wooded Mountains at Dusk, Soto Zen Buddhism, 118, 222–224
South Asia, xi
187, 187–188 Southeast Asia, xi
Shikoku, 194 Spring and Autumn Annals, 99–100, 101,
Shinden style, of Japanese architecture,
266
243–244, 244, 248, 250 Ssu-ma Ch’ien (Sima Qian), 105
Shingon (True Word) Buddhism, 220, Standing still (regular) style of calligraphy,

221–222, 228 163, 164
Shinkokinshu (New Collection of Ancient Storm God, 230
Student stage of life, 58
and Modern Poetry, 208–209 Stupas (shrines), 45–48, 46, 47, 48, 264
Shintoism, x, 6 Styles in art, 8–10

beliefs and practices of, 226–227 landscape painting, 168–169, 179–188
and Buddhism, 227–228, 268 Sui dynasty, 115, 129
and Chinese influence, 204 Sumi painting, 238–239
and Confucian revival, 225 Sung dynasty, 91, 92, 96, 105, 117, 120
gods and goddesses, 197, 204, 228, 230
and Heian aesthetics, 246 arts in, 7, 139, 139, 168, 170, 173,
and nature, 4, 196, 227 179–181
prominence of, 218
shrines, 9, 9–10, 196, 196, 227 Neo Confucianism in, 128–131
Shiva, 14, 16, 57 Sun Goddess, 197, 199, 204, 228, 230
composite images of, 62, 62, 63 Sunyatta, 21
as dancer, 63–64, 64 Surya Temple (Black Pagoda), Konarak,
devotees of, 64
78–79, 79
Sutra of the Buddha of Limitless Life, 116

Index╅╇ 303

Svetambaras sect, Jain, 39 Theravada Buddhism, 45, 51, 115, 222
Sword, way of the (kendo), 210 Three Gorges Dam project, Yangtze River,
Symbolism in architecture, 147–148
Symbolism in art 188, 188
“Three Treasures”, 219
Chinese, 7, 141–146 T’ien An-men Square, 152
cosmological, 141–142, 142 T’ien-t’ai (Heavenly Terrace) sect, 129
defined, 6–7 T’ien-t’ai/Tiantai (Heavenly Terrace), 115
Indian, 65 Todai-ji (Great Eastern Temple), Nara, 219,
from nature, 141, 144
presentational, 8 220, 241–242, 242
types of, 141 Tokugawa, Ieyasu, 199, 200
Taira clan, 198, 209 Tokugawa rule, 199–201, 218, 225, 226,
Tale of Genji, The (Genji Monogatari), 198,
231, 233, 237, 269
201, 205–207, 208, 212, 245, 268 Tortoise symbol, 146
Tamamushi Shrine, 239–240, 240 Toshogu Shrine, Nikko, 233
T’ang dynasty, 85, 96, 129, 197, 231
Tanka, 205 Yomeimon Gate, 236, 237
Tantric practice, 221 Town planning, Chinese, 150
Tao (Way), 104, 107, 108 Tribute system, in China, 94
Tao-chi (Daoji), 185 Tripitaka (Three Baskets), 114, 219
Ts’ao Chih (Cao Zhi), 170
The Waterfall on Mt. Lu, 184–185, 185 Tso chuan (Zuo juan) Commentary,
Taoism, x, 4, 265
101–102
and calligraphy, 112, 162 Ts’ui P’o, 112, 167
of Chuang-tzu, 107, 108, 110–112 Tung Ch’i-ch’ang (Dong Qi-chang), 183,
and garden design, 157
in Japan, 226 183, 184
and landscape painting, 112–113, 167, Tung Chung-shu (Dong Zhongshu), 98–99,

