Educational Research Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating

628 Glossary

secondary source literature summarizes primary sources, Because the split half test relies on information from only half
and it does not represent material published by the original of the test, a modification in this procedure is to use this for-
researchers or the creators of the idea. mula to estimate full-length test reliability.

selection is a potential threat to internal validity in an exper- Spearman rho (rs) is the correlation statistic used for non-
iment in which “people factors” may introduce threats that linear data when the data are measured on ordinal scales
influence the outcome, such as selecting individuals who are (rank-ordered scales).
brighter, more receptive to a treatment, or more familiar with a
treatment. standard deviation (SD) is the square root of the variance.

selective coding is the process in which the grounded theo- standard scores are calculated scores that enable a researcher
rist writes a theory based on the interrelationship of the cate- to compare scores from different scales.
gories in the axial coding model.
statement of the problem is a section in a research report
semi-closed-ended questions in a survey consist of questions that contains the topic of the study, the research problem
that include both closed-ended and open-ended questions. within this topic, a justification for the problem based on past
research and practice, deficiencies or shortcomings of past
sequence in mixed methods designs means that the researcher research or practical knowledge, and the importance of
collects data using concurrent or sequential procedures. addressing the problem for diverse audiences.

setting in narrative research may be friends, family, work- statistical indexes report trends that are useful for research.
place, home, social organization, or school—the place in which
a story physically occurs. statistical significance is when the observed values (e.g.,
before and after a treatment in an experiment, the difference
shared pattern in ethnography is a common social interac- between mean scores for two or more groups or the relation-
tion that stabilizes, as tacit, rules and expectations of the group ship between two variables) provide a statistical value (p value)
(Spindler & Spindler, 1992). that exceeds the predetermined alpha level set by the researcher.

sharing reports in action research means that the inquirer statistics are the numbers derived from formulas to measure
shares the action research study locally with individuals who aspects of a set of data.
can promote change or enact plans within their classroom or
building. Action researchers share results with teachers, the story in narrative research is a first-person oral telling or
building principal, school district personnel, and parent associa- retelling of events related to the personal or social experiences
tions (e.g., Hughes, 1999). of an individual. Often these stories have a beginning, middle,
and an end.
significance (or alpha) level is a probability level that
reflects the maximum risk you are willing to take that any stratified sampling is a quantitative sampling procedure in
observed differences are due to chance. It is called the alpha which researchers stratify the population on some specific
level and is typically set at .01 (1 out of 100 times the sample characteristic (e.g., gender) and then sample, using simple
statistic fall will be due to chance) or .05 (5 out of 100 times it random sampling, from each stratum of the population.
will be due to chance).
study-by-study review of the literature is a detailed sum-
simple random sampling is a quantitative sampling proce- mary of each study grouped under a broad theme.
dure in which the researcher selects participants (or units,
such as schools) for the sample so that any sample of size N style manuals provide a structure for citing references, labe-
has an equal probability of being selected from the popula- ling headings, and constructing tables and figures for a schol-
tion. The intent of simple random sampling is to choose units arly research report.
to be sampled that will be representative of the population.
subquestions in qualitative research refine the central ques-
single-item scores are individual scores to each question for tion into subtopics or indicate the processes to be used in
each participant in your study. research. These subquestions contain the same elements as in
central questions (e.g., they are open ended, emerging, neutral
single-subject research (also called N = 1 research, behavior in language, and few in number), but they provide greater spe-
analysis, or within-subjects research) involves the study of sin- cificity to the questions in the study. They are of two types:
gle individuals, their observation over a baseline period, and issue and procedural subquestions.
the administration of an intervention. This is followed by
another observation after the intervention to determine if the summaries provide overviews of the literature and research
treatment affects the outcome. on timely issues in education.

skewed distribution is a distribution of scores that tends to summed scores are scores of an individual added over sev-
pile up toward one end of the scale and taper off slowly at the eral questions that measure the same variable.
other end (Gravetter & Wallnau, 2007).
survey research designs are procedures in quantitative
snowball sampling is a sampling procedure in which the research in which investigators administer a survey or ques-
researcher asks participants to identify other participants to tionnaire to a sample or to the entire population of people to
become members of the sample. describe the attitudes, opinions, behaviors, or characteristics of
the population.
Spearman–Brown formula is a formula for calculating the
reliability of scores using all questions on an instrument. systematic design in grounded theory emphasizes the use
of data analysis steps of open, axial, and selective coding, and

