Counseling and Psychotherapy Theories in Context and Practice, with Video Resource Center_ Skills, Strategies, and Techniques

Counseling and Psychotherapy
Theories in Context and Practice



SECOND EDITION

Counseling and Psychotherapy
Theories in Context and Practice

Skills, Strategies, and Techniques

John Sommers-Flanagan
Rita Sommers-Flanagan

John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:
Sommers-Flanagan, John, 1957–
ECounseling and psychotherapy theories in context and practice : skills, strategies, and techniques /
John Sommers-Flanagan, Rita Sommers-Flanagan. — 2nd ed.
Edw p. cm.
E Includes bibliographical references and index.
E ISBN 978-1-119-08420-4 (hardback : acid-free paper)
E ISBN 978-1-119-08789-2 (ePDF)
E ISBN 978-1-119-08791-5 (ePub)
; 1. Counseling. 2. Psychotherapy. I. Sommers-Flanagan, Rita, 1953– II. Title.
E BF637.C6S69 2012
E 158.3—dc23

2011038810

Printed in the United States of America

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Contents

Preface ix Evidence-Based Status 70
xvii Concluding Comments 72
About the Authors 74
Chapter Summary 75
CHAPTER 1 Psychoanalytic Key Terms 76
Psychotherapy and Counseling Essentials: Recommended Readings and Resources
An Introduction 79
1 CHAPTER 3
Background and Overview 1 Individual Psychology and Adlerian 80
Historical Context 3 Therapy 80
Definitions of Counseling and 82
Biographical Information: Alfred Adler 93
Psychotherapy 6 Historical Context 109
What Is a Theory? 9 Theoretical Principles 112
The Scientific Context of Counseling and 112
The Practice of Adlerian Therapy 115
Psychotherapy 10 Case Analysis and Treatment Planning 115
Ethical Essentials 18 Cultural and Gender Considerations 116
Emergence of Personal Theory 29 Evidence-Based Status 117
Our Biases 30 Concluding Comments
The Zeitgeist, the Ortgeist, and the 119
Chapter Summary
Poltergeist 35 Individual Psychology Key Terms 120
Concluding Comments 36 Recommended Readings and Resources 125
Chapter Summary 36 134
Introductory Key Terms 37 141
Recommended Readings and Resources 38 CHAPTER 4 145
146
CHAPTER 2 Existential Theory and Therapy 148
Psychoanalytic Approaches 148
Key Figures and Historical Context 149
Biographical Information: Sigmund Freud 41 Theoretical Principles 150
Historical Context
Psychoanalytic Theoretical Principles The Practice of Existential Therapy
Evolution and Development in 41 Case Analysis and Treatment Planning
42 Cultural and Gender Considerations
Psychoanalytic Theory and Practice 44 Evidence-Based Status
The Practice of Psychoanalytic Therapy
Case Analysis and Treatment Planning Concluding Comments
49 Chapter Summary
58 Existential Key Terms
66 Recommended Readings and Resources

vi CONTENTS Behavior Therapy Key Terms 259
153 Recommended Readings and Resources 260
CHAPTER 5
Person-Centered Theory and Therapy 154 CHAPTER 8
154
Biographical Information: Carl Rogers 157 Cognitive-Behavioral Theory and Therapy 263
Historical Context
Theoretical Principles Historical Context and Biographical 264
The Practice of PCT: A Way of Being 163 Information 270
177 Theoretical Principles
With Clients 181 The Practice of Cognitive-Behavioral 275
Case Analysis and Treatment Planning 182 Therapy 288
Cultural and Gender Considerations 185 Case Analysis and Treatment Planning 293
Evidence-Based Status 185 Cultural and Gender Considerations 294
Concluding Comments 186 Evidence-Based Status 296
Chapter Summary 187 Concluding Comments 296
Person-Centered Key Terms 297
Recommended Readings and Resources Chapter Summary 298

CHAPTER 6 Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy Key Terms
Gestalt Theory and Therapy
Recommended Readings and Resources
Biographical Information: Fritz Perls 189
and Laura Posner Perls
CHAPTER 9
Historical Context
Theoretical Principles 190 Choice Theory and Reality Therapy 301
The Practice of Gestalt Therapy
Case Analysis and Treatment Planning 191
Cultural and Gender Considerations 194 Biographical Information: William Glasser 301
Evidence-Based Status 200 Historical Context 302
Concluding Comments
Chapter Summary 215 Theoretical Principles 303
Gestalt Therapy Key Terms 218 The Practice of Reality Therapy 313
Recommended Readings and Resources 219 Case Analysis and Treatment Planning 321
220 Cultural and Gender Considerations 326
CHAPTER 7 220 Evidence-Based Status 328
Behavioral Theory and Therapy 221 Concluding Comments 330
222 Chapter Summary 330
Key Figures and Historical Context Choice Theory/Reality Therapy Key
Theoretical Principles
The Practice of Behavior Therapy Terms 331
Case Analysis and Treatment Planning
Cultural and Gender Considerations Recommended Readings and Resources 331
Evidence-Based Status
Concluding Comments 225 333
Chapter Summary
CHAPTER 10 334
226 Feminist Theory and Therapy 340
347
229 358
362
233 With Maryl J. Baldridge
251 Historical Context
256 Theoretical Principles
257 The Practice of Feminist Therapy
258 Case Analysis and Treatment Planning
259 Cultural and Gender Considerations

CONTENTS vii

Evidence-Based Status 363 CHAPTER 13
Concluding Comments
Chapter Summary 363 Developing Your Multicultural Orientation
Feminist Key Terms
Recommended Readings and Resources 364 and Skills 441

CHAPTER 11 365 442
Constructive Theory and Therapy 366 A Multicultural Prelude 442
446
Key Figures and Historical Context Historical and Contemporary Context
Theoretical Principles 452
The Practice of Constructive Theoretical Principles 463
468
Psychotherapies 369 The Practice of Multiculturally Sensitive 471
Case Analysis and Treatment Planning Therapy 472
Cultural and Gender Considerations 472
Evidence-Based Status 370 Case Analysis and Treatment Planning 473
Concluding Comments 474
Chapter Summary 375 Cultural and Gender Considerations
Constructive Therapy Key Terms 475
Recommended Readings and Resources Evidence-Based Status
475
CHAPTER 12 379 Concluding Comments
Family Systems Theory and Therapy 477
394 Chapter Summary
By Kirsten W. Murray, 481
John Sommers-Flanagan, 396 Multicultural Key Terms 503
and Rita Sommers-Flanagan 504
398 Recommended Readings and Resources 504
Historical Context and Highlights 505
Theoretical Developments and Principles 400
Family Systems Therapy in Practice 507
Contemporary Family Therapy 401 CHAPTER 14 549
401 551
Developments 402 Integrative and Evidence-Based New 563
Case Analysis and Treatment Planning 573
Cultural and Gender Considerations Generation Therapies
Evidence-Based Status
Concluding Comments One Theory or Many?
Chapter Summary
Family Systems Key Terms 405 Psychotherapy Integration: Historical and
Recommended Readings and Resources
Theoretical Trends

The Practice of Eclectic and New

Generation Integrative Therapies

406 Concluding Comments
408 Chapter Summary
417 Integrative Key Terms
Recommended Readings and Resources

428

431
434 References
435 Photo Credits

436 Name Index
436
437 Subject Index
438 About the Video Resource Center



Preface

One morning, long ago, John woke up in the midst a little behavioral trick on Rita. Every time she
of a dream about having written a theories book. mentioned the word theories he would say ‘‘Yesss!,’’
Over breakfast, John shared his dream with Rita. pat her affectionately on the shoulder and offer her
Rita said, ‘‘John go sit down, relax, and I’ll sit a piece of dark chocolate (see Chapter 7, Behavioral
behind you as you free associate to the dream’’ (see Theory and Therapy). Later he took a big risk and
Chapter 2, Psychoanalytic Approaches). allowed a little cognition into the scenario, asking
her: ‘‘Hey, what are you thinking?’’ (see Chapter 8,
As John was free-associating, Rita tried to gently Cognitive-Behavioral Theory and Therapy).
share her perspective using a two-person, relational
psychotherapy model. She noted that it had been Rita was still thinking it was too much work and
her lived experience that, in fact, they had already not enough play. John responded by offering to
written a theories text together and that he must update his feminist views and involvement if she
have been dreaming of a second edition. John would only reconsider (see Chapter 10, Feminist
jumped out of his seat and shouted, ‘‘You’re right! I Theory and Therapy); he also emphasized to
am dreaming about a second edition.’’ Rita that writing a second edition would help
them discover more meaning in life and perhaps
This profound insight led to further therapeutic they would experience the splendor of awe (see
exploration. Rita had John look at the purpose of Chapter 4, Existential Theory and Therapy). Rita
his dream (see Chapter 3, Individual Psychology); still seemed ambivalent and so John asked himself
then he acted out the dream, playing the role of the four questions of choice theory (see Chapter 9,
each object and character (see Chapter 6; Gestalt Choice Theory and Reality Therapy):
Therapy). When he acted out the role of Rita, he
became exceedingly enthusiastic about the second 1. What do you want?
edition. She, of course, accused him of projection
while he suggested that perhaps he had absorbed her 2. What are you doing?
thoughts in a psychic process related to Jung’s idea
of the collective unconscious. Rita noted that was 3. Is it working?
a possibility, but then suggested we leave Jung and
the collective unconscious online where it belongs 4. Should you make a new plan?
(see the Jungian chapter in the big contemporary
collective unconscious of the Internet online at It was time for a new plan, which led John to
www.wiley.com/go/counselingtheories). develop a new narrative (see Chapter 11, Con-
structive Theory and Therapy). He had a sparkling
For the next week, Rita listened to and resonated moment where he brought in and articulated many
with John as he talked about the second edition. different minority voices whose discourse had been
She provided an environment characterized by neglected (see Chapter 13, Developing Your Mul-
congruence, unconditional positive regard, and ticultural Orientation and Skills). He also got his
empathic understanding (see Chapter 5, Person- daughters to support him and conducted a short
Centered Theory and Therapy). John flourished family intervention (see Chapter 12, Family Systems
in that environment, but sneakily decided to play Theory and Therapy).

x PREFACE

Something in the mix seemed to work: Rita more pleasant and prepare students for practicing
came to him and said, ‘‘I’ve got the solution, we professional skills in the real world
need to do something different while we’re doing
something the same and approach this whole thing WHAT’S NEW ABOUT
with a new attitude of mindful acceptance’’ (see
Chapter 11, Constructive Theory and Therapy and THE SECOND EDITION?
Chapter 14, Integrative and Evidence-Based New
Generation Therapies). To this John responded There are too many changes from the first to the
with his own version of radical acceptance saying: second editions for us to name them all here. The
‘‘That’s a perfect idea and you know, I think it biggest changes include:
will get even better over a nice dinner.’’ It was at
that nice dinner that they began to articulate their There are three new chapters. In the first
main goals for the second edition of Counseling and edition existential and Gestalt theories shared a
Psychotherapy Theories in Context and Practice. chapter. To provide greater breadth and depth to
our coverage of these important areas we followed
OUR GOALS our reviewers’ recommendations and split them
into two chapters. As a consequence you’ll find
We have five main goals for this book. much greater depth in terms of history, theoretical
concepts, and application in the new existential and
1. To provide a theories textbook that is compre- Gestalt chapters. Additionally, we added a chapter
hensive enough and practical enough to serve as on family systems, co-written by Kirsten Murray.
a solid foundation for building additional knowl-
edge and skills you’ll need to become an excellent To get the space needed for adding two chapters,
mental health professional. after great teeth gnashing and hair pulling, we
decided to pull the Jungian chapter out of the
2. To situate the theories that guide the work text. However, because we didn’t want instructors
of all professional helpers within the gender, to lose access to the content, we revised the
cultural, and other contexts associated with their Jungian chapter and placed it online. This will
development. We believe understanding context enable instructors and students to access the Jungian
is essential to ethical and wise mental health chapter through the John Wiley & Sons website
practice. www.wiley.com/go/counselingtheories.

3. To write about a challenging topic (counseling We expanded coverage of material we consider
and psychotherapy theories) in a way that’s clear, vital to the helping professions. Specifically, we (a)
stimulating, engaging, and occasionally funny. provide a stronger definition of counseling and
(We firmly believe that if you’re able to stay psychotherapy; (b) include two brief vignettes in
awake while reading you’ll have a better learning the 12 theories chapters; (c) review an extended
experience.) case example in each of the 12 theories chapters;
(d) integrate treatment planning information
4. To include information that’s more practical and into the extended case examples. Overall, these
applied than is typically included in introductory expansions and improvements make the text more
theories textbooks. We think theories are best practical than ever.
learned in a hands-on, practical, and experiential
format. There’s a stronger focus on three critical issues
within the helping professions. Specifically, there’s
5. To provide faculty with an introductory theories a deeper and more continuous examination of
text that will make their teaching experience gender and cultural issues in Chapter 1 and
throughout the text. Additionally, although there’s
a stronger emphasis on evidence-based practice,
this emphasis is balanced with a critical and

PREFACE xi

questioning attitude toward the nature of scientific • Crucial coverage of how counseling and psy-
evidence. The section previously titled Therapy chotherapy can cause harm and positive guidelines
Outcomes is expanded and now titled Evidence- to help new practitioners increase positive therapy
Based Status. outcomes while minimizing potential negative
effects.
Additional changes include:
After reading the first edition of this book, the
• A new section on Outcome Measures helps stu- renowned behavioral and constructive theorist and
dents to see how they might track client outcomes therapist Michael Mahoney commented: ‘‘This is
by collecting practice-based evidence. a wonderful text that will both inform and
inspire.’’ In keeping with that description, our goal
• A sample informed consent is included in each for each of the 13 theory chapters is to capture the
theory chapter. These informed consents simul- excitement linked to learning and applying specific
taneously provide a taste of what it might theoretical ideas and to pass that excitement on to
be like to seek therapy from each theoretical readers. To accomplish this, each chapter includes
perspective and functions as a short summary of many essential components in a consistent sequence.
each approach. These components and the rationale behind them
are listed below:
• A chapter summary and list of key terms at
the end of each chapter. These terms are ital- Opening Chapter Objectives: Readers can see the
icized when you initially encounter them in each roadmap for their learning at the beginning
chapter. of their journey.

• Every chapter has been updated using the latest Biographical Information and Historical Context:
research and practice literature. To help readers understand the historical
and personal context of each theory, every
ORGANIZATIONAL FEATURES chapter opens with this intriguing informa-
AND MORE TEXTBOOK tion. Depending on chapter content, this
HIGHLIGHTS information may be covered in a single, inte-
grated section or two separate sections.
This textbook has a foundational introductory
chapter followed by 13 chapters focusing on Theoretical Principles: Core theoretical principles
specific counseling and psychotherapy theories are described and explained. As much as
and applications. The introductory chapter is possible, concrete and real-life examples
substantially revised to include and emphasize the are included to help bring abstract theoretical
following: principles to life.