175, 184, 266 112, 127–128
of Lao-tzu, 107, 108–110 Tung Yu (Dong You), 172, 175
Neo-Taoism, 112–113, 128–129 Tz’u-hsi (Cixi) empress, 86, 159
philosophy of, 11, 107–112 Ukiyo culture, 252, 270
stylistic motifs of, 9 Ukiyo-e (floating world pictures), 255
symbols in art, 141, 144 Unicorn symbol, 146
temples of, 167 Upanayana, 19
Tao-te ching, 108 Upanishads, 23, 35, 36–37
Tea ceremony, 233, 250, 251–252, 269 Urban society
Teahouse architecture, 236, 236–237, 237,
China, 267
250–251 Japan, 4–5, 201, 233, 252–253, 269–270
Temple of Heaven complex, Peking, 10, Utamaro, 255
Vairocana Buddha, 119, 242, 243
10, 133–136, 134, 135 Vaishesika-Nyaya school, 27, 30
Temples. See also Buddhist temples; Hindu Varuna, 55
Vedanta, 30, 31, 263
temples Vedas, 15, 16, 18, 19, 23, 27, 30–31, 35,
Confucian, 10, 10
Jain, 40, 40 262
in natural settings, 167 Vedic Brahmanism, 35–36
Temple of the Sun, Konarak, 78–79, 79 Vedic literature, 23–24
Ten Celestial Stems, 189n13 Vietnam, tribute missions in China, 94
Tendai (Heavenly Terrace) sect, 220, 221, Village economy

222 in China, 88
Ten Stages of Religious Consciousness in Japan, 203
Vimala Temple, Rajastan, 40, 40
(Kukai), 221–222 Vishnu, 57, 60, 62, 64–65, 65, 66
Terra cotta army, 85, 85, 86

304╅╇ Index

Vishnuites, 66 Written language, x–xi
Voidness, Buddhist idea of, 236 Chinese, x, 88–92, 89, 90, 113, 198, 265
Wabi, in Zen aesthetic, 246–247, 248 Japanese, x, 198–199, 238
Wabi cha (wabi of tea), 252
Wade-Giles system of written language, xi Wu Chen (Wu Zhen), 173, 182
Wang An-shih (Wang Anshi), 137–138 Yamato clan, 197
Wang Chien (Wang Jian), 184 Ying Yu-chien (Ying Youjian), 178
Wang Ch’ung (Wang Chong), 130, 136 Yin-yang
Wang Hsi-chih (Wang Xizhi), 164
Wang Hui, 184 in architecture, 147, 154
Wang Meng, 176, 178, 182 in art, 141, 146, 178
Wang Shih-min (Wang Shimin), 184 in Chinese cosmology, 97, 98, 173, 204,
Wang Yang-ming, 129, 191n96
Wang Yuan-ch’i (Wang Yuanqi), 184, 184, 265
in gardens, 157
185 in landscape, 173, 175
Warring States Period, 106, 107, 108 male/female, 95
Water, in Five Elements, 97, 98 symbol of, 7, 7, 98
Way (Tao), 104, 107, 108, 130 and Tao, 108, 131
Wen Ching-ming (Wen Jing-ming), 93 Yoga
Western society, individualism of, 34, karma, 27
Sankhya, 27, 28–29
264 Yomeimon Gate, Toshogu Shrine, 236, 237
Wheel (chakra) symbol, 7 Yoni, 60, 61
Woman Who Spent Her Life in Love, The Yoritomo, Minamoto, 200
Yoshitoshi, Tsukioka, 236, 238
(Saikaku), 217–218 Yuan dynasty, 85, 168, 173, 182, 192n129
Women Yumedono chapel, Horyu-ji, Nara, 240, 240
Yung-lo (Yongle), 151
in Chinese society, 95–96, 198 Zazen meditation, 223
dharma instructions for, 55 Zen Buddhism, xi, 4, 204
in Hindu mythology, 60–62, 61 aesthetic of, 210, 246–250
in Japanese society, 11, 201, 244–245, influence of, 269
and samurai values, 200, 222, 269
253 sects of, 118, 119, 222–224
representation in religious settings, and tea ceremony, 250–252, 269
Zimmer, Heinrich, xiii n1
40
Wood, in Five Elements, 97, 98
Woodblock prints, Japanese, 253–256,

254, 255

t

About the Author

Kenneth R. Stunkel is professor of history at Monmouth University, New Jersey. He
received a doctorate in history from the University of Maryland and also holds a master’s
degree in philosophy. He teaches undergraduate and graduate courses in European and
Asian history. He was a Visiting Fellow at Princeton University for two years to study
engineering and architecture for non-specialized students. He has traveled extensively
in Europe and Asia. For a year he taught Chinese history and oriental philosophy for the
University of Maryland overseas program in East and Southeast Asia.

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