Glossary 629

the development of a logic paradigm or a visual picture of the theory in quantitative research explains and predicts the
theory generated. relationship between independent and dependent variables.
They are called the outcome, effect, criterion, or consequence
systematic sampling is a quantitative sampling procedure in variables.
which the researcher chooses every “nth” individual or site in
the population until the desired sample size is achieved. threats to external validity are problems that threaten our
ability to draw correct inferences from the sample data to other
tables are summaries of quantitative data organized into persons, settings, treatment variables, and measures (Shadish,
rows and columns. Cook, & Campbell, 2002).

target population (sometimes called the sampling frame) is threats to internal validity are problems in drawing correct
a group of individuals with some common defining character- inferences about whether the covariation (i.e., the variation in
istic that the researcher can identify with a list or set of names. one variable contributes to the variation in the other) between
the presumed treatment variable and the outcome reflect a
teachers’ stories are narrative research, personal accounts causal relationship (Shadish, Cook, & Campbell, 2002).
by teachers of their own classroom experiences.
threats to validity refer to specific reasons for why we can
telephone interview surveys are interviews in which the be wrong when we make an inference in an experiment
researcher records comments by participants to questions on because of covariance, causation constructs, or whether the
instruments over the telephone. causal relationship holds over variations in persons, setting,
treatments, and outcomes (Shadish, Cook, & Campbell, 2002).
telephone interviews are used to gather data using the tele-
phone and asking a small number of general questions. time series is an experimental design consisting of studying
one group, over time, with multiple pretest and posttest meas-
testing is a potential threat to validity in an experiment when ures or observations made by the researcher.
participants become familiar with the outcome measures and
remember responses for later testing. title summarizes the major idea of the paper in a concise
and clear manner. It should be no longer than 12 words in
test–retest reliability examines the extent to which scores length and should avoid superfluous words such as “a study
from one sample are stable over time from one test adminis- of” or “an investigation of.”
tration to another.
transcription is the process of converting audiotape record-
text segments are sentences or paragraphs that all relate to a ings or fieldnotes into text data.
single code in qualitative research.
transformative mixed methods design uses one of the four
thematic data analysis in ethnography consists of distilling designs (convergence, explanatory, exploratory, or embedded),
how things work and naming the essential features in these in but encases the design within a transformative framework
the cultural setting. or lens.

thematic review of the literature includes a theme and sup- treatment variable is an independent variable that the
porting literature found by the researcher to document the researcher manipulates to determine the effect it will have on
theme. an outcome. It is always a categorically scored variable meas-
uring two or more groups or levels.
themes in qualitative research are similar codes aggregated
together to form a major idea in the database. trend studies are longitudinal survey designs that involve
identifying a population and examining changes within that
theoretical lens in narrative research is a guiding perspec- population over time.
tive or ideology that provides a structure for advocating for
groups or individuals and writing the report. triangulation is the process of corroborating evidence from
different individuals (e.g., a principal and a student), types of
theoretical propositions in grounded theory research are data (e.g., observational fieldnotes and interviews), or meth-
statements indicating the relationship among categories, such ods of data collection (e.g., documents and interviews) in
as in the systematic approach to axial coding that includes descriptions and themes in qualitative research.
causal conditions, the core category or phenomenon, the con-
text, intervening conditions, strategies, and consequences. true experiments are experimental situations in which the
researcher randomly assigns participants to different condi-
theoretical sampling in grounded theory means that the tions (or levels) of the experimental variable.
researcher chooses forms of data collection that will yield text
and images useful in generating a theory. two-tailed tests of significance are when the critical region
for rejection of the null hypothesis is divided into two areas at
theory or concept sampling is a purposeful sampling strat- the ends of the sampling distribution (Vogt, 2005).
egy in which individuals or sites are sampled because they can
help the researcher generate or discover a theory or specific type I error occurs when the null hypothesis is rejected by
concept within the theory. the researcher when it is actually true. The probability of this
error rate is called “alpha.”
theory in grounded theory research is an abstract explana-
tion or understanding of a process about a substantive topic type II error occurs when the researcher fails to reject the
“grounded” in the data. The theory is “middle-range” (Charmaz, null hypothesis when an effect actually occurs in the popula-
2000), drawn from multiple individuals or data sources that tion. The probability of this error rate is called “beta.”
provide an explanation for a substantive topic.