• A comprehensive definition of counseling and The Practice of (each therapy approach): Begin-
psychotherapy that will knock your socks off. ning with a sample informed consent, each
therapy approach is articulated and illustrated.
• A stronger emphasis on integrating multicultural At the end of this section two vignettes
diversity perspectives and feminist thought into are provided to help readers see how these
counseling and psychotherapy theory develop- approaches are applied in the real world.
ment and application.
Case Analysis and Treatment Planning: Although
• Extended coverage of the scientific context of contemporary counseling and psychother-
counseling and psychotherapy—including infor- apy practice typically includes treatment
mation and distinctions that help students develop planning—not all historical therapy models fit
a foundation for critically analyzing contemporary
therapy research.

xii PREFACE

perfectly into a modern empirically oriented Recommended Readings and Resources: Learning
treatment-planning model. Nevertheless, we never ends. As a consequence, each chapter
take the unusual step of providing an exten- concludes with several lists designed to facil-
sive case analysis that describes the imple- itate future learning. These lists include: (a)
mentation of theory-based procedures while specific theory-based professional journals; (b)
identifying a problem list, problem formu- theory-based readings; (c) training organiza-
lation, specific interventions, and potential tions and websites; and (d) videos/DVDs that
outcomes assessment. We should note here show the specific therapy approaches in action.
that most theories texts apply 10 to 14 differ-
ent theory-based approaches to the same case Questions for Reflection: Questions for reflections
across all chapters. In this text we decided to are included throughout each chapter. These
illustrate an ethical and evidence-based prac- questions help readers pause and engage
tice wherein therapy approaches vary based on in focused reflection. Because there’s so
clients and their particular problem. Conse- much material included in each chapter, both
quently, similar to the real world, you’ll never students and professors have told us that
see the same case repeated in this text. having specific places to pause and reflect
enhances their learning.
Cultural and Gender Considerations: Extending
this textbook’s integrated orientation toward Putting It Into Practice: The goal of every theories
culture and gender, this section includes a textbook is to teach readers how to implement
reflection on culture and gender issues various psychotherapy and counseling
raised in the preceding case analysis as well approaches. To extend our practical applica-
as more general culture and gender issues tion emphasis, we include separate ‘‘boxed’’
associated with each theoretical perspective. information scattered throughout each chap-
ter to help develop and maintain links be-
Evidence-Based Status: For the most part, tween theory and practice. These Putting
clinicians or practitioners are required to It Into Practice features range from practi-
understand the theory and evidence-base tioner commentaries to sample informed
that supports their treatment approach. consents, to specific practice activities. In
Again, although the contemporary scientific every case, our goal is to establish clear con-
paradigm doesn’t fit perfectly for each nections between dense or abstract theoretical
approach, we do our best to review evidence material and concrete clinical practice.
supporting (or not supporting) each theory.
BEYOND THIS TEXTBOOK
Concluding Comments: At the close of each
chapter the authors provide brief comments After publishing the first edition of this text we
that help highlight key issues or integrate realized how important it is to develop even
key concepts. better aids to enhance student learning and faculty
teaching. The following resources are now available:
Chapter Summary: New to this edition is a
concisely worded chapter summary keyed A new Student Manual and Study Guide for stu-
to each chapter section. This summary can dents. This supplementary resource provides
be used to provide readers with an initial students with more of what they need to learn
overview (by reading it first) or to provide a and master the theories of counseling and
systematic review (by reading it last). psychotherapy. The Student Manual and Study
Guide offers:
Key Terms: Key terms are italicized when first
used in each chapter and then included in a
comprehensive list at the end of each chapter.

PREFACE xiii

• A theories beliefs pre- and post-test in how to do the mathematical calculations for this,
each chapter to orient students to key the- but we are very certain—along with our editorial
oretical principles and evaluate how well team at Wiley—that a ‘‘theories’’ Video Resource
those principles fit with student values and Center (VRC) provides an unmatched supplement
beliefs. to this textbook; it also can provide an excellent
stand-alone learning experience.
• An opening professional development
essay written by a student, practitioner, or Because there are other theories videos on the
faculty member who is active within the market, we should address the question of: Why
counseling or psychology professions. produce another one? Our goal was create a set of
theories videos that were different . . . and hopefully
• A theory review section that includes a better than the existing options. To accomplish this
glossary of key terms, theories cross- goal we emphasized
word puzzle, and critical reflections on
each theory. Spontaneity—The videos are not scripted.

• A section on practice activities designed Real Life—The volunteer clients in these ses-
to help students experience and practice sions are talking about real issues.
implementation of each theory.
Ethnic Diversity—The therapists in these
• A section for each chapter titled Testing videos include a Latina woman, a Vietnamese
Yourself that includes a 25-item multiple man, and a Native American woman. Among
choice practice test and a comprehen- the clients are a Pakistani woman and an Asian
sive short-answer question review; these man. This emphasis on diversity gives viewers
materials will help students succeed on even a glimpse of how different theoretical ori-
the most difficult examinations. entations can fit therapists and clients from
differing cultural backgrounds.
• A closing essay by another student or
practitioner who has applied theory-based Gender Diversity—Both females and males
knowledge in a practice setting. function as therapists as well as clients in the
videos.
A revised online Instructor’s Resource Manual
available to qualified adopters that includes Diversity of Problems—Without scripting, it
the following teaching aids: was inevitable that the clients in these videos
would bring unique problems into the room.
• Sample course syllabi.
The VRC accompanying this textbook features
• Supplementary lecture outlines and ideas. videos of 11 different therapy approaches in action.
These approaches include:
• A test bank with 50 multiple choice ques-
tions for each chapter. 1. Psychoanalytic

• Generic PowerPoint slides that can be 2. Adlerian
downloaded and adapted for instructor
needs. 3. Existential

ABOUT THE VIDEO 4. Gestalt
RESOURCE CENTER
5. Person-Centered
If a picture is worth a thousand words, then a website
full of moving pictures and audio should be worth 6. Behavioral
a million words. We’re not certain about exactly
7. Cognitive-Behavioral

xiv PREFACE

8. Reality Therapy This is because, as with all therapy sessions, the
interactions are rich and nuanced and therefore
9. Feminist deserve thought, reflection, and, whenever possible,
a lively discussion (you can even do the discussion
10. Solution-Focused with yourself if you’re feeling in a Gestalt sort of
mood). We hope you learn and enjoy the videos
11. Family Systems available on the VRC and that you find it helpful
in your growth and development as a professional
Whether you’re watching these videos within the counselor or psychotherapist.
context of a Counseling and Psychotherapy course
or on your own, you may use the VRC in any of In conclusion, although our next true confession
several different ways. How you choose to use it is likely no surprise, we feel compelled to admit
will depend on your own individual teaching and that the set of videos accompanying this textbook is
learning needs. Here are a few ideas: our personal favorite. However we recognize that
you may or may not agree with our highly biased
You can watch the clip in its entirety and just opinion about this. Therefore, we encourage you to
focus on absorbing what you see as an example not only view our videos, but to also view others and
of a particular therapy prototype. to come to your own conclusion. Even though we
think you’ll like ours best, we’d love to hear from
You can watch the chapter in segments, as you either way and so please feel free to email John
each chapter includes an introduction to the at [email protected] to share your perspective
specific approach, followed by a video clip and offer your compliments or your constructive
of the therapy session, followed by a brief feedback.
discussion, followed by a final clip from the
therapy session. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

You can also watch these chapters or segments Like raising children, writing books always seems to
with a critical eye. Because the therapy ses- require involving a small village of support people
sions are spontaneous and non-scripted, you if you ever hope to get a well-developed child (or
may notice points during which the therapist book) out of your house. We have many people to
struggles (as John does while trying to illus- thank and will undoubtedly miss a few and then need
trate the psychoanalytic approach during a 20 several years of therapy to get over our guilt. Oh
minute clip). These struggles may involve the well. We’ve never let the fear of additional therapy
challenges of adhering to a single theoretical scare us out of trying to do the right thing . . . which
model or, quite simple, the struggle of what to in this case means thanking as many people as we
say at any given point in a therapy session. In can think of to thank.
fact, as we’ve watched these videos ourselves
(and with students), some of our best learn- Bunched in a small group at the first of the thank-
ing has come when our students notice (a) a you line is the Wiley team. In particular, we thank
missed therapeutic opportunity, (b) a theoret- Rachel Livsey, Sweta Gupta, Judi Knott, Amanda
ical inconsistency, or (c) spontaneously begin Orenstein, and Leigh Camp. You all should get
discussing how they might have behaved dif- gold stars for your patience. Writers are notoriously
ferently (and more effectively!) had they been eccentric and although we’ve worked to keep our
the therapist in the video. neurotic, absent-minded professor-ness out of our
other book-writing activities with John Wiley &
No matter how you decide to use the VRC, we Sons, somehow everything leaked out in this one.
strongly recommend that you be sure to press the After four editions of Clinical Interviewing, who
pause button (at least occasionally). We recommend
this even if you’re choosing to watch it in its entirety.

would guess that John would somehow be unable PREFACE xv
to correctly read the not-so-fine print involving the
manuscript deadline date? You also get additional Alan Tjeltveit, Muhlenberg University
gold stars for helping us with last-minute details. Arthur Nezu, Drexel University
Thank you again and again. Carl Leguez, University of Maryland
Giorgio Nardone, Direttore del Centro di
The next group in the thank-you line is the
manuscript reviewer team. Somehow Sweta re- Terapia Strategica
cruited 10 of you and you each provided us with Jonathon Shedler, University of Colorado—
fantastic chapter-by-chapter feedback on the first
edition and excellent guidance for the second. We Denver
honor you below in alphabetical order: Judith Beck, Beck Institute for Cognitive Ther-

Steven L. Berman, PhD, Associate Professor, apy and Research
Department of Psychology, University of Jyoti Nanda, Regent’s College, United Kingdom
Central Florida K. Michelle Hunnicutt Hollenbaugh, Texas

Kurt L. Kraus, EdD, Professor, Department of A&M University—Corpus Christi
Counseling and College Student Personnel, Kirk Schneider, Saybrook Graduate School
Shippensburg University Kirsten Murray, University of Montana
Kurt Kraus, Shippensburg University
Brandy Liebscher, PsyD, Chair, Department of Laura M. Schmuldt, Lindsey Wilson College
Psychology, Simpson University
Leslie Greenberg, York University
Kurt D. Michael, PhD, Professor, Department
of Psychology, Appalachian State University Luis Vargas, University of New Mexico
Marianne Spitzform, Independent Practice
Jeffrey Parsons, PhD, Director of Program Eval- Maryl Baldridge, Independent Practice
uation and Technology, School of Profes-
sional Counseling, Lindsey Wilson College Michele P. Manion, Salve Regina University
Natalie Rogers, California Institute of Integral
John Joseph Pietrofesa, Professor, College of
Education, Wayne State University Studies
Nick Heck, University of Montana
Brent Richardson, EdD, Associate Professor, Nicki Nance, Webster University
Department of School and Community Richard E. Watts, Sam Houston State University
Counseling, Xavier University Robbie Dunton, EMDR Institute
Robert Elliott, University of Strathclyde,
Lisa B. Spanierman, PhD, Associate Professor,
McGill University Scotland
Robert Wubbolding, International Center for
Alan C. Tjeltveit, PhD, Professor, Department
of Psychology, Muhlenberg College Reality Therapy
Scott T. Meier, State University of New York—
Donald Ward, PhD, Professor, Department of
Psychology and Counseling, Pittsburgh State Buffalo
University—Kansas Sherry Cormier, West Virginia University
Susan Simons, Washington State University
Next, we have a list of individuals who were
especially helpful with particular chapters—either
through a direct contribution of writing, by reading
drafts and providing chapter feedback, or by
providing helpful information. These honorees are
also listed alphabetically by first name.

xvi PREFACE

Thomas Burdenski, Tarleton State University We also have numerous additional students who
Troyann I. Gentile, Lindsey Wilson College provided feedback, rated our textbook online, and
Veronica I. Johnson, Winona State University listened as we tried out new material now and again.

Our next auspicious group includes a few And finally, since authors typically thank their
students from our program and one daughter lovely spouses for support and patience, we’d like to
for helping with an (it-will-not-be-named) citation finish by thanking each other for being the super-
program. Thanks to: glue that helps everything stick together.

Megan Bagley, MA John Sommers-Flanagan
Olin Martin, MA Rita Sommers-Flanagan
Rylee Sommers-Flanagan, BA Absarokee and Missoula, Montana

About the Authors

John and Rita work together as the mental
health consultants for Trapper Creek Job Corps.
They also enjoy providing seminars and professional
presentations nationally and internationally.

Together, John and Rita have coauthored seven
books, including books aimed at helping mental
health professionals work more effectively with their
clients:

John Sommers-Flanagan, PhD, is a clinical psy- • How to Listen so Parents Will Talk and Talk so
chologist and professor of counselor education at Parents Will Listen (Wiley)
the University of Montana. He has been a colum-
nist for the Missoulian newspaper, a local public • Tough Kids, Cool Counseling (American Counseling
radio show co-host of ‘‘What Is It with Men?,’’ Association)
and is coauthor of over 40 professional publica-
tions. John is a long-time member of both the • Problem Child or Quirky Kid (Free Spirit Press)
American Counseling Association and the American
Psychological Association and regularly presents • The Last Best Divorce Book (Families First)
professional workshops at the annual conferences
of both these organizations. • Don’t Divorce Us! (American Counseling Associa-
tion; also available in Turkish, co-authored with
Rita Sommers-Flanagan, PhD, has been a profes- Senel Poyralzi),
sor of counselor education at the University of Mon-
tana for the past 21 years. Her favorite teaching and John and Rita have also written two other
research areas are ethics and women’s issues, and textbooks with John Wiley & Sons. These include:
she served as the director of Women’s Studies at the
University of Montana, as well as the acting director • Clinical Interviewing, 4th edition
of the Practical Ethics Center. She is the author or
co-author of over 40 articles and book chapters, and • Becoming an Ethical Helping Professional
most recently authored a chapter titled ‘‘Boundaries,
Multiple Roles, and Professional Relationships’’ in John and Rita have two daughters, one son-
the new APA Handbook on Ethics in Psychology. She in-law, twin grandbabies, and can hardly believe
is also a clinical psychologist, and has worked with their good fortune. They are deeply rooted in
youth, families, and women for many years. Montana, and in the summers, alternate writing
with irrigating and haying on the family ranch.
Both John and Rita enjoy professional speaking,
exercising, gardening, exploring alternative energy
technologies, and restoring old log cabins, old
sheds, and any other old thing that crosses their
path—which, given the passage of time, is now
starting to include each other.



1C H A P T E R

Psychotherapy and Counseling Essentials

An Introduction

My first act of free will shall be to believe in free will. . . .
—William James
A theory is not built on observation. In fact, the opposite is true. What we observe follows from our theory.
—Albert Einstein
For most of history, Anonymous was a woman.
—Virginia Woolf

THIS CHAPTER

Places the development of counseling and psychotherapy in historical context
Defines counseling and psychotherapy
Reviews and describes scientific factors contributing to the development of counseling and psycho-
therapy procedures
Outlines essential ethical issues within the mental health and helping professions
Discusses issues pertaining to the development or emergence of your personal theory of counseling
and psychotherapy
Describes the authors’ personal and professional biases
Offers resources for further learning and professional development

BACKGROUND AND • What motivates people to do what they do?

OVERVIEW • What disturbs thinking processes, triggers un-
manageable anger, lowers individual productiv-
The drama imbedded in theories of human pain, ity, and destroys relationships?
suffering, change, and development rivals anything
Hollywood has to offer. These theories are revealed • What makes or breaks an individual?
in great literature, in myth, in religion, and in
our dominant political and social systems. They • What causes one person to be satisfied with a
can explain and predict ways we treat each other, simple and cheerful life, while another claws his
including how we define mental health and mental or her way ruthlessly to the top?
illness, our ideas about helping, rehabilitation, and
personal responsibility. They also help us answer • What makes some people come out stronger
big questions like: after facing tragedy or hardship, while others
are weakened or deeply damaged?

2 CHAPTER 1 PSYCHOTHERAPY AND COUNSELING ESSENTIALS

If you’ve come this far in your studies of deep breathing. This approach emphasized re-
psychology and counseling, you know there’s no sponse prevention. Philip’s compulsion to repeat-
single answer to these questions. It’s common for edly engage in checking behaviors when feeling
mental health professionals to strongly disagree anxiety was maladaptive or unhelpful. Breaking the
with each other on just about every topic under link between his anxiety-ridden thoughts and his
the sun. Therefore, it should be no surprise that maladaptive checking behaviors was crucial.
this book—a book about the major theories and
techniques of psychotherapy and counseling—will After 20 minutes of relaxation and therapeutic
contain stunning controversies and conflict. In the conversation, Philip reported feeling better. A few
following pages, we do our best to bring you more minutes later, he asked to use the restroom. As
than just the theoretical basics; we also bring you he left, the therapist wondered if Philip might be
the excitement and conflicts linked to these theories slipping away to perform a checking ritual. She sat
of human motivation, functioning, and change. for a minute and then walked to the waiting room.
There, she saw Philip seated about 15 feet away from
Human Suffering and Hope a pop bottle, leg stretched out as far as possible, in
an effort to see if he could reach the bottle with
Many years ago, a young man named Philip came his foot. His foot was still at least 10 feet from the
for therapy. He was plagued by his own thoughts. bottle. The therapist gently intervened and escorted
When he left the kitchen, he couldn’t be sure he’d Philip back to the counseling office.
turned off the stove. When he got out of his car, he
repeatedly re-entered it to double- and triple- and Although there’s a psychiatric diagnosis for
quadruple-check to see if the emergency brake was Philip’s condition (obsessive-compulsive disorder)
properly engaged . . . even when he was parked on and evidence-based therapies available, there’s no
absolutely level ground. He had repeated thoughts guarantee he can successfully change. Psychother-
about being contaminated. ‘‘Have I been infected apy is an imperfect science, at least partly because
by worms and germs?’’ he would wonder. These every human is unique with his or her idiosyncratic
obsessive thoughts were nearly always followed by ways of being. There’s much we don’t know about
a cascade of compulsive behavior; he washed his human behavior, the brain, emotions, and inter-
hands 100 times a day and so his hands were red personal relationships. But hope remains. Many
and chapped. individuals like Philip seek help, overcome many of
their debilitating behaviors, and go on to lead happy
One day, in the midst of a therapy session, Philip and meaningful lives.
couldn’t stop thinking about whether a client in
the waiting room had placed his foot on Philip’s Understanding why people suffer, how they
soda pop bottle, thereby contaminating it. Philip change, and how to help them live more satisfying
expressed his desire to go out and check to see if and gratifying lives is a fascinating, huge, and impor-
this contamination had occurred. tant undertaking . . . and the reason this book exists.

The therapist gently asked about the probability Context
that Philip’s pop bottle had been contaminated.
Philip acknowledged that, in fact, the bottle had Context is a small word with big implications. It’s
been in his own hands and that the other client had defined as the particular set of circumstances or facts
been seated across the room. surrounding a specific event or situation. Nothing
happens without being influenced by the context in
Based on this factual information, Philip was which it happens.
asked to engage in behaviors designed to help him
break free from his debilitating cycle of obsessive In this text we recognize that theories of coun-
thoughts and compulsive behaviors. The therapist seling and psychotherapy do not represent isolated
guided him through a relaxation activity, including ‘‘truths’’ and did not suddenly appear devoid of any
connection to the time, place, and people involved.

HISTORICAL CONTEXT 3

Instead, there were politics, beliefs, wars, scientific psychotherapy. Although there’s truth to this claim,
discoveries, incidents and circumstances and people it’s impossible to give a single individual the
and facts and everything else operating together to credit—or blame—for an enterprise as huge as
create and sustain the theories we write about, and psychotherapy. We also can’t help but wonder how
the professional activity that we’ve come to know modern psychotherapy could have been birthed
as counseling and psychotherapy. Context will without a mother.
also cast its long shadow into the future to define
and redefine what we mean by counseling and If it were possible or appropriate to bestow
psychotherapy. As a consequence, when describing a fatherhood title, Freud would be a leading
the theory and practice of psychotherapy, we also candidate. But Freud had professional forebears
weave in a discussion of many contextual factors. as well. For example, back in the late 1890s, the
Frenchman Pierre Janet claimed that some of
HISTORICAL CONTEXT Freud’s early work was not original but, instead,
supported his ( Janet’s) previous findings:
Every human practice or set of beliefs has its
own particular historical context. This is also the We are glad to find that several authors,
case for psychotherapy and its close relatives: particularly M. M. Breuer and Freud, have
counseling, therapy, mental health consultation, recently verified our interpretation already
clinical social work, and other human service somewhat old, of subconscious fixed ideas with
activities. Unfortunately, history is an imperfect, hystericals. ( Janet, 1901, p. 290, italics added)
subjective account of the past. As the old African
proverb states, ‘‘Until lions have their historians, Clearly, as we can see from this and other
tales of the hunt shall always glorify the hunter.’’ information, Janet believed he was developing a
new theory about human functioning, a theory that
Modern psychology originated in Western Freud was simply helping validate. Not surprisingly,
Europe and the United States in the late 1800s. Janet had conflicts with Freud, and he wasn’t alone.
During that time, women and other minorities were Freud’s interest in inner conflict was outpaced
generally excluded from higher education. Conse- perhaps only by his propensity, as we will see in later
quently, much of psychotherapy’s history is written chapters, for interpersonal conflict. With regard to
from the perspective of privileged white men advo- Janet and Freud, Bowers and Meichenbaum (1984)
cating a particular theory. This tendency, so domi- stated: ‘‘It is clear from their writings that Freud
nant in psychology over the years, has inspired sev- and Janet had a barely concealed mutual animosity’’
eral book and chapter titles such as: ‘‘Even the rats (p. 11).
were white and male’’ (Guthrie, 2004; Mays, 1988).
Questions remain regarding who, in the late
Despite these limitations, and recognizing there 19th century, initially led the psychotherapy and
are neglected feminist and multicultural voices counseling movements in Western Europe and,
within traditional historical accounts, we begin later, the United States. However, we should note
our exploration of contemporary theories and that even to seek to crown one individual as the
techniques of counseling and psychotherapy with first, or greatest originator of psychotherapy is a
a look back in time to the possible origins of highly masculinized and Western endeavor. ( J. V.
psychotherapy. Jordan, Walker, & Hartling, 2004; J. V. Jordan,
2010). It’s also inappropriate to singularly credit
The Father of Psychotherapy? white, Western European males with the origins of
counseling and psychotherapy theory and practice.
Theories textbooks often make the metaphoric It’s unlikely any theory exists that doesn’t draw
claim that Sigmund Freud is the father of modern truths and tenets from earlier human practices
and beliefs.

4 CHAPTER 1 PSYCHOTHERAPY AND COUNSELING ESSENTIALS

Bankart (1997) articulated this point about his- address the patient’s ‘‘evil spirit issues,’’ consistent
toric discovery: with the biomedical perspective, trephining
involved a physical intervention. Interestingly, evi-
My best friend has a bumper sticker on his truck dence indicates that some patients survived this
that reads, ‘‘Indians Discovered Columbus.’’ Let’s crude procedure, living for many years afterward
heed the warning. Nineteenth-century European (Selling, 1943).
physicians no more discovered the unconscious
than John Rogers Clark ‘‘discovered’’ Indiana. About a half million years later, a similar pro-
Indeed, a stronger argument could be made for cedure, the prefrontal lobotomy, emerged as a
the reverse, as the bumper sticker states so popular medical treatment for patients with ‘‘mental
elegantly. (p. 21) problems’’ in the United States. This medical
procedure was hailed as a great step forward in
Of course, 19th century European physicians the treatment of mental disorders. It was described
didn’t discover the unconscious (Ellenberger, 1970). in Time magazine in 1942 (Dawes, 1994):
Nevertheless, we’re intrigued by the implications
of Bankart’s comment. Could it be that European After drilling a small hole in the temple on each
physicians, Russian feminists, the Senoi Indians, side of the skull, the surgeon then inserts a dull
and many other individuals and cultural groups knife into the brain, makes a fan-shaped incision
were ‘‘discovered’’ by the human unconscious? Of through the prefrontal lobe, then downward a few
all the theorists discussed in this book, we think minutes later. He then repeats the incision on the
Carl Jung would most appreciate the concept of other side of the brain. (p. 42, as cited in Dawes,
an active unconscious seeking to emerge into the 1994, p. 48)
awareness of humans (see the online Jungian chapter
at www.wiley.com/go/counselingtheories). Although neither lobotomies nor trephining is
currently in vogue, many scientists and practitioners
Alternative Historical-Cultural Realities: are currently investigating and applying physical or
Four Perspectives biomedical interventions that directly target brain
functioning. Examples include psychotropic medi-
Early treatments for human distress and disturbance cations, electroconvulsive therapy (ECT), transcra-
typically consisted of a combination of biomedi- nial magnetic stimulation, vagus nerve stimulation,
cal, spiritual, psychosocial, and feminist-indigenous and deep brain stimulation (Dell’Osso, Priori, &
procedures. As you may already know, there’s a ten- Altamura, 2011; Holtzheimer & Mayberg, 2010;
dency for old explanations and treatments of mental Rasmussen, 2011). The biological perspective is
disturbance and distress to be discovered, rediscov- an important area for research and treatment.
ered, and recycled through the ages—which is one Although responsible counselors and psychother-
reason why a quick historical review is useful. apists keep abreast of developments from the
biomedical perspective, the focus of this text is
The Biomedical Perspective on nonbiological (aka psychosocial) explanations
An extreme example of this recycling and redis- for human behavior and on non–biologically based
covery includes trephining and lobotomies. Early interventions.
archaeological finds provide evidence of a treatment
procedure now called trephining. This procedure The Religious/Spiritual Perspective
involved using a stone tool to chip away at a Clergy, shamans, mystics, monks, elders, and other
human skull until a circular opening was created. religious and spiritual leaders have been sought
It’s believed, in the absence of written documen- for advice and counsel over the centuries. It was
tation, that this opening was a treatment by a reported that Hild of Whitby (an abbess of a
shaman or healer to release an evil spirit from the double monastery in the seventh century) possessed
afflicted individual’s brain. Although the goal was to prudence of such magnitude that not only ordinary

HISTORICAL CONTEXT 5

folk, but even kings and princes, would come a.d.), both of whom are considered forebears to
to ask her advice about their difficulties (Petroff, contemporary cognitive theory and therapy.
1986). For many Native American tribes, spiritual
authority and spiritual practices still hold as much A less cited example, from the 10th and 11th
or more salience for healing than most forms of centuries, is Avicenna (980–1037 a.d.), a great
counseling or psychotherapy (Hodge & Limb, 2009; figure in Islamic medicine. The following case
Salois, Holkup, Tripp-Reimer, & Weinert, 2006). description illustrates Avicenna’s distinctly psycho-
The same is true for other indigenous people, as well logical approach to treating mental and emotional
as those of Western European descent who have disorders:
strongly held religious commitments. Many Asian
and African cultures also believe spiritual concerns A certain prince . . . was afflicted with melancholia,
and practices are intricately related to psychological and suffered from the delusion that he was a
health (D. W. Sue & D. Sue, 2008). cow . . . he would low like a cow, causing
annoyance to everyone, crying ‘‘Kill me so that a
Contemporary psychosocial interventions some- good stew may be made of my flesh,’’ [and] . . . he
times include components linked to spirituality. would eat nothing. . . . Avicenna was persuaded to
In fact, two prominent approaches with scientific take the case. . . . First of all he sent a message to
support, dialectical behavior therapy (DBT) and the patient bidding him be of good cheer because
acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT), use the butcher was coming to slaughter him.
Buddhist mindfulness approaches to facilitate emo- Whereas . . . the sick man rejoiced. Some time
tional regulation (Hayes, 2002; Hayes, Strosahl, & afterwards, Avicenna, holding a knife in his hand,
Wilson, 1999; Linehan, 2000; Powers et al., 2009; entered the sickroom saying, ‘‘Where is this cow
Waltz, 2003). Most practitioners readily acknowl- that I may kill it?’’ The patient lowed like a cow to
edge the emotional healing potential of many indicate where he was. By Avicenna’s orders he
spiritual practices and beliefs. Religious and spir- was laid on the ground bound hand and foot.
itual leaders often have great wisdom, compassion, Avicenna then felt him all over and said, ‘‘He is
and insight into the human condition. However, too lean, and not ready to be killed; he must be
once again, due to this text’s focus, we don’t directly fattened.’’ Then they offered him suitable food of
address spiritual strategies for emotional healing which he now partook eagerly, and gradually he
(other than in cases, like DBT and ACT, when gained strength, got rid of his delusion, and was
the spiritually based practice is integrated into a completely cured. (Browne, 1921, pp. 88–89)
psychosocial approach; see Chapters 13 and 14).
Based on this description, Avicenna appears to
The Psychosocial Perspective have been an early strategic or constructive theorist-
Just as trephining dates back about 500,000 years, practitioner (see Chapter 11).
humans have probably also understood, from a time
prior to recorded history, that verbal interactions The Feminist-Multicultural Perspective
and relationship alterations can change thinking It’s possible to make a case for including or
patterns, mood, and behavior. At the very least, we excluding the feminist-multicultural perspective
know that for centuries wise healers from many from this set of historical-cultural realities. As
cultures and traditions used psychological and rela- an organized, academic discipline, feminist and
tional techniques that, upon close inspection, look multicultural pedagogy is rather young. However,
very familiar to current theoretically driven strate- because these perspectives have likely simmered
gies for helping people with psychological change in the background and operated in indigenous
and healing. Typical examples include Siddhartha cultures, we’ve decided to include it here as a way
Gautama (563–483 b.c.), better known as the Bud- of articulating its long-term existence.
dha and the Roman philosopher Epictetus (50–138
As discussed previously, traditional historical
voices have been predominately white and male.
The fact that much of what we read and digest as

6 CHAPTER 1 PSYCHOTHERAPY AND COUNSELING ESSENTIALS

history has the sound and look of whiteness and Additionally, distinctly Eastern therapy techniques
maleness is an example of context. Human his- and strategies such as mindfulness now hold promi-
tory and knowledge can’t help but be influenced by nent positions within several contemporary and
those who write and tell the history. Nevertheless, evidence-based therapeutic modalities (Linehan,
as human service providers, mental health profes- 1993).
sionals must be aware of alternative perspectives
that include minority voices (D. W. Sue & D. Sue, Historically, counseling and psychotherapy
2008; Taylor, 2002). focused on helping individuals move toward indi-
viduation, independence, and rational thinking.
Brown (2010) illustrates one way in which the Behaviors associated with dependence and pow-
feminist mind set differs from traditional male erful emotional expression have generally been
perspectives. viewed as pathological. In contrast, feminist and
multicultural perspectives emphasize relationship
Feminist therapy, unlike many other theories of and community over individuality. These are human
therapy, does not have an identifiable founding values that counseling and psychotherapy profes-
parent or parents who created it. It is a paradigm sionals are beginning to recognize and appreciate
developed from the grassroots of many different as different ways of being and not as pathological.
feminists practicing psychotherapy, and its Going forward, feminist and multicultural values
beginnings occurred in the context of many will continue to influence and be integrated into
people’s experiences and interactions in personal, traditional psychotherapy systems. Watching how
political, and professional settings. Because there the field of counseling and psychotherapy deals with
is no central authority, accrediting body, or conflicts and challenges inherent in this process
founder, those who identify as its practitioners do will be fascinating.
not always agree on the boundaries of what
constitutes feminist therapy. (p. 7) DEFINITIONS OF COUNSELING