630 Glossary

typical sampling is a form of purposeful sampling in which variable measured in categories are variables measured by
the researcher studies a person or site that is “typical” to those the researcher as a small number of groups or categories.
unfamiliar with the situation.
variable measured as continuous are variables measured by
uncorrelated relationship of scores means that the scores in the researcher on a point along a continuum of scores, from
the distribution are independent of each other. low to high.

unit of analysis refers to the unit (e.g., individual, family, variance means that scores will assume different values
school, school district) the researcher uses to gather the data. depending on the type of variable being measured.

URL is used to map digital information on the Internet. A visualization in mixed methods research consists of a figure
URL contains several components: a protocol, a host name, or drawing displaying the procedures of a study.
the path to the document, and the specific file name.
wave analysis is a survey research procedure to check for
validating findings in qualitative research means that the response bias in which investigators group returns by intervals
researcher determines the accuracy or credibility of the findings (e.g., by week) and check to see if the answers to a few select
through strategies such as member checking or triangulation. questions change from the first week to the final week in a
study.
validity is the development of sound evidence to demon-
strate that the intended test interpretation (of the concept or within-group experimental design is an experiment design
construct that the test is assumed to measure) matches the in which the researcher studies only one group of individuals,
proposed purpose of the test. This evidence is based on test such as time series or repeated measure designs.
content, responses processes, internal structure, relations to
other variables, and the consequences of testing. within-individual design is an experimental design in which
the researcher studies single individuals, such as single-subject
values are scores assigned to response options for questions. designs.

variable is a characteristic or attribute of an individual or an within-text references are references cited in a brief format
organization that (a) can be measured or observed by the within the body of the text to provide credit to authors.
researcher and that (b) varies among individuals or organiza-
tions studied. z scores have a mean of 0 and a standard deviation of 1 and
enable the researcher to compare scores from one instrument
to scores from another instrument.