If historical and contemporary therapeutic pro- AND PSYCHOTHERAPY
cesses are viewed through a feminist lens, we might
expect a more interconnected, female-oriented, Over the years, because many students want to work
grass-roots design. In fact, feminist influences have with people and learn to do counseling, they’ve
quietly (and sometimes less quietly) had progres- asked us: ‘‘Should I get a PhD in psychology, a
sively more explicit influence on therapy process. master’s degree in counseling, or a master’s in social
Over the past 40-plus years, many feminist concepts work?’’
and procedures have been integrated into all coun-
seling and psychotherapy approaches. For example, This question usually brings forth a lengthy
mutuality, mutual empathy, client empowerment, response, during which we not only explain the
and informed consent all give psychotherapy a more differences between these various degrees, but also
feminist look and feel (Brown, 2010; Jordan, 2010). discuss additional career information pertaining to
Similarly, as the United States has become more cul- the PsyD degree, psychiatry, school counseling,
turally diverse and the dominant culture has begun school psychology, and the psychiatric nurse prac-
to open itself to alternative cultural paradigms, new titioner credential. Generally, this discussion leads
therapeutic possibilities have emerged and been to the confusing topic of the differences between
woven into the fabric of therapy. Most notably, counseling and psychotherapy. If time permits dur-
we now know that cultural sensitivity and cultural ing these discussions, we also offer up our thoughts
humility (and therefore multicultural training) are about the meaning of life.
crucial to positive therapy outcomes with diverse
client populations (Constantine, Fuertes, Roysir- Sorting out differences between mental health
car, & Kindaichi, 2008; Griner & Smith, 2006). disciplines can be difficult. When responding to the

DEFINITIONS OF COUNSELING AND PSYCHOTHERAPY 7

question ‘‘In relation to being a successful therapist, clients cognitive and behavioral principles and skills
what are the differences between psychiatrists, (aka psychoeducation).
social workers, and psychologists?’’ Jay Haley wrote:
‘‘Except for ideology, salary, status, and power the QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION
differences are irrelevant’’ (Haley, 1977, p. 165).
This response accurately captures the fact that many Think about where you stand on this issue. Is listening
professional tracks can lead you toward becoming a to clients more important than teaching them? Or
successful therapist, despite a few ideological, salary, should therapists actively teach their clients specific
status, and power differences. skills? Or perhaps you can see around this dichotomy.
Are there other possibilities?
In this section we explore three confusing
and sometimes conflict-ridden questions: What is Despite the great debates over what constitutes
psychotherapy? What is counseling? And what are effective psychotherapy, we have four favorite
the differences between the two? psychotherapy definitions we’d like to share:

What Is Psychotherapy? 1. ‘‘A conversation with a therapeutic purpose’’
(Korchin, 1976).
Anna O., an early psychoanalytic patient of Breuer,
referred to the treatment she received as ‘‘the 2. ‘‘The purchase of friendship’’ (Schofield, 1964).
talking cure.’’ This is an elegant, albeit vague
description of psychotherapy. Technically, it tells 3. ‘‘[A] situation in which two people interact and
us very little, but at the intuitive level, it explains try to come to an understanding of one another,
psychotherapy very well. Anna is proclaiming with the specific goal of accomplishing some-
something most people readily admit: Talking, thing beneficial for the complaining person’’
expressing, verbalizing, or somehow sharing one’s (Bruch, 1981).
pain is, in and of itself, potentially healing. Of
course, this definition doesn’t and shouldn’t satisfy 4. ‘‘When one person with an emotional disorder
contemporary psychotherapy researchers, but it gets help from another person who has a little less
provides an elegant historic and foundational frame. of an emotional disorder’’ ( J. Watkins, personal
communication, October 13, 1983).
As we write today, a heated debate about how
psychotherapy should be practiced is flaring (Baker, What Is Counseling?
McFall, & Shoham, 2008; Littell, 2010; Rakovshik
& McManus, 2010; Shedler, 2010). This debate In some settings, an evaluative or judgmental
won’t soon end and is directly relevant to how distinction is made between counseling and psy-
psychotherapy is defined (Wampold, 2010). We chotherapy. In fact, Alfred Adler, whom we’ll get
explore dimensions of this debate in the pages to to know more intimately in Chapter 3, might claim
come. For now, keep in mind that although his- that counseling has an inferiority complex with
torically Anna O. viewed and experienced talking as respect to its older sibling, psychotherapy (Adler,
her cure (an expressive process), many contemporary 1958). Or, perhaps more accurately, it could be
evidence-based researchers and writers emphasize claimed that psychotherapy has a superiority com-
that the opposite is more important—that a future plex with respect to its younger rival, counseling.
Anna O. would benefit even more from listening to Either way, at some point you may notice or experi-
and learning from her therapist (a receptive process). ence a judgmental-sounding side to the distinction
Based on this perspective, some factions in the great between psychotherapy and counseling.
psychotherapy debate believe therapists are more
effective when they actively and expertly teach their

8 CHAPTER 1 PSYCHOTHERAPY AND COUNSELING ESSENTIALS

Overall, counselors have struggled with the defi- differences between counseling and psychotherapy,
nition of their craft in ways similar to psychothera- there are unessential differences. On this issue, we
pists. Consider, for example, this quotation: find ourselves in step with Corsini and Wedding
(2000), who stated:
Counseling is indeed an ambiguous enterprise. It
is done by persons who can’t agree on what to call Counseling and psychotherapy are the same
themselves, what credentials are necessary to qualitatively; they differ only quantitatively; there
practice, or even what the best way is to is nothing that a psychotherapist does that
practice—whether to deal with feelings, thoughts, a counselor does not do. (p. 2)
or behaviors; whether to be primarily supportive
or confrontational; whether to focus on the past or This suggests that both counselors and psy-
the present. Further, the consumers of counseling chotherapists engage in the same behaviors—
services can’t exactly articulate what their listening, questioning, interpreting, explaining,
concerns are, what counseling can and can’t do for advising, and so on, but may do so in different
them, or what they want when it’s over. (Kottler & proportions.
Brown, 2008, pp. 16–17)
Generally, psychotherapists are less directive, go
As with the term psychotherapy, a good definition a little deeper, work a little longer, and charge
of counseling is hard to find. Here’s a sampling: a higher fee. In contrast, counselors are slightly
more directive, work more on developmentally
• ‘‘Counseling is the artful application of scien- normal—but troubling—issues, work more overtly
tifically derived psychological knowledge and on practical client problems, work more briefly, and
techniques for the purpose of changing human charge a bit less for their services. Of course, in
behavior’’ (Burke, 1989, p. 12). the case of individual counselors and psychother-
apists, each of these rules may be reversed. For
• ‘‘Counseling consists of whatever ethical activities example, some counselors work longer with clients
a counselor undertakes in an effort to help the and charge more, whereas some psychotherapists
client engage in those types of behavior that will work more briefly with clients and charge less.
lead to a resolution of the client’s problems’’ Additionally, although it used to be that counselors
(Krumboltz, 1965, p. 3). worked with less disturbed clients and psychother-
apists worked with more disturbed patients, now,
• ‘‘[Counseling is] an activity . . . for working with perhaps because obtaining services from master’s-
relatively normal-functioning individuals who level counselors or social workers is less expensive,
are experiencing developmental or adjustment counselors often work more with lower income
problems’’ (Kottler & Brown, 1996, p. 7). clients whose financial stress interacts with and
complicates their personal and family problems.
With both lists of definitions in mind, we turn
now to the question of the differences between QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION
counseling and psychotherapy.
In your community and at your university are coun-
What Are the Differences Between seling and psychotherapy considered with equal (or
Psychotherapy and Counseling? unequal) reverence? What sorts of people go see a
counselor vs. a psychotherapist? How do professional
Years ago, Patterson (1973) answered this question training programs in counseling, social work, psychol-
directly by claiming: ‘‘There are no essential ogy, and psychiatry distinguish themselves from one
differences between counseling and psychotherapy’’ another on your campus or within your community?
(p. xiv). Of course, Patterson’s comment could be
taken to mean that although there are no essential

WHAT IS A THEORY? 9

A Working Definition of Counseling Basically, a theory involves a gathering together
and Psychotherapy and organizing of knowledge about a particular
object or phenomenon. In psychology, theories
At the very least, there are strong similarities are used to generate hypotheses about human
between counseling and psychotherapy. At the thinking, emotions, and behavior. Most of us, as
most, they may be considered identical. Because the a function of being social creatures, build our
similarities vastly outweigh the differences we use own personalized theories about human behavior.
the words counseling and psychotherapy interchange- These personal theories guide our observations and
ably. And sometimes we insert the word therapy as evaluations of others. This makes all of us theorists
a third, perhaps less divisive, alternative. (or potential theorists) even though our thinking
isn’t as explicit (or as detailed) as most famous
For the purposes of this text and to keep things psychological theorists.
simple, we offer a 12-part general definition of
counseling and psychotherapy (in case you weren’t A theory needs to accurately describe, explain,
sure, this reference to keeping things ‘‘simple’’ is and predict a wide range of therapist and client
an example of sarcasm). Counseling or psychother- behaviors. A theory also needs to have relevance to
apy is: its domain. For example, a good theory should
clearly explain what causes client problems (or
(a) a process that involves (b) a trained professional psychopathology) and offer specific strategies for
who abides by (c) accepted ethical guidelines and how to alleviate these problems. Think back to
has (d) skills and competencies for working with the case of Philip from earlier in this chapter: A
(e) diverse individuals who are in distress or have good theory would (a) explain how he developed
life problems that led them to (f ) seek help his obsessive and compulsive symptoms, (b) provide
(possibly at the insistence of others) or they may strategies for change, and (c) predict how Philip
be (g) choosing to seek personal growth, but either would respond to various therapy techniques. These
way, these parties (h) establish an explicit predictions should help us know what techniques to
agreement (informed consent) to (i) work together use, how long therapy will last, and how a particular
(more or less collaboratively) toward (j) mutually technique is likely to affect a particular client.
agreed on or acceptable goals (k) using
theoretically-based or evidence-based procedures A great task of theory is to provide therapists
that, in the broadest sense have been shown to (l) with a clear model or foundation from which they
facilitate human learning or human development conduct their professional service. To be without a
or effectively reduce disturbing symptoms. theory, to be a ‘‘vulnerable, directionless creature’’
(Prochaska & Norcross, 2003, p. 4), is something
We should note that, although this definition most of us would just as soon avoid.
is long and multifaceted, it’s still probably insuf-
ficient. For example, it wouldn’t fit for any self- Some psychological theorists have claimed their
administered forms of therapy, such as self-analysis particular theory can and should be used to
or self-hypnosis—although we’re quite certain if predict and control human behavior (Skinner,
you read through this definition several times 1971; Watson, 1913, 1924). As British psychologist
you’re likely to experience a self-induced hypnotic David Smail writes, we should be concerned
trance-state. when prediction and control become the goal of
psychological theory:
WHAT IS A THEORY?
[T]he prediction and control of human behavior
As long as we’re making our way through elu- is, as an aim of human inquiry, no new
sive definitions, we should attempt to define the phenomenon: it expresses an intellectual
word theory. aspiration as old as magic, and restates a practical
interest dear to the hearts of tyrants ever since
time began. (Smail, 1984, p. 47)

10 CHAPTER 1 PSYCHOTHERAPY AND COUNSELING ESSENTIALS

Smail’s concerns are important. Although the and practitioners. Supporters of psychotherapy
theories in this book were designed to explain and complained that Eysenck’s conclusions were based
address suffering and to facilitate human healing, on poorly controlled studies; they clamored that
growth and development, they should still be he didn’t address severity of diagnosis issues; and
examined with a critical eye to whether they’re they moaned that the measures of improvement
being implemented in ways that respect human used in the studies he reviewed were generally
dignity and freedom. poor and crude. Overall, Eysenck’s critics were
correct—his review was flawed. Of course, a pri-
THE SCIENTIFIC CONTEXT mary reason for this was because many existing
OF COUNSELING studies of counseling and psychotherapy effective-
AND PSYCHOTHERAPY ness were also flawed. The truth is, despite the
fact that psychotherapy researchers and practi-
All treatments that address human suffering should tioners in the 1950s believed psychotherapy was
be rigorously evaluated to determine their effective- more effective than no treatment, they hadn’t
ness. This section reviews historical and contempo- adequately gathered scientific evidence to support
rary developments in the evaluation of counseling their beliefs.
and psychotherapy.
A Psychotherapy Research Boom
Major Historical Developments:
Eysenck’s Review Along with other factors, Eysenck’s psychotherapy
critique motivated researchers to evaluate psy-
In 1952, Hans Eysenck published a bold and contro- chotherapy efficacy with greater scientific scrutiny.
versial article titled ‘‘The Effects of Psychotherapy: As a consequence, many treatment outcomes stud-
An Evaluation.’’ In the article, he claimed that after ies were conducted on many different therapeutic
over 50 years of therapy, research, and practice, no approaches. For the most part, Eysenck’s critique
evidence existed attesting to its beneficial effects. was laid to rest in the 1970s and early 1980s when
He stated that ‘‘roughly 2/3 of a group of neurotic several substantial and positive literature reviews
patients will recover or improve to a marked extent focusing on psychotherapy efficacy were published.
within about two years of the onset of their illness [in
the absence of treatment]’’ (Eysenck, 1952, p. 322). Two highly influential reviews were conducted
Further, he compared this natural recovery rate by Mary Smith and Gene Glass who developed a
with rates produced by traditional psychotherapy new statistical method for combining information
and reported that, across different treatment outcomes studies (Smith
& Glass, 1977; Smith, Glass, & Miller, 1980). Smith
patients treated by means of psychoanalysis and Glass’s method, meta-analysis, is now a house-
improved to the extent of 44%; patients treated hold name in research and statistics. As applied to
eclectically improved to the extent of 64%; psychotherapy treatment outcomes, meta-analysis
patients treated only custodially or by general pools together and obtains an overall average
practitioners improved to the extent of 72%. effect size from outcome measures across differ-
There thus appears to be an inverse correlation ent therapy research studies. Effect size (ES) is a
between recovery and psychotherapy. (p. 322) statistic used to estimate how much change is pro-
duced by a particular intervention. ES is reported
As you can imagine, Eysenck’s article sparked as the statistic d and represents the difference
strong reactions among psychotherapy researchers in efficacy between evaluated interventions (e.g.,
psychoanalytic psychotherapy or cognitive ther-
apy) and no-treatment control groups. Additional

THE SCIENTIFIC CONTEXT OF COUNSELING AND PSYCHOTHERAPY 11

Table 1.1 A Closer Look at Effect Sizes significantly different outcomes. Their findings,
consistent with previous and later research, lent
Descriptive Terms ES or d Percentile rank support to the conclusion that, ‘‘Everybody has
magnitude of ES won and all must have prizes’’ (a quotation from
Alice in Wonderland’s Dodo Bird). Consequently,
Humongous +2.00 97.7 the relative equivalent efficacy of various therapy
Very large +1.00 84.0 approaches is now often referred to as the Dodo
Large +0.80 79.0 bird effect (Luborsky, Singer, & Luborsky, 1975).
Smith, Glass, & Miller, 1977 +0.68 75.0
Medium +0.50 69.0 Overall, despite initial outrage over Eysenck’s
Small +0.20 58.0 article, it’s now easy to see that he provided the
None +0.00 50.0 entire field of psychotherapy with a much-needed
Adverse effects −0.20 42.0 reality check. Perhaps the most important and
enduring consequence of the Eysenck effect was a
Note: This Table places the Smith & Glass (1977) meta-analysis results greater emphasis on the need for scientific evidence
in context of Cohen’s (1977) traditional descriptive terms of small, to support counseling and psychotherapy practice.
medium, and large effect sizes. These effect sizes are also listed
in terms of their percentile rank. When researchers, like Smith and The Great Psychotherapy Debate
colleagues, state: ‘‘the average client treated with psychotherapy was
better off than 75% of clients who received no treatment’’ they’re At the close of the 20th century, Hubble, Duncan,
using percentile rankings. As you can see from the table, if there is and Miller (1999) reflected on psychotherapy
no effect size (d = +0.00), then ‘‘the average person receiving the outcomes research with undaunted optimism:
intervention would be better off than 50% of people not receiving
treatment.’’ In other words, on average, there would be no effect. The uncertainties loosed on the clinical and
counseling disciplines by Eysenck and like-minded
information about meta-analytic effect size (ES or d) critics have now been set aside. Therapy works. . . .
is in Table 1.1. More than 40 years of outcome research make
clear that therapists are not witch doctors, snake
In 1977, Smith and Glass published their land- oil peddlers, or over-achieving do-gooders. . . .
mark review, titled, ‘‘Meta-analysis of psychother- Study after study, meta-analyses, and scholarly
apy outcome studies.’’ They evaluated 375 outcome reviews have legitimized psychologically based or
studies and reported that the average study ‘‘showed informed interventions. Regarding at least its
a .68 standard deviation superiority [ES or d] of the general efficacy, few believe that therapy need be
treated group over the control group’’ (Smith & put to the test any longer. (1999, pp. 1–2)
Glass, 1977, p. 756). They concluded that the aver-
age client treated with psychotherapy was better Hubble et al. weren’t alone in their positive eval-
off than 75% of clients who received no treat- uation of therapy. As they implied, nearly everyone
ment. Later, upon expanding their study to 475 agreed (and still does) that psychotherapy is gen-
outcome studies and publishing the results in a erally more effective than no treatment (Miller,
book, they concluded that the average treated per- 2010; Norcross & Lambert, 2011; Weiner &
son was better off than 80% of the untreated sample Bornstein, 2009).
(Smith et al., 1980).
Given the celebratory language about psy-
Although Smith and her colleagues helped settle chotherapy effectiveness, you might be thinking the
the issue of whether psychotherapy is generally big debate is over. After all, if there’s agreement that
efficacious, they didn’t clear up the big debate over therapy is significantly better than no treatment,
whether one form of therapy was more effective what’s left to argue about? Well, as is typically the
than others. This is because Smith and colleagues case with humans, there’s plenty to keep arguing
generally found that different therapist theoretical
orientations and different techniques didn’t produce

12 CHAPTER 1 PSYCHOTHERAPY AND COUNSELING ESSENTIALS

about. The deepest of these arguments focuses on In his review, Lambert (1992) identified the
the following point and counterpoint: following four common factors and estimated how
much each factor typically accounts for therapeutic
• Point: Research has demonstrated the superi- change.
ority of a few select psychotherapy techniques
over other specific techniques; these techniques 1. Extratherapeutic factors (40%).
should be identified as ‘‘empirically supported’’ or
‘‘evidence-based’’ and should constitute the pri- 2. Therapeutic relationship (30%).
mary techniques or methods employed by mental
health practitioners. 3. Expectancy (placebo effects; 15%).

• Counterpoint: Research doesn’t show that some 4. Techniques (15%).
specific techniques are better than others; instead,
research shows there are common therapeutic Lambert’s estimates are, of course, simply esti-
factors operating across different therapy tech- mates and not designed to be perfectly pre-
niques, rendering them all, more or less, equiv- cise (Beutler, 2009). However, his conceptual
alent. Therefore, psychotherapists should be frame is strong and meaningful and has become
trained to deliver therapy in ways that emphasize a popular way of thinking about how therapy
these common factors. works—especially within the common factors camp.

Wampold (1997, 2001) labeled this conflict: Extratherapeutic Factors
‘‘The Great Psychotherapy Debate.’’ Lambert (1992) defines extratherapeutic factors
broadly. They include client factors such as severity
Like all good arguments, the great psychother- of disturbance, motivation, capacity to relate to oth-
apy debate is multidimensional. These dimensions ers, ego strength, psychological-mindedness, and
include (but are not limited to) questions like: (a) the ability to identify a single problem to work on in
What constitutes scientific evidence? and (b) Can counseling, as well as ‘‘sources of help and support
we take scientifically based therapy techniques and within [client] environments’’ (Asay & Lambert,
procedures, generalize them to real-world clini- 1999, p. 33). For example, many clients who experi-
cal settings, and expect them to work the same as ence spontaneous remission (sudden improvement
they do in research settings? In this section we without therapy) do so because of positive support
dive headlong into the great psychotherapy debate from important people in their lives. Lambert con-
and then later step back to examine the ques- tends that extratherapeutic change factors account
tions about what constitutes science and whether for about 40% of client success.
we can directly apply scientific research findings to
clinical practice. Therapeutic Relationship
There are at least two ways the therapeutic rela-
For now, let’s pretend the preceding counter- tionship seems to generate positive therapy results.
point is true or mostly true. That is, if positive First, as Rogers (1942) posited, when therapists con-
treatment outcomes are mostly produced by a few nect with clients using the core conditions of uncon-
common therapeutic factors, what are those factors? ditional positive regard, empathy, and congruence,
positive therapeutic outcomes are facilitated (see
Common Therapeutic Factors Chapter 6). Rogers referred to these conditions as
therapist attitudes.
Many researchers have conducted theoretical and
empirical analyses of common therapeutic factors Second, as Freud originally implied, the ther-
(Frank, 1961; J. D. Frank & J. B. Frank, 1991; apeutic alliance, characterized by an attachment
Lambert, 1992; Wampold, 2001). The following between therapist and client working together, also
discussion focuses on Lambert’s (1992) four-factor seems to be a relationship ingredient that fos-
model. ters client improvement. This alliance or bond
between therapist and client has been identified

THE SCIENTIFIC CONTEXT OF COUNSELING AND PSYCHOTHERAPY 13

as an important therapeutic component in many that extratherapeutic factors, the therapy relation-
studies (Barber, Connolly, Crits-Christoph, Gladis, ship, and expectation are even more powerful
& Siqueland, 2009; Byrd, Patterson, & Turchik, psychotherapeutic factors. Recently, Duncan and
2010; Crits-Christoph, Gibbons, & Hearon, 2006; colleagues (2010) stated:
Kendall et al., 2009; Meissner, 2007). A specific
interaction that’s both an example of the therapeu- To be frank, any assertion for the superiority of
tic alliance and that likely facilitates or deepens the special treatments for specific disorders should be
therapy alliance occurs when therapist and client regarded, at best, as misplaced enthusiasm, far
collaborate on goal setting. Overall, Lambert esti- removed from the best interests of consumers.
mates that therapeutic relationship factors account (p. 422)
for about 30% of the variation in therapy outcomes.
This isn’t to say that technique is unimportant to
Expectancy therapeutic success. In most cases, the preceding
Frank (1961) defined this therapeutic variable as three factors are all activated while therapists
hope. Vastly different procedures can all be viewed employ specific therapy techniques. Consequently,
as including positive expectancy or hope as an although it’s difficult to show different efficacy rates
active therapeutic ingredient. Obviously, as a poten- based on different techniques, doing counseling
tial positive change factor, hope is complex and or psychotherapy without a theoretical model and
can be used and abused. Interestingly, controlled techniques is difficult to imagine.
research studies indicate that clients treated with
placebos (an inert substance with no inherent ther- With all this in mind, Lambert estimated that
apeutic value) are usually better off than clients 15% of treatment outcomes variation is due to the
who receive no treatment and often do just as specific techniques employed. Wampold (2001) has
well as clients who take antidepressant medica- suggested it may be as low as 4%.
tions for depressive symptoms (Overholser, 2006;
Turner, Matthews, Linardatos, Tell, & Rosenthal, What Constitutes Evidence? Efficacy,
2008). Overall, Lambert estimated that expecta- Effectiveness, and Other Research Models
tion, hope, and placebo factors account for 15% of
the variation in therapy outcomes. To some extent, all contemporary helping interven-
tions should have at least some supportive scientific
Techniques evidence. This statement, as bland and general as
In the 1870s, Anton Mesmer, then famous for it may seem, would generate substantial contro-
‘‘mesmerizing’’ or hypnotizing patients would have versy among academics, scientists, and people on
claimed that his particular technique—involving the street. One man or one woman’s evidence may
purple robes, rods of iron, and magnetic baths— or may not stand up to another man or woman’s
produced therapeutic change due to shifting mag- scrutiny. That being the case, we should state up
netic fields or ‘‘animal magnetism.’’ More recently, front that we understand and embrace the ulti-
psychoanalysts would say helping clients develop mate subjectivity of human experience. We also
insight into repeating destructive relationship pat- recognize that because humans design scientific
terns is essential; in contrast, behaviorists would studies and construct and administer all assess-
claim exposure and response prevention techniques ment instruments, evaluation processes associated
are powerful change ingredients. with measuring treatment outcomes always include
error and subjectivity. At the same time, lest we
For better or worse, common factors proponents arouse the ghost of B. F. Skinner or be required to
would point out that Mesmer, as well as the psy- give back our dusty diplomas, we should state with
choanalysts and behaviorists, are generally incorrect equal emphasis that we support and respect the sci-
(Duncan, Miller, Wampold, & Hubble, 2010; Nor- entific method and appreciate efforts to objectively
cross & Lambert, 2011). Instead, although their measure psychotherapy outcomes. Understanding
techniques appear invaluable, research indicates the ubiquity of subjectivity, while engaging in

14 CHAPTER 1 PSYCHOTHERAPY AND COUNSELING ESSENTIALS

scientific pursuits, is a paradox or dialectic that In 1986, Gerald Klerman, then head of the
can help improve research quality. National Institute of Mental Health, gave a keynote
address to the Society for Psychotherapy Research.
There are two primary approaches to counseling During his speech, he emphasized that psychother-
and psychotherapy outcomes research: (1) efficacy apy should be evaluated systematically through
research and (2) effectiveness research. These terms randomized controlled trials (RCTs). Further, he
flow from the well-known experimental design con- claimed:
cepts of internal and external validity (Campbell,
Stanley, & Gage, 1963). Efficacy research employs We must come to view psychotherapy as we do
experimental designs that maximize internal valid- aspirin. That is, each form of psychotherapy must
ity, allowing researchers to comment on causal have known ingredients, we must know what these
mechanisms; effectiveness research uses exper- ingredients are, they must be trainable and
imental designs that maximize external validity, replicable across therapists, and they must be
allowing researchers to comment on generalizabil- administered in a uniform and consistent way
ity of their findings. within a given study. (Quoted in Beutler, 2009,
p. 308)
Efficacy Research
Efficacy research involves tightly controlled exper- Klerman’s declaration involves the medicaliza-
imental trials with high internal validity. Within tion of psychotherapy. Most likely, Klerman’s moti-
medicine, psychology, counseling, and social work, vation for medicalizing psychotherapy went beyond
randomized controlled trials (RCTs) are con- his love for science; he was also aware of increasing
sidered the scientific research gold standard for health care costs and heated competition for health
determining treatment efficacy. An RCT statis- care dollars. This is an important contextual factor.
tically compares outcomes between a randomly In many ways, the events that ensued constituted an
assigned treatment group and a control group. effort to place psychological interventions on par
In medicine and psychiatry, the control group is with medical interventions
usually administered an inert placebo (i.e., placebo
pill). Consequently, treatment is considered effica- The strategy of using science to compete for
cious if the active medication relieves symptoms, on health care dollars eventually coalesced into a
average, at a rate significantly higher than placebo. movement within professional psychology. In 1993,
In psychology, counseling, and social work, treat- Division 12 (the Society of Clinical Psychology)
ment groups are generally compared with a waiting of the American Psychological Association (APA)
list or attention-placebo control group. To maxi- formed a ‘‘Task Force on Promotion and Dissemi-
mize researcher control over independent variables, nation of Psychological Procedures’’ This task force
RCTs require that participants meet specific inclu- published an initial set of empirically validated
sion and exclusion criteria prior to being randomly treatments. To be considered empirically vali-
assigned to a treatment or comparison group. This dated, treatments were required to be (a) manu-
allows researchers to statistically determine with a alized, and (b) shown to be superior to a placebo
greater degree of certainty whether the treatment or other treatment, or equivalent to an already
itself had a direct or causal effect on treatment established treatment in at least two ‘‘good’’ group
outcomes. To give you a better feel for the exten- design studies or in a series of single case design
sive experimental controls involved in an RCT, see experiments conducted by different investigators
Putting it in Practice 1.1. (Chambless et al., 1998).

Before discussing effectiveness research, it’s Not surprisingly, Division 12’s proclamations
important to examine historical context as it relates were extremely controversial. Many critics com-
to efficacy research. plained the process favored behavioral and
cognitive-behavioral treatments over all others.

THE SCIENTIFIC CONTEXT OF COUNSELING AND PSYCHOTHERAPY 15

PUTTING IT IN PRACTICE 1.1

TADS: A Sample Randomized Controlled Trial of Psychotherapy Efficacy

The Treatment of Adolescents With Depression Study (Treatment for Adolescents With
Depression Study [TADS] Team, U.S., 2004) provides a clear example of how RCTs are
designed and implemented. Take special note of the extensive inclusion/exclusion criteria,
the structured nature of the treatments implemented, and standardized measurement
protocols. All information below is adapted from the original TADS Team report (2004,
pp. 808–809).

TADS inclusion criteria: Participants were included in the study if they: (a) were 12
to 17 years old; (b) were able to receive outpatient care; (c) had a DSM-IV diagnosis of
major depressive disorder at consent and again at baseline; (d) had a depressive mood
for at least 6 weeks prior to consent in at least two or three settings (i.e., home, school,
among peers); (e) obtained a Children’s Depression Rating Scale-Revised total score of 45
or higher at baseline; (f) had a full-scale IQ of 80 or higher.