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Author Index

Abel, M., 378 Brickhouse, N., 210 Csikszentmihalyi, M., 165
Abelson, R. P., 183 Bring, J., 351 Cummings, G., 188
Abresch, C., 94 Brown, B. L., 24, 353
Adler, S., 469, 473 Brown, M. L., 94, 252, 253, 423, 426, 427, 437, Dahmus, S., 154, 168
Agar, M. H., 243 Davis, J. H., 503
Airasian, P., 221, 222 439 Day, M., 258, 462, 473
Alkin, M. C., 68, 84, 85 Brown, S. P., 102, 103 Degh, L., 503
Allen, L., 577 Brydon-Miller, M., 588 De Landsheere, G, 339, 376
Anderson, E. S., 338, 341 Buck, G., 546 Denzin, N. K., 85, 274, 462, 463, 464, 466, 467,
Angell, M. E., 12, 16, 17, 18, 19, 28, 42–56, 63, Budnitz, J., 248
474, 482, 504, 588
67, 75, 77, 80, 81, 104, 136, 232, 260, Calhoun, E. F., 577 Deslandes, R., 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 19, 28, 29–41,
263, 288 Campbell, D. T., 295, 303, 304, 306, 321, 339
Angrosino, M. V., 504 Campbell, W. G., 98 63, 66, 75, 77, 80, 104, 111, 113, 122,
Apple, M., 467 Capper, C. A., 467, 468 136, 172, 199, 288
Arcodia, C., 577 Caracelli, V. J., 535, 537, 538, 551 Dey, E. L., 379
Asher, J. W., 338 Carruth, G., 502 Dey, I., 238
Asmussen, K. J., 225, 226, 248, 249, 250, 251, Carspecken, P. F., 467, 482 Dillman, D. A., 382
252, 472, 477, 480 Carter, K., 508 Dods, R. F., 577
Asquith, P., 351, 353 Casey, K., 503 Dougherty, K. C., 148
Atkinson, P., 211, 214 Caughlin, B., 94 Dukacz, A. S., 5, 6
Ceprano, M. A., 577
Babbie, E., 145, 156, 377, 379, 391 Charmaz, K., 423, 424, 429, 430, 432, 433, 434, Egan, K., 502
Babchuk, W. A., 423, 428, 439 Ehrlich, E., 502
Baker, R. W., 153 436, 438, 439, 442 Elbaz-Luwisch, F., 512
Ballou, S. V., 98 Christensen, C., 577 Epper, R. M., 257
Barrett, T. M., 155 Clandinin, D. J., 502, 503, 504, 507, 508, 509, Errante, A., 502
Barzun, J., 83 Evans, S. A., 155
Batsche, C., 378, 387 511, 512, 513, 514, 515
Bauermeister, M. L., 469 Clark, F., 157, 158 Fabiano, E., 86
Bausell, R. B., 323, 324, 325 Clifford, J., 463 Fassinger, R. E., 423
Bazeley, P., 538, 550 Cocklin, B., 434, 435 Fetterman, D. M., 463, 473, 476
Becker, P. H., 430 Cohen, J., 147 Finch, S., 188
Beijaard, D., 544 Cohen, L., 340, 347 Finders, M. J., 474
Benson, J., 157, 158 Collins, W. A., 352, 353 Fink, A., 147, 606
Beres, M., 279 Comer, C. B., 283 Fisher, R. A., 295, 339
Bernardin, H. J., 154, 168 Connelly, F. M., 5, 6, 502, 503, 504, 505, 508, Flexner, S. B., 502
Bernardin, K., 154, 168 Fowler, F. J., 147, 376, 402, 405, 607
Bertrand, R., 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 19, 28, 29–41, 509, 511, 512, 514, 515 Fraenkel, J. R., 340
Cook, K., 546 Freed, D. C., 240
63, 66, 75, 77, 80, 104, 111, 113, 122, Cook, T. D., 295, 303, 304, 306, 321, 537 Freshwater, D., 539
136, 172, 199, 288 Cooley, J. C., 168 Frontman, K. C., 440
Bickman, L., 85 Cooper, H. M., 102
Biklen, S. K., 227, 244, 376, 462, 463 Cooper, J. O., 316 Gall, J. P., 114, 182, 338
Blaikie, N., 167 Corbin, J., 424, 426, 428, 430, 431, 435, 437, Gall, M. D., 114, 182, 338
Blandy, S. G., 83 Gamble, C., 22, 321
Blasé, J. J., 462 438, 442, 443, 515 Garan, E. M., 577
Bluestein, D. L., 552 Cortazzi, M., 503, 508 Garland, M., 468, 469
Bodner, G. M., 210 Courtney, S., 423 Gay, L. R., 221, 222
Bogdan, R. C., 227, 244, 376, 462, 463 Cowles, M., 338, 339 George, D., 181, 182, 196
Borg, W. R., 114, 182, 338 Coy, K. C., 352, 353 Gettinger, M., 302, 303
Boruch, R. F., 296 Crazy Bull, C., 279 Ginsberg, P. E., 279
Brabeck, K. M., 279 Creswell, J. W., 7, 94, 132, 134, 213, 219, 220, Glaser, B. G., 423, 424, 428, 429, 434, 435,
Brabeck, M. M., 279
Brant-Castellano, M., 279 225, 226, 241, 242, 243, 244, 248, 249, 250, 436, 443
251, 252, 254, 255, 259, 269, 285, 400, 423, Glesne, C., 82, 230
426, 427, 433, 439, 441, 465, 471, 472, 475,
477, 480, 508, 509, 510, 515, 535, 536, 538, 639
539, 540, 542, 546, 547, 557, 610