TADS exclusion criteria: Participants were excluded from the study if they:
(a) were taking antidepressant medications prior to consent; (b) had a current or
past diagnosis of bipolar disorder, conduct disorder, substance abuse or dependence,
pervasive developmental disorder, or a thought disorder; (c) were receiving concurrent
treatment with psychotropic medication or psychotherapy outside the study; (d) had two
failed selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) trials or a poor response to clinical
treatment containing CBT for depression; (e) showed an intolerance to fluoxetine; (f) had
a confounding medical condition; (g) were a non-English–speaking patient or parent;
(h) were currently pregnant or refusing to use birth control; (i) displayed, upon evaluation,
dangerousness to self or others; (j) had been hospitalized for dangerousness within
3 months of consent or were deemed by a cross-site panel to be ‘‘high risk’’ because of a
suicide attempt requiring medical attention within 6 months; (k) reported a clear intent or
an active plan to commit suicide; or (l) reported suicidal ideation and had a disorganized
family unable to guarantee adequate safety monitoring.

The TADS CBT Intervention: Treatment included 15 sessions, which lasted between
50 and 60 minutes. Treatment was manualized and included psychoeducation about
depression, goal setting with the adolescent, mood monitoring, homework to increase
pleasant activities, social problem solving, and cognitive restructuring. Optional content
included: social engagement, communication, negotiation, compromise, or assertiveness
training. Two parent-only sessions and one to three conjoint parent and adolescent
sessions were provided.

16 CHAPTER 1 PSYCHOTHERAPY AND COUNSELING ESSENTIALS

TADS outcome measures: These included the Schedule for Affective Disorders
and Schizophrenia for School-Age Children-Present and Lifetime Version, the scalar
Child Depression Rating Scale-Revised, total score. Outcome measures were assessed
by the independent evaluator at baseline, week 6, and week 12. Additional measures
included the Reynolds Adolescent Depression Scale (RADS) and the Suicidal Ideation
Questionnaire-Junior High School Version (SIQ-Jr).

Others criticized the idea of forgoing clinical sen- have been less optimistic about generalizing efficacy
sitivity and intuition in favor of using manualized research into real-world clinical settings (Beutler,
treatment protocols (Silverman, 1996). Division 12 2009; Luborsky, Barrett, Antonuccio, Shoenberger,
held to their procedures for identifying efficacious & Stricker, 2006; Norcross, Beutler, & Levant,
treatments, but changed the name of empirically 2006).
validated treatments to empirically supported treat-
ments (ESTs). Nevertheless, the controversy over Effectiveness Research
which therapies to include as ESTs and what Sternberg, Roediger, and Halpern (2007) described
criteria that should be used to evaluate therapy effectiveness studies:
approaches continues today.
An effectiveness study is one that considers the
Overall, the efficacy and EST perspective is outcome of psychological treatment, as it is
partly about using scientifically-based treatment delivered in real-world settings. Effectiveness
performance to compete for health care dollars. studies can be methodologically rigorous in the
In late 2008, Baker and colleagues issued a call for sense that careful procedures are employed to
clinical psychology to embrace the efficacy and EST identify the nature of the client’s problems and to
perspective. measure changes in their adjustment during the
course of treatment, but they do not include
Our view is that if an EST performs well relative random assignment to treatment conditions or
to other competitors for the healthcare dollar placebo control groups. (p. 208)
(e.g., pharmacotherapy), this finding retains public
health and clinical significance. If there are other As can be seen, in contrast to efficacy research,
interventions that produce similar effects, then it effectiveness research focuses on collecting data
would be important to learn how clinicians can with strong external validity. For example, if the
achieve those effects reliably, cheaply, and goal were to evaluate the effectiveness of solution-
quickly—so that these interventions can also be focused therapists at a mental health center, ther-
designated as ESTs. These might also become apists who identify themselves as solution-focused
strong competitors for the nation’s health care might provide treatment as usual (TAU), while
dollars. (Baker et al., 2008, p. 82) other therapists continue to provide therapy from
an eclectic perspective. These treatments would be
Baker et al. (2008) also cited evidence suggesting provided to whoever seeks counseling at the mental
that treatments based on efficacy research (or health center, without random assignment. As pos-
RCTs) generally remain highly efficacious when sible, some clients might be assigned to a waiting
directly ‘‘exported’’ to clinical settings (Fiore et al., list control condition and the mental health center
2008; Franklin, DeRubeis, & Westen, 2006). Their would try to provide the same assessment proto-
position is deeply entrenched in the medical model col for all clients. In the end, outcomes for the
and strongly emphasizes efficacy research as the solution-focused therapists could be directly com-
road to developing valid psychological procedures pared with outcomes for eclectic therapists as well
for treating medical conditions. Other researchers

THE SCIENTIFIC CONTEXT OF COUNSELING AND PSYCHOTHERAPY 17

as the waiting-list control. Results from this effec- to separate common factors from technique (Safran,
tiveness study could be used to determine whether Muran, & Eubanks-Carter, 2011). In fact, Norcross
more therapists should receive training in solution- and Lambert (2011) stated:
focused therapy or whether the solution-focused
therapists should begin using eclectic approaches. The relationship does not exist apart from what
the therapist does in terms of method, and we
Other Research Models cannot imagine any treatment methods that would
There are, of course, other research models that not have some relational impact. Put differently,
inform researchers and clinical practitioners about treatment methods are relational acts. (p. 5)
therapy process and outcomes. These models
include survey research, single-participant designs, This comment suggests that each theory-based
qualitative data collection, and so on. However, approach, when practiced well, includes or activates
based on current health care and mental health common factors. In fact, it’s often the case that,
care reimbursement practices and future trends, when employed sensitively and competently, the
providers are increasingly expected to provide specific techniques are what instill hope, strengthen
services consistent with findings from efficacy the therapeutic relationship, and activate extrather-
and effectiveness research—and the medical model apeutic factors. In summary, embracing a reasonable
(Baker et al., 2008). and scientifically supported theoretical perspective
and using it faithfully is one of the best ways to:
Techniques or Common Factors?
The Wrong Question • Help clients activate their extratherapeutic
factors.
Wampold (2001, 2010) and others claim that a
common factors model provides a better empiri- • Develop a positive working relationship.
cal explanation for treatment success than specific
treatment models. In contrast, Baker et al. (2008) • Create expectancy or placebo effects.
and like-minded researchers contend that com-
mon or nonspecific factors contribute little to • Know how to use a healthy number of techniques
the understanding and application of counseling that fit within your theoretical frame.
and psychotherapy interventions (Chambless et al.,
2006). Although this leaves us with a dilemma, As Baker et al. (2008) described, even though it’s
typically, when prestigious scientists and practi- a research-based fact that physicians with a better
tioners wholeheartedly disagree, important lessons bedside manner produce better outcomes, medicine
can be learned from both sides of the argument. involves much more than a bedside manner—it
Perhaps the question is not, ‘‘Techniques or com- also involves specific medical procedures. The EST
mon factors?’’ but instead, ‘‘How do techniques movement is an effort to establish psychological
and common factors operate together to produce procedures as efficacious as medical procedures. As
positive therapy outcomes?’’ we move into the future, we need to embrace both
an understanding of psychological procedures and
Some days when we find ourselves boggled by common factors; this might also be framed as the
the abundance of ESTs and worried that some science and art of psychotherapy.
excellent approaches just haven’t yet accumulated
enough evidence to qualify as an EST, we wonder Each theory chapter in this text has a section
if perhaps we should abandon theory and technique summarizing what’s known about its efficacy. You’ll
and focus instead on teaching students how best to notice that more straightforward theories have more
employ the common factors. Although a case might outcomes research than the richer, more complex
be made for doing just that, it’s probably impossible theories. We revisit this issue and the issue of ESTs
throughout this text. For now, we take a detour to
a central issue in counseling and psychotherapy—
essential ethical principles and practice.

18 CHAPTER 1 PSYCHOTHERAPY AND COUNSELING ESSENTIALS Because this is a theories book, what follows is
a bare-bones consideration of basic ethical issues.
QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION Your professional training should include a whole
class or seminar in applied ethics; ethical issues
Which of the common factors do you personally think should be a common discussion topic in your classes
is most important? Do you agree with the point and supervision.
about common factors approaches to therapy being
activated by specific techniques?

ETHICAL ESSENTIALS Competence and Informed Consent

Here’s some unsettling news. Reading this book and A central tenet of any professional code is com-
pursuing your studies will contribute to your loss petence: The practitioner must have adequate
of innocence. For example, in many states, ‘‘Good knowledge to perform whatever service the profes-
Samaritan’’ laws allow untrained bystanders to help sion offers (R. Sommers-Flanagan & J. Sommers-
accident victims without fear of being sued for Flanagan, 2007). As a student, you’re not expected
doing something wrong. But these laws don’t cover to be completely competent yet. However, you are
trained medical personnel. If bystanders trained in expected to strive toward competency by obtain-
medical procedures help someone at an accident, ing training and supervision from knowledgeable
they’re practicing medicine and expected to use instructors and supervisors. Providing effective
their professional judgment wisely. If they don’t, therapy is both art and science. You learn the
they can be held liable for their mistakes. science by reading, studying, thinking, and doing
good literature-based and applied research. This
Similarly, you’ll soon no longer be an armchair learning never ends. Most ethics codes and state
philosopher, a good friend, a kind co-worker, or an licensing boards encourage or mandate continuing
understanding son or daughter. If you’re reading professional education; the ethical practitioner is a
this book, you’re likely on your way to obtaining lifelong learner (Welfel, 2006).
credentials in the wonderful world of mental health
professionals. Soon you’ll be a professional helper, Research on training in counseling and psy-
change-agent, listener, and diagnostician. Even chotherapy suggests that therapy competence is
when off duty, you’ll be accountable to certain developed through three primary strategies (Hill,
ethical guidelines. This should motivate you to 2009; Woodside, Oberman, Cole, & Carruth,
engage in a careful reading of the ethical codes 2007).
of the profession you’re aspiring toward. In fact,
you should be so motivated that you might even 1. Working out your own issues: This involves a
postpone reading the rest of this chapter until journey of improving yourself—a journey that
you’ve obtained and read your professional code includes a focus on self-awareness and other
(although tearing yourself away from this book will growth-related activities—possibly including
undoubtedly require extraordinary self-discipline). personal therapy, balanced and healthy life activ-
ities, and being as honest as you can possibly be
A good ethics code defines the professional about your needs, shortcomings, fears, and fail-
knowledge base, describes the activities sanctioned ures. Your purpose in providing therapy should
in the profession, and provides a clear picture of be to help others and not as a means of meeting
the boundaries of professional activity. A good your own personal needs.
code has three main dimensions: It is educational,
aspirational, and judicial (Elliott-Boyle, 1985). As 2. Working within a learning community: A learning
you read the code for your profession, see if you can community not only increases your access to
discern these three components. cutting-edge knowledge and information, it also
provides unmatched opportunity to observe

ETHICAL ESSENTIALS 19

practicing therapists through video, audio, and both the American Psychological Association (APA)
role-playing modalities. Learning communities and the American Counseling Association (ACA)
also facilitate critical analysis and critical thinking have adopted multicultural competencies (see
processes. Chapter 13). Even further, multicultural competen-
cies have been integrated into professional training
3. Skills practice and feedback: As Allen Ivey recently programs and are now present within the ethi-
stated, therapy skill development requires, cal standards for counselors and psychologists. For
‘‘Practice, practice, practice, feedback, feedback, example, the latest revision of the ACA ethical stan-
feedback’’ ( J. Sommers-Flanagan & Heck, 2012, dards includes multicultural guidelines in the areas
p. 152). Whether learning to ride a bicycle, of confidentiality, assessment, supervision (Amer-
navigate the Internet, or develop therapy skills, ican Counseling Association, 2005). Additionally,
there’s really nothing quite like focused personal when it comes to teaching or training individuals
experiences to facilitate learning. to become professional counselors, ACA Standard
F.11.c. states:
Closely related to competence is an important
ethical concept referred to as informed consent. Counselor educators actively infuse
Informed consent refers to clients’ rights to know multicultural/diversity competency in their
about and consent to ways you intend to work training and supervision practices. They actively
with them. Clients have the right to know your train students to gain awareness, knowledge, and
training status and the supervision arrangements skills in the competencies of multicultural
you have. They also should have some idea about practice. Counselor educators include case
the techniques you use and why you’ve chosen examples, role-plays, discussion questions, and
them, and they should have some indication about other classroom activities that promote and
the length of time counseling might last. Involving represent various cultural perspectives. (p. 16)
your client in these topics, both in dialogue and by
providing a written statement, is an empowering Multicultural competencies outlined by the APA
act for both of you (Goddard, Murray, & Simpson, and ACA (as articulated by the Association for
2008; Pomerantz & Handelsman, 2004). Multicultural Counseling and Development) are
very similar. The focus is on competency within
Multicultural Competence three general areas (these areas are listed below
and described in greater detail in Chapter 13; see
Thinking about therapy from a multicultural view is also Putting it in Practice 1.2 for comments on
challenging because counseling and psychotherapy evidence-based practice and cultural competence):
were conceived of and developed within a Western
cultural frame. From a different cultural perspective 1. Self-awareness.
even the most basic components of therapy (e.g.,
the 50-minute hour and the talking cure) can seem 2. Multicultural knowledge.
odd or unnecessary. D. Sue and D. W. Sue (2008)
noted that all too often traditional counseling and 3. Culturally specific techniques.
psychotherapy have reinforced cultural stereotypes
and forced minority clients to fit into a dominant, Confidentiality
White American frame.
Confidentiality implies trust. When clients come
Despite historical cultural insensitivity, for the to counseling, they’ll wonder if they can trust that
past 20-plus years, psychology, counseling, and what they share will be kept private. If you work as
social work have worked hard to promote multi- a mental health professional, you’ll be expected
cultural knowledge and competence. In particular, to hold what your client says to you in strict
confidence.

20 CHAPTER 1 PSYCHOTHERAPY AND COUNSELING ESSENTIALS

PUTTING IT IN PRACTICE 1.2

Reflections of a Process-Oriented Contextualist

The following comments were contributed by Luis Vargas, associate professor and director
of the clinical psychology predoctoral internship program in the Department of Psychiatry
at the University of New Mexico School of Medicine.

I have always considered myself a scientist-practitioner. I am a strong believer in
evidence-based practice. I have always strived to be culturally responsive in my work.
However, I have been bothered by psychology’s increasing emphasis on empirically
supported treatments and on the current focus on cultural competence. I don’t say this to
be provocative or iconoclastic. I say this out of concern about what we are endeavoring
to do as psychologists involved in carrying out interventions.

The emphasis on ‘‘empirical support’’ troubles me for three major reasons. One, it
seems to assume that support of an intervention must come from one epistemology,
empiricism, and, I believe, epistemologies are, to use Hallowell’s term from anthropology,
culturally constituted. Second, the term excludes other forms of evidence, which, I believe
are potential sources of important contributions to the area of mental health (e.g.,
contextualist, social constructionist, and narrative perspectives), particularly in working
with culturally diverse groups. Third, empiricists’ efforts to ‘‘manualize’’ treatment has,
I believe, unintentionally de-emphasized the critical aspect of the interaction between
therapist and client. Over the years, my focus in the process of conducting culturally
responsive psychotherapeutic interventions has been much more on who the psychologist
is and less on who the clients are. You see, as psychologists involved in intervention,
we inevitably transmit culture—for example, sometimes imperialistically (as in, ‘‘let me
teach these African American parents proper parenting skills or practices’’) or sometimes
in a dominant-culture-centric way (as in, ‘‘this Mexican mother and son are enmeshed
and they need to learn to relate appropriately’’ or ‘‘this American Indian father needs to
assume a more appropriately paternal role in the limit-setting with his children’’). What
is proper or appropriate is determined by cultural context. When we, as psychologists,
interact with our clients, we become part of that context. The effects of these interactions
are multidirectional—we are changed as much as we may facilitate change. Because of
this, we must appreciate how we ourselves are culturally constituted before we embark
in an endeavor to intervene with others.

The focus on cultural competence also worries me. I very much try to be culturally
responsive to my clients. But can I say that I am ‘‘culturally competent’’? Absolutely not!
I am still, despite my many and genuine efforts, ‘‘a toro (bull) in a China shop’’ with all
the cultural implications of this altered adage intended. I do not believe that ‘‘cultural

ETHICAL ESSENTIALS 21

competence’’ is the best way to think about what we want to do or teach. I believe that
thinking in terms of ‘‘cultural competence’’ often leads to an emphasis on teaching to
cultural content and, therefore, running the risk of teaching to stereotypes or of making
static overgeneralizations about local cultures. It can lead to a patronizing sense of
complacency and a misguided sense of expertise that may further alienate us from those
with whom we intend to work. Culture is not about outcome. Culture is an ever-changing
process. One cannot get a firm grip of it just as one cannot get a good grasp of water. As
an educator, what I try to do is to teach about the process of culture—how we will never
obtain enough cultural content, how important it is to understand the cultural context
in which we are working, and how crucial it is to understand our role in the interactions
with the people with whom we want to work or the communities in which we seek to
intervene. I try to emphasize the need to appreciate our values, beliefs, and attitudes in
interaction with those of our clients, the need to appreciate issues of power and privilege,
the need to understand and appreciate our clients’ worldviews, and the need to work in
collaboration with our clients. I do not want to enter the intervention arena (whether in
family therapy or in implementing a community-based intervention) as an ‘‘expert’’ who
has the answers and knows what needs to be done. I am not a conquistador, intent on
supplanting my culture on others. I have a certain expertise that, when connected with
the knowledge and experience of my clients, can be helpful and meaningful to my clients.

Many professions assume client confidentiality. is foundational. If the therapist doesn’t have the
In fact, honoring confidentiality boundaries is often client’s confidence, trust is impaired. All the fancy
seen as part of the definition of what it means to be theories and techniques in the world won’t com-
a professional, in fields ranging from architecture to pensate for an absence of trust.
law to business consulting (R. Sommers-Flanagan,
Elliott, & Sommers-Flanagan, 1998). Practically speaking, you need to keep the
identity of your client confidential, you need to
Confidentiality is central to counseling and keep therapy notes and videos secure, and you can’t
psychotherapy. Mental health professionals create discuss the content of therapy sessions in ways that
safe environments where clients can disclose and identify your client. You also need to research the
work on their deepest and most vexing issues. Of limits of confidentiality legally and ethically in your
course, there are limits to confidentiality, and these state, province, or region, and in the context of the
limits should be clearly spelled out to the client clinic or lab in which you work. You should provide
before counseling begins. Within those limits, the a list of these limits to clients and go over them
counselor is expected to keep the contents of the verbally as well.
counseling relationship–even the fact that there is a
counseling relationship—absolutely confidential. Multiple Roles

Why is confidentiality so important? The the- Although it may be neither wise nor easy for
ories in this book vary in their claims regarding teachers to have their own sons and daughters
why things go wrong for people and what should in class, or for physicians to treat their own chil-
be done to fix them. They also vary in the degree dren, these activities are not considered unethical. In
to which they value the confidential setting and the contrast, because psychotherapy involves a relation-
relationship between client and practitioner. But ship with strict boundaries and expectations, mental
all theoretical perspectives involve an interpersonal health professionals generally avoid multiple roles,
enterprise in which the professional relationship

22 CHAPTER 1 PSYCHOTHERAPY AND COUNSELING ESSENTIALS

working only with people they don’t know from and psychotherapists. However, in the latest version
other contexts. Further, once you’re someone’s of the ACA guidelines there’s an acknowledgement
therapist, that’s the dominant relationship, and that sometimes multiple relationships can be
you typically shouldn’t allow other relationships beneficial to clients. In some ways this complicates
with the client to develop—including friendship, things. It’s always difficult to sort out your own
romance, or business (Barnett, Lazarus, Vasquez, best interests from the best interests of your clients.
Johnson, & Moorehead-Slaughter, 2007; Hartl Our best advice in this area is to seek supervision
et al., 2007). and consultation to make sure you manage multiple
relationships in sensitive and ethical ways.
Why is this ethical guideline in place? There are
several reasons: There are many examples of boundary breaks
that lead to inappropriate or unacceptable client-
• There’s always a power differential between therapist relationships. It’s especially hard to find
client and therapist. Counseling is sometimes a good therapist in film or on television. Year
called a one-way intimacy. The client is in need after year, we’ve come to dread watching films
and has sought help from a trained, ethical that include a therapist character. If you watch
professional. In offering help, the professional therapists on the screen, you’re likely to assume
implicitly or explicitly acknowledges expertise that all therapists are reckless, unprofessional risk-
or authority. Therefore, the professional holds takers who establish multiple roles and violate
power and could use this power (consciously or relationship boundaries. You’re also likely to assume
unconsciously) to inappropriately meet personal that therapists can’t resist their sexual impulses and
needs, especially if another type of relationship is therefore often end up in bed with their clients
formed. (or their client’s husband, wife, sibling, etc.). In
truth, therapist-client sexual relations occur in a
• Offering professional counseling to family mem- vast minority of therapy cases (see Putting it in
bers and friends imperils relationships at many Practice 1.3). Even so, therapist-client sex occurs
levels. Imagine the following scenario: A friend of far too often in the real world (Barnett et al., 2007;
yours wants to quit smoking. When you tell him Gottlieb & Younggren, 2009; Graham & Liddle,
hypnosis sometimes works for smoking, he asks if 2009; Hartl et al., 2007).
you’ll hypnotize him. You agree. Unfortunately,
you’re now in a no-win situation. If the hypnosis On a lighter note, as you begin learning about
works, then your relationship is forever changed. theories and techniques associated with mental
Maybe he’ll start asking you for more help, or health work, it will be natural for you to try out
maybe he’ll feel indebted to you. On the other minor therapy–like things with friends or family
hand, if it doesn’t work, then your relationship members. We certainly did, and we’re happy to
will be transformed in different ways. And worst report that we didn’t do any lasting damage (that
of all, while under hypnosis he may share intimate we’re aware of). But there are dangers. Engaging in
details of childhood abuse or other trauma that nondirective, active listening with someone who’s
would place you in an uncomfortable position. accustomed to having lively, interactive exchanges
with you will not go unnoticed (see Chapter 5). One
• If you have a social or familial relationship with of our friends told us that she was very relieved when
someone before or after you have a therapy we finally got over our ‘‘exclusively Carl Rogers’’
relationship, the client will know more about stage, and she could hear a direct, bossy opinion
you than when the relationship was strictly from us again.
therapeutic. This new knowledge can make both
clients and therapists uncomfortable. Overall, it’s best to restrain your impulse to prac-
tice therapy techniques on innocent bystanders—
Understanding these power and influence with the possible exception of trying out various
dynamics is important for professional counselors listening strategies.

ETHICAL ESSENTIALS 23

PUTTING IT IN PRACTICE 1.3

Client Harm: The Sexual Abuse of Therapy Clients

Believe it or not, in the 1960s and 1970s, some mental health professionals claimed
that sexual contact between therapist and client could be therapeutic (McCartney, 1966;
Shepard, 1972). Even worse, prior to the landmark legal case Roy v. Hartogs (Roy v.
Hartogs, 1975) the courts generally avoided psychotherapy-sex cases, in part because
of the belief that mentally unbalanced women were merely fantasizing sexual relations
with their esteemed psychotherapists. As late as 1978, the highly regarded author and
psychotherapist M. Scott Peck wrote, ‘‘Were I ever to have a case in which I concluded
after careful and judicious consideration that my patient’s spiritual growth would be
substantially furthered by our having sexual relations, I would proceed to have them’’
(Peck, 1978, p. 176). Despite the fact that Peck concludes his commentary on this issue
with the statement ‘‘I find it difficult to imagine that such a case could really exist’’
(Peck), he leaves open the possibility of sexual contact between therapist and client as
being beneficial.

In more recent years, hundreds of substantiated and successful legal proceedings
against therapists have led all mental health professional groups to establish crystal-
clear ethical guidelines prohibiting sexual contact between mental health practitioners
and clients (R. Sommers-Flanagan & Sommers-Flanagan, 2007; R. Sommers-Flanagan,
Sommers-Flanagan, & Welfel, 2009). For example, the American Counseling Association
(2005) ethical guidelines state that ‘‘Counselors do not have any type of sexual
intimacies with clients and do not counsel persons with whom they have had a
sexual relationship,’’ and prohibition of sexual relations is unequivocal in the American
Psychological Association (APA) ethical guidelines: ‘‘Sexual activity with a current or
former client is unethical’’ (APA, 2002).

Based on research, legal precedent, and anecdotal information, the bottom line is that
sexual contact between therapist and client is harmful. Unfortunately, over the years,
too many therapists have imagined or rationalized that their sexual touch was healing.
It wasn’t until the 1980s that Kenneth Pope began referring to sexual contact between
therapist and client as what it is: sexual abuse of clients (Pope, 1988).

Sexual contact between therapist and client constitutes sexual abuse for two main
reasons. First, the relationship between therapist and client is characterized by a power
imbalance. The therapist has more power and prestige and charges clients for services.
Second, research has shown that sexual contact between therapist and client causes
clients significant psychological and emotional damage (Gottlieb & Younggren, 2009;
Herlihy et al., 2006).

24 CHAPTER 1 PSYCHOTHERAPY AND COUNSELING ESSENTIALS

Despite new and strict ethical guidelines and evidence attesting to its harmfulness,
sexual abuse of clients continues, albeit at lower rates (Anderson & Handelsman, 2010).
However it’s difficult to know if the decrease is real or due to decreased reporting.

In conclusion, the following question is directly relevant to potential client harm:
If we as therapists are prone to exploiting and abusing clients sexually, might we also
be prone to exploiting clients in other ways? Of course, the answer to this question
is affirmative. There is always the potential for therapists to exploit clients. From our
perspective, exploiting clients is not only a disservice, but the royal road to client harm.

Doing No Harm: A Convergence of with roughly equivalent problem severity, Lam-
Ethics and Science bert (2007) reported ‘‘One therapist who saw more
than 160 patients had a 19% deterioration rate,
As described in Putting it in Practice 1.4, the whereas another saw more than 300 patients, with
Latin phrase, primum non nocere (‘‘first, do no less than 1% deteriorating’’ (p. 11). In this situa-
harm’’) is a primary ethical mandate for medical and tion, your choice of which therapist to see would be
mental health professionals. Unfortunately, despite obvious. Unfortunately, the therapists in Lambert’s
this mandate, research shows that psychotherapy study were anonymous and therefore no conclusions
can and does produce negative outcomes; esti- could be made regarding specific qualities associated
mates indicate that approximately 3% to 10% of with high success and failure rates. However, other
psychotherapy cases result in client deterioration research suggests that the following four therapist
(Boisvert & Faust, 2003; Harmon et al., 2007; M. J. factors or behaviors may be linked with negative
Lambert & M. J. Lambert, 2010; M. Lambert, outcomes:
2007). Negative effects may even climb as high
as 15% with substance abuse treatments (Ilgen & 1. Therapists who show little empathy or warmth in
Moos, 2005; Moos, 2005). their interactions with clients (Greenberg, Wat-
son, Elliot, & Bohart, 2001; Lafferty, Beutler, &
Client deterioration (aka negative outcome) is Crago, 1989).
usually linked to at least one of three sources: (1)
therapist factors; (2) client factors; or (3) specific 2. Therapists who employ overly confrontational
psychological interventions. or intrusive therapy approaches (Castonguay,
Boswell, Constantino, Goldfried, & Hill, 2010;
Therapist Factors Mohr, 1995).
If you experienced a serious knee injury you’d want
surgery from the best surgeon possible. This might 3. Therapists using inadequate or inaccurate assess-
inspire you to conduct a survey on local surgeon ment procedures (including culturally biased
quality. No doubt, asking a few individuals about assessments).
their surgery experiences would provide you with
information about surgeons to avoid and surgeons 4. Therapists whose personality or approach is a
to trust. This is because it’s perfectly natural for poor fit for a given client (Beutler, 2009).
some professionals to be more or less skilled or
talented, based on experience and other factors. The general tendency is for therapists to be
unaware of both their own negative behaviors and
As a consequence, it should be no surprise to negative treatment outcomes (Hannan et al., 2005).
find differential effectiveness exists among coun- One strong take-away message from this research
selors and psychotherapists. In a study of 71 ther- is that therapists need to scrutinize themselves
apists who provided counseling services for clients

ETHICAL ESSENTIALS 25

and make efforts to systematically evaluate their Table 1.2 Potentially Harmful Therapies
outcomes.
Critical incident stress debriefing.
Client Factors Scared Straight interventions.
As discussed previously, extratherapeutic factors Facilitated communication.
linked to individual clients likely account for the Attachment therapies (e.g., rebirthing).
greatest proportion of positive therapy outcomes Recovered-memory techniques.
(Lambert, 1992). Not surprisingly, it makes sense DID-oriented therapy.
that client characteristics (including a lack of Induction of ‘‘alter’’ personalities.
personal resources) might similarly contribute to Grief counseling for individuals with normal
negative treatment outcomes.
bereavement reactions.
Research supports several client factors as poten- Expressive-experiential therapies.
tially contributing to negative treatment outcomes: Boot-camp interventions for conduct disorder.
DARE (Drug Abuse Resistance Education) programs.
• Low client motivation (Clarkin, Levy, Lenzen-
weger, & Kernberg, 2004). Note: As several authors have noted, these are not harmful therapies,
but are potentially harmful therapies. Although some are more
• High client psychopathology (e.g., paranoia, clearly dangerous and sometimes lethal, others can be implemented
psychosis, antisocial behavior). appropriately (see Chapter 6). For detailed information about these
PHTs, see Lilienfeld, S. O. (2007). Psychological treatments that cause
• Limited client personal resources (e.g., limited harm. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 2, 53–70.
intelligence, insight, family, or social support).
(PHTs). In developing his PHT list, Lilienfeld
It’s often difficult to change or modify the ‘‘client (2007) relied on (a) at least one replicated RCT
or extratherapeutic factors’’ that clients bring into showing potential harm; (b) meta-analytic reviews
the therapy office. And it’s typically impossible to of multiple RCTs; and (c) research reports linking
know what strengths or limitations clients have sudden adverse events to the initiation of therapy
before they arrive for treatment. (p. 58).