640 AUTHOR INDEX

Goldberg, N., 272 Ketner, C. S., 66, 338 Montenegro, M. C., 378, 387
Goodman, J., 469, 473 Keyes, M. W., 467, 468 Morrison, T. G., 377
Graff, H. G., 83 Kiger, D. M., 379 Morrow, S. L., 428, 440
Graham, W. F., 537 Kline, R. B., 339, 350 Morse, J. M., 538, 553
Gravetter, F. J., 183, 189, 190, 347, 611 Knapp, S., 425 Muffo, J. A., 271
Greene, J. C., 535, 537, 538, 539, 542, 546, Kos, R., 255, 466 Murphy, K. R., 147, 608
Kosekoff, J., 147, 606 Murphy, L. L., 158, 168
550, 551 Kramer, J. J., 168 Murphy, M. S., 513
Grosset, D., 317 Krueger, R. A., 384 Myors, B., 147, 608
Guba, E. G., 257, 259 Kunkel, M. A., 440
Nastasi, B. K., 547
Habermas, J., 582 LaFrance, J., 279 Neff, J. M., 423
Hall, B. W., 283 Larson, B. W., 429 Nelson, L. W., 257, 470
Halpern, E. S., 260 Laursen, B., 352, 353 Nesbary, D. K., 377
Hammersley, M., 211, 214 Lawrence-Lightfoot, S., 503 Neuman, S. G., 316
Hanley-Maxwell, C., 467, 468 Leavy, P., 23 Neuman, W. L., 296, 324, 376, 377, 387, 405
Harris, R. L., 553 LeCompte, M. D., 85, 462, 463, 464, 465, 469, Newkirk, T., 588
Harrison, A., 545, 553 Newman, I., 156
Harry, B., 258, 462, 473 470, 471, 476, 477 Nordenghaug, E., 353
Hatch, J. A., 231 Lee, Y. J., 542, 550, 551
Haviland, W. A., 468 Leedy, P. D., 7, 178 O’Brien, N. P., 86
Hedges, D., 24, 353 Lentz, F. E., 380 Olander, L. S., 254, 255, 471, 475
Hernandez, M., 378, 387 Lesser, L. M., 353 Olesen, V. L., 439
Heron, T. E., 316 LeTendre, G. K., 469 Ollerenshaw, J. A., 504, 507, 509, 510, 511, 515
Hertzog, M., 210, 432 Libutti, P. O., 83 Ormrod, J. E., 7, 178
Hesse-Bieber, S. N., 23 Lieblich, A., 503, 508, 512 Orona, C. J., 439
Heward, W. L., 316 Lincoln, Y. S., 24, 85, 232, 257, 259, 285
Hitchcock, J., 547 Lindsay, J. J., 102 Pachnowski, L. M., 156
Holmes, H. M., 553 Linn, S. G., 423 Padula, M. A., 466, 470
Hood, J. C., 424 Lipsey, M. W., 147, 324, 608, 609 Pajak, E. F., 462
Houtz, L., 552 Lisle, J., 323 Parham, T. A., 102, 103
Hovater, S. E., 95, 96, 97 Locke, L. F., 268 Parnell, M. K., 66, 338
Howard, M. C., 468 Lofland, J., 225 Patton, M. Q., 206, 208, 230, 231, 232
Howe, K. R., 148 Lofland, L. H., 225 Pearson, K., 339
Huber, J., 257, 505, 513, 514 Pedhazur, E. J., 339
Huberman, A. M., 206, 238, 253, 535, 537 Madison, D. S., 464, 467, 474, 482 Perrine, R. M., 323
Huberty, C. J., 295 Maggio, R., 277 Persichitte, K. A., 156
Hubley, A. M., 159 Maietta, R. C., 241, 242 Peshkin, A., 82, 230
Hughes, L., 581, 582, 587 Mallery, P., 181, 182, 196 Phillips, S. D., 552
Hurtado, S., 379 Malloy, H. L., 473 Plake, B. S., 158, 168
Manion, L., 340, 347 Plano Clark, V. L., 219, 535, 536, 538, 539, 540,
Impara, J. C., 158, 163, 168 Mann, B., 94
Irvine, J. J., 102 Marcus, G. E., 463 542, 546, 547, 557, 610
Ivankova, N. V., 543 Mark, M. M., 22, 304, 321 Poling, A., 317
Marshall, C., 269 Preissle, J., 85, 462, 463, 464, 469, 476
Jaccard, J., 167 Mastera, G., 435 Punch, K. F., 340
Jacobs, J. S., 377 McAllister, G., 102
Jamieson, S., 167 McCarthey, S. J., 502, 508 Quigley, C., 546
Jeffers, L., 585 McCaslin, M. L., 441 Quinlan, F., 5, 6
Jeffries, R. B., 69 McCormick, S., 316 Quist, F., 258, 462, 473
Jensen, K., 220 McEwan, H., 502
Jha, L. R., 423 McKewon, R. E., 377 Rallis, S. E., 537
Jick, T. D., 536 McMurray, P., 473 Rathunde, K., 165
Jobin-David, K., 552 McTaggart, R., 578, 582, 583 Reichardt, C. S., 304, 537
Johnson, J. A., 379 Mead, M., 463 Reid, R., 210, 432
Jones, J., 245, 246 Meijer, P. C., 544 Rhoads, R. A., 210, 462, 468, 469, 471
Josselson, R., 503 Merriam, S. B., 465 Richardson, L., 274, 275, 285
Jurczyk, J. P., 156 Mertens, D. M., 279, 537, 553 Richie, B. S., 423
Mertler, C. A., 156 Riessman, C. K., 502, 503
Kaler, A., 279 Messick, S., 159 Riessman,C. K., 512
Keeves, J. P., 85 Metzner, B., 93 Robrecht, L. C., 430
Keith, T. Z., 338, 341 Meyer, R. C., 503 Rog, D. J., 85
Kellogg, J. M., 316 Miles, M. B., 206, 238, 253, 535, 537 Rosenau, P. M., 85
Kemmis, S., 577, 578, 582, 583, 586, 589, 591 Miller, D. L., 239, 254, 255, 259, 274, 466, 470, Rossi, R. J., 342
Keppel, G., 302 Rossman, G. B., 269, 537
Kerlinger, F. N., 7 471, 475 Royal, M. A., 342
Kessing, F., 468 Millroy, W. L., 85 Rudner, L. M., 159
Kester, V. M., 69 Mills, G. E., 213, 221, 222, 577, 578, 579, 580, Ryen, A., 474