The best solution to this conundrum is for prac- It should be noted that potential negative psy-
ticing therapists to modify their approaches based chotherapy effects are not minor. In many situations
on each individual client. In particular, Beutler’s charismatic therapists can have a powerfully positive
(2009) review shows that one of the most signif- or negative influence on clients. As Beutler (2009,
icant contributors to positive treatment outcomes p. 307) stated: ‘‘In some cases, such as rebirthing
is goodness of fit—both the fit between therapist therapy, the result has been death; in others, such
and client and the fit between technique and client. as reprogramming therapy, it has been the psycho-
Beutler stated: ‘‘The fit of the treatment to the par- logical destruction of lives and families.’’
ticular patient accounted for the strongest effects
on outcomes of all variable classes at one year after The serious negative PHT effects are a reminder
treatment’’ (p. 313). of psychotherapy potency. It’s also a reminder of
how important it is for ethical therapists to stay
Psychological Intervention Factors attuned not only to efficacy and effectiveness studies,
Lilienfeld (Lilienfeld, 2007; Lilienfeld, Lynn, & but also to do research that explores and identifies
Lohr, 2003) systematically reviewed psychotherapy treatment approaches that carry with them risks
outcomes literature and identified specific therapy of harming clients. Lilienfeld’s list of PHTs are
approaches that consistently produce unaccept- included in Table 1.2.
able negative effects. He refers to these ther-
apy approaches as potentially harmful therapies Going Forward and Getting Positive
After focusing on negative therapy outcomes,
negative therapist characteristics, and potentially
harmful therapies (PHTs), you might be feeling a
bit of negativity yourself. After all, even though

26 CHAPTER 1 PSYCHOTHERAPY AND COUNSELING ESSENTIALS

you’re studying this field because you want to help better or worse, psychological procedures tend
distressed individuals improve their lives, the fact to be implemented within the crucible of inter-
that some negative outcomes are inevitable may feel personal relationships. Consequently, the ethical
worrisome. Nevertheless, there’s reason for hope. therapist intentionally attends to the therapeutic
As an ethical clinician you can address this issue by relationship in ways consistent with the research
building a plan for minimizing negative outcomes base (e.g., by collaboratively setting goals and
and maximizing positive ones. obtaining consistent feedback from clients about
their perceptions of therapy process and content).
A Plan for Maximizing Positive Outcomes
There’s nothing like a good plan to help with goal 3. Avoid pitfalls and procedures associated with
attainment (see Chapter 9). Using the following negative outcomes: To address potential neg-
plan can help you minimize negative outcomes and ative outcomes, ethical therapists should: (a)
maximize positive ones. engage in activities to facilitate awareness includ-
ing, but not limited to individual supervision,
1. As appropriate, integrate empirically supported peer supervision, and consistent client feed-
treatments (ESTs) or evidence-based princi- back; (b) individualize therapy approaches to fit
ples (EBPs) into your therapy practice: There clients—rather than expecting all clients to ben-
are many ESTs, but to use them, you’ll need efit from a single approach; and (c) avoid using
advanced training, supervision, and it’s impos- high risk approaches by knowing (and avoiding)
sible to become proficient in the vast array of potentially harmful therapy (PHT) approaches
ESTs available. Therefore, you should learn a (Lilienfeld, 2007).
few that serve you well as you work with spe-
cific populations (e.g., if you want to work with 4. Use flexible, but systematic assessment ap-
individuals suffering from trauma, learning both proaches to tailor the treatment to the client and
Trauma-Focused Cognitive Behavioral Therapy the client’s problem: Much like good mechanics
[TF-CBT] and/or Eye Movement Desensitiza- assess the engine before initiating change, ethical
tion Reprocessing [EMDR] would be useful). therapists conduct some form of assessment
However, there will always be situations where prior to using specific therapy interventions. As
clients don’t perfectly fit a diagnostic category discussed in each chapter, the particular assess-
with a specific EST or you don’t think a manual- ment process you use will likely be more simple
ized approach is best, or the client will not want to or more complex, depending on your theoretical
work using certain approaches. In those cases you orientation. Nevertheless, empathic, culturally
should follow EBPs. For example, using Beut- sensitive, and ongoing collaborative assessment
ler’s systematic treatment selection model, you helps guide therapeutic processes (Finn, 2009).
can systematically select both general and specific
approaches that are a good fit for the client and 5. Use practice-based evidence to monitor your
consistent with empirical knowledge about how personal therapy outcomes: Practice-based evi-
to address particular problems (Beutler, 2011; dence is a term used to describe when clinicians
Beutler, Harwood, Bertoni, & Thomann, 2006; collect data, sometimes every session, pertain-
Beutler, Moleiro, & Talebi, 2002). ing to client symptoms and/or client satisfaction.
Duncan, Miller, and Sparks (2004) refer to this
2. Understand and capitalize on evidence-based (or process as client informed therapy. Regardless of
empirically supported) relationships and other the terminology, this is a process wherein clients
common factors: As the common factors advo- are empowered to directly share their treatment
cates have articulated so well, evidence exists for progress (or lack thereof) with their therapists.
much more than psychological interventions or This allows therapists to make modifications in
procedures (Norcross & Lambert, 2011). For their approach to facilitate more positive out-
comes (Lambert, 2010a; Lambert, 2010b).

ETHICAL ESSENTIALS 27

PUTTING IT IN PRACTICE 1.4

Beneficence: Helping Not Hurting

While writing this book we asked professional therapists and scholars to contribute
their insights on issues ranging from ethics, to theory, to technique, to multiculturalism.
We’ve sprinkled the comments of these wise colleagues throughout the text within these
Putting it in Practice features. In this installment, Dr. Alan C. Tjeltveit of the Department
of Psychology at Muhlenberg College shares his thoughts on the ethical principle of
beneficence:

‘‘I want to help people,’’ many people reply when asked, ‘‘Why do you want to go
into psychology or counseling?’’ That desire to benefit others is essential to being a good
psychotherapist or counselor. However, that desire to help may also be very dangerous.

Beneficence, the American Psychological Association (APA, 2002) ethics code notes,
means striving ‘‘to benefit those with whom [psychologists] work’’ (Principle A, p. 1062).
Similarly, Principle A1a of the American Counseling Association (ACA, 2005) ethics code
begins, ‘‘The primary responsibility of counselors is to respect the dignity and to promote
the welfare of clients’’ (p. 4). This fits with what ‘‘profession’’ has historically meant. The
‘‘defining characteristic’’ of the professional, Pope and Vasquez (2007) note, is ‘‘an ethic of
placing the client’s welfare foremost and not allowing professional judgment or services
to be drawn off course by one’s own needs’’ (p. 39).

So, how can wanting to help people be problematic, or even dangerous?
Suppose a 23-year-old client enters counseling to alleviate the distress he is
experiencing because of ongoing tension with his parents, with whom he is living.
Motivated to help the client, the counselor advises him to move out and become more
independent. The client complies, breaking off family ties, but then becomes very depressed
because he and his culture deeply value close family relationships. That intervention,
though well-intended, harmed that client, in whose culture family relationships are very
important and who was problematically subservient to authority figures.
In addition to a motivation to benefit others, excellent clinical work and optimally
ethical practice thus requires:

• Competence. We must possess or obtain relevant knowledge and skills so we can,
in fact, help people.

• Recognizing diverse ideas about what ‘‘benefit’’ means. Determining what will
benefit a particular client is often challenging. ‘‘Benefit’’—which is tied to the goals

28 CHAPTER 1 PSYCHOTHERAPY AND COUNSELING ESSENTIALS

of psychotherapy—has to do with ideas about the good life, obligations, and what
is right and wrong (Tjeltveit, 2006), about which deep cultural and philosophical
differences exist. One’s ideas about benefit may also be tied to client and therapist
religiousness, spirituality, religiousness and spirituality, or neither. It is crucial that
psychotherapists don’t assume that their ideas about a good life (‘‘benefit’’) are the
only or only correct ideas, in part so they don’t impose their views on clients.

• Openness to relevant empirical evidence. Our intuitions about what will help a
person may be mistaken. Obtaining relevant empirical evidence about what actually
benefits people in general is thus essential. Where relevant empirical evidence
about the benefits and risks of treatment options is not available, or pertinent
characteristics of a client indicate that an intervention that is generally effective
may not help (or even harm) a particular client, we need to make the best possible
judgment. Taking client views and choices very seriously and substantial humility
are, however, essential, so we exhibit the respect for clients addressed in the APA
(2002) and ACA (2005) ethics codes.

• Cultural sensitivity. Insensitivity and imposing ideas about the good life and well-
being (Christopher, 1999) that are foreign to client may result in harm to them,
despite our wanting to help them. Sensitivity benefits clients and avoids harming
them.

• Avoiding harm. The ethical principle of beneficence is often yoked with the ethical
principle of nonmaleficence or harmavoidance (don’t harm clients). Expressed in
medical ethics as Primum non nocere, or ‘‘First, do no harm’’ (Beauchamp &
Childress, 2001, p. 113), its relevance to psychotherapy and counseling is this: Any
intervention that has the power to benefit also has the power to harm. Mental
health professionals need to be aware of the potential negative consequences of
the services they provide, and avoid such harm. The goal, of course, is to benefit
clients in ways that don’t harm them. How to do so, of course, is one of the great
challenges of clinical practice.

• Self-care. Professionals are not obligated to harm or impoverish themselves in order
to benefit others. Neglecting oneself is, however, an occupational hazard of the
mental health professions. Care for others thus needs to be matched with self-care.
We need to be able to sustain ourselves in order to continue to benefit others.
Psychotherapists who don’t do so get burned out, provide substandard care, develop
their own psychological problems, and/or act unethically. A variety of self-care
strategies exist, with each professional needing to develop a repertoire that works,
including interpersonal support, the right balance of work and relaxation, and
so forth.

Drawing on ethical and psychological sources that sustain a commitment to help
others. Entering a field with a desire to help others is relatively easy. Far more difficult
is identifying rich, sustaining sources that enable us to continue to be motivated to help
others across the span of a career. Doing so is difficult, but mental health professionals
face few more crucial tasks.

EMERGENCE OF PERSONAL THEORY 29

Those factors all help structure, channel, and empower professionals’ commitment
to beneficence, to helping others. Technical knowledge and training is not enough if a
professional is not committed to helping those with whom he or she works.

When we draw on sustaining psychological, social, and ethical resources, avoid
harming clients, exhibit humility about what we know, attend to relevant empirical
evidence, respect client views on the meaning of benefit, and exhibit cultural sensitivity,
then we can best benefit our clients. And that is what the mental health professions are,
at core, all about.

Additional Ethical Issues human functioning and change. In some ways, we
want you to develop a 13th theory.
There are, of course, many more ethical issues
to grapple with as you develop professionally. Some of you reading this book may already
Most authors in this area adamantly point out have considerable knowledge and experience about
that ethics codes are just a rudimentary attempt to counseling and psychotherapy theories. You may
hold practitioners to high standards of care (Ander- already have your favorite theory. However, even
son & Handelsman, 2010; R. Sommers-Flanagan if you have very little knowledge and experience,
& Sommers-Flanagan, 2007). Unfortunately, ethics you undoubtedly have at least some theoretical or
codes have become increasingly legal in orientation, philosophical perspectives about what helps people
and sometimes serve protective rather than proac- change. Therefore, before you explore the theories
tive functions. Being an ethical practitioner requires put forth by the experts, we encourage you to take
ongoing attention to the heart of the profession. It at least a brief look at your own implicit or natural
will require trusted colleagues, a good problem- psychological theories about people.
solving model, ongoing reading and education, and
a willingness to ask painfully hard questions. Your First Client and Your First Theory

EMERGENCE OF PERSONAL Pretend this is the first day of your career as a mental
THEORY health professional. You have all the amenities: a
tastefully decorated office, two comfortable chairs,
If you want to become an excellent mental health a graduate degree, and a client.
professional, then it makes sense to closely study
the thinking of some of the greatest minds and You also have everything that any scarecrow,
models in the field. This text covers 12 of the most tin man, or lion might yearn for: a brain full of
comprehensive and practical theories in existence. knowledge about how to provide therapy, a heart
We hope you absorb each theory as thoroughly as full of compassion for a diverse range of clients,
possible and try to experience it from the inside and courage for facing the challenge of providing
out. As you proceed through each chapter, suspend therapy services. But do you have what it takes to
doubt, and try thinking like a practitioner from each help a fellow human being climb out of the pit of
theoretical orientation. despair? Do you have the judgment to apply your
knowledge in an effective way?
Another goal we have is for you to discover which
theory or theories fit best for you. We also want You walk to the waiting room. She’s there. She’s
you to do the thinking and exploration necessary to your first client ever. You greet her. The two of you
understand and further develop your own theory of walk back to the office.

In the first 20 minutes of your interview, you
learn quite a lot about your client: She’s a 21-year-
old college student experiencing apathy, insomnia,

30 CHAPTER 1 PSYCHOTHERAPY AND COUNSELING ESSENTIALS

no romantic interest, carbohydrate cravings, an OUR BIASES
absence of hobbies, and extremely poor grades.
She reports she isn’t using drugs or alcohol. Based Good qualitative researchers try to acknowledge
on this information, you decide to classify her as their personal biases when reporting their research
depressed and proceed with treatment. But the results. We think the same should be true for
question is: How do you proceed? Do you focus textbook authors. As a consequence, we provide
on her automatic thoughts and deep beliefs about you with a brief overview of some of our main
herself and how they might be contributing to her biases.
depressive symptoms? Do you help her get a tutor in
hope that improving her grades might improve her Our Theoretical Roots
overall condition? Do you recommend she begin
an exercise routine? Do you explore her history At this point, we’ve been eclectic so long it seems we
on the assumption that some childhood trauma were both born that way. However, because telling
needs to be understood and worked through? Do you that we’re eclectic doesn’t tell you much about
you teach her about mindfulness principles and our deeper preferences, tendencies, and biases, we
have her practice meditation? Do you have her decided to look deeper and explore our biases.
role play and rehearse possible solutions to her
problems? Do you focus on listening, based on the In a sense, it’s true that we were born and
assumption that if you provide her a positive therapy raised eclectic. Our clinical psychology faculty at the
environment she will gain insight into herself and University of Montana in the 1980s included a psy-
move toward greater psychological health? Do choanalytic/hypnoanalytic professor, a cognitively
you help her recast herself and her life into a oriented professor, a person-centered professor, and
story with a positive ending to help her construct two behaviorists. John went to a strictly psychoan-
a more adaptive identity? Do you ask her to alytic predoctoral internship at a medical center
alternate sitting in different chairs—speaking from in New York in 1985, and Rita went to a family
different perspectives to explore her here and now systems child and family clinic in Oregon in 1988.
feelings of success and failure? (See Table 1.3 for a After licensure, John spent time teaching, working
brief review of theoretical perspectives included in as a health psychologist in an industrial setting,
this book). in private practice, and as director of a nonprofit
organization dedicated to parent education. Rita
Obviously, you have many choices for how has consulted with two different Veteran’s Centers,
to proceed with therapy, depending upon your established a part-time private practice, and taught
theoretical orientation. Here’s our advice: Don’t get the past 21 years as a professor of counselor educa-
stuck too soon with a single theoretical orientation. tion. During this time period, we lived in Montana,
It’s unlikely that all humans will respond to a single New York, Washington, Oregon, Belize, Central
approach. As suggested in Putting it in Practice America, and Northampton, England.
1.5, experiment and reflect before choosing your
preferred theory. John’s favorite theoretical figures are Carl
Rogers, Alfred Adler, and Irvin Yalom. Rita’s are
QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION Jean Baker Miller and the feminists, Alfred Adler,
and Viktor Frankl. John loves to quote Freud and
At first glance, which theoretical approaches do Rita loves to dethrone Freud, considering him over-
you find most appealing? Are you more inclined rated and antithetical to her feminist beliefs.
toward the scientific security of behaviorism or more
attracted to the relationship emphasis of person- Our generalist background makes us slow to
centered therapy? jump on contemporary bandwagons. For example,
we’re especially cautious about new theories or
techniques that claim remarkable recovery rates for
psychologically distressed individuals. Hopefully,