581, 587, 588, 589, 590, 591

AUTHOR INDEX 641

Sagor, R., 590 Staver, J. R., 66 Vockell, E. L., 338
Salant, P., 382 Stick, S. L., 543 Vogt, W. P., 85, 114, 145, 184, 187, 189,
Sarkar, S., 547 Stoner, J. B., 12, 16, 17, 18, 19, 28, 42–56, 63,
Schensul, J. J., 465, 470, 471, 476 278, 311
Schmuck, R. A., 578, 580, 586, 589 67, 75, 77, 80, 81, 104, 136, 232, 260,
Schwandt, T. A., 85, 260, 278, 471 263, 288 Wallen, N. E., 340
Seagren, A. T., 7, 400 Strauss, A. L., 423, 424, 426, 428, 430, 431, 436, Wallnau, L. B., 183, 189, 190, 347, 611
Sewell, J., 378 437, 438, 442, 443 Wan, C. K., 167
Shadish, W. R., 295, 303, 304, 321 Stringer, E. T., 578, 582, 583, 584, 585, 586, Wang, J., 66
Shapiro, E. S., 380 587, 593 Ward, A. W., 283
Shelden, D. L., 12, 16, 17, 18, 19, 28, 42–56, 63, Swinyard, W. R., 377 Ward, P., 154, 155
Watters, J. J., 577
67, 75, 77, 80, 81, 104, 136, 232, 260, Tashakkori, A., 85, 220, 536, 537, 538, 539, 551 Webb, E. J., 224
263, 288 Teddlie, C., 85, 536, 537, 538, 539, 551 Whalen, S., 165
Sieber, S., 536 Tesch, R., 238, 243, 244, 462, 463, 464, 469, 476 Wheeler, D. W., 7, 400
Sills, S. J., 377 Tharp, D. D., 156 Whelan, K., 257, 505
Silverman, S. J., 268 Theberge, N., 480 Wilkinson, L., 143, 188, 197
Siryk, B., 153 Thomas, J., 482 Wilkinson, M., 589, 591
Slade, C., 98 Thomas, W. I., 463 Wilson, B. L., 537
Smetana, J. G., 351, 353 Thomason, N., 188 Wilson, H. W., 86
Smith, K. E., 66, 338 Thorndike, R. M., 159, 162, 341 Wolcott, H. F., 258, 462, 463, 464, 468, 469,
Smith, M. L., 428, 440 Tierney, W. G., 258
Snyder, M., 210, 432 Tucker, D. L., 323 470, 471, 472, 476
Solomon, D. J., 156 Tuckman, B. W., 114, 117, 167, 194, 283, Wright, D. B., 183, 194
Song, C., 377
Spindler, G., 470 284, 304 Yin, R. K., 465
Spindler, L., 470 Turabian, K. L., 98 Yonker, R., 102, 103
Spirduso, W. W., 268 Tuval-Mashiach, R., 503, 508, 512 Young, S., 156
Spradley, J. P., 212, 214, 253, 468, 475, 476
Stake, R. E., 134, 465, 479, 480 Valois, R. F., 377 Zeichner, K., 4, 5
Stanley, J. C., 295, 304, 339 VanHorn-Grassmeyer, K., 392, 393, 394 Zilber, T., 503, 508, 512
Stanulis, R. N., 585 Van Maanen, J., 464 Ziller, R. C., 224
Starr, M., 240 Verloop, N., 544 Znaniecki, F., 463
Viadero, D., 7 Zumbo, B. D., 159

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Subject Index

A/B/A withdrawal design, 317 Audiovisual materials, 224–25 Codes
A/B design, 317–18 field issues in, 230 building description and themes with,
Abstracts 247–52, 261–62
Autobiography, 504 defined, 244
defined, 93 Autoethnography, 274 in vivo, 244, 431
elements of, 93, 94 Axial coding, 426
samples, 94, 95 Coding, 243, 244
Abstract series, 86 Bar charts, 197 axial, 426
Academic libraries, 83, 86 Behavioral observations, 154 categories in grounded theory, 425, 427
Access, for studies, 61 Behaviors, 470 data, 441–42
Action plan, 582, 587, 591 Beliefs, 470 open, 424, 428
Action research designs, 22, 576–601 Beta weight, 351 selective, 426, 442
action plan in, 587 Between-group designs, 309–13 for themes, 511
characteristics of, 586–88, 592 transcript, 245–47
collaboration, 586–87 factorial, 311–13 in vivo codes, 244
defined, 577, 592 quasi-experiments, 309–13
development of, 577–79, 592 true experiments, 309 Coding, data, 238, 243–45, 261
as dynamic process, 587 types of, 310 lean, 244
ethical issues in, 588, 592 Bias
evaluation of, 591, 593 reducing, 277–78 Coefficient alpha, 161
example of, 596–601 response, 391–92 Coefficient of determination, 347, 351
interacting spiral, 584 Biography, 504 Cohen’s D, 195
participatory, 582–85 Bivariate correlation, 338, 348 Cohort studies, 380
participatory or self-reflective Blocking variables, 299–300 Collaboration, 512, 515
Books, 86
research, 586 Bounded, defined, 465 in action research, 586–87
practical, 579–82 Collective case study, 465
practical focus, 586 Case studies, 2–3, 465–66 Combined scales, 167
sharing research in, 587–88 bounded, 465 Comparison questions, 125
steps in, 589–91, 593 collective, 465 Computer-assisted telephone interviewing
types of, 579–85, 592 instrumental, 465
use of, 577, 592 intrinsic, 465 (CATI), 377
Alpha level. See Significance level qualitative, 466 Computer programs, for qualitative data
Alternate hypotheses, 126, 127
directional, 127 Categorical variables, 185 analysis, 241–43
nondirectional, 127 Cause-and-effect relationships, in experimental Concept sampling. See Theory sampling
Alternating treatment design, Conceptual framework, 121
design, 322–23 Conference papers, 270–71
318, 320 Central phenomenon, 16, 17, 111, Conference proposals, 270–71
Alternative approach, 274 Confidence intervals, 187
Alternative forms reliability, 160, 161 282
Alternative hypotheses in narrative research designs, 514 estimating with, 194–95
in qualitative research, 129–35 Confidence ranges, 607
testing, 188 Central question, 132–34 Confidentiality, in questionnaires, 398
Analysis, data. See Data analysis Central tendency, measures of, 184–85 Confirming sampling, 209
Analysis of variance (ANOVA), 195, 196, 198, Changing observational role, 215 Confounding variables, 119
Charts, 197 Constant comparative data analysis, 434–35
312, 325, 327, 339, 610 bar, 197 Constructivist design, 429–30
Anthropology, 463, 468 Chicago Manual of Style (University of Constructs, variables versus, 114
Approaches, to research, 5–6 Construct validity, 163, 303
Association, degree of, 347–48 Chicago Press), 98 Content, balancing with research, 281
Atlas.ti, 242 Child Development Abstracts and Content validity, 162
Attention span, 25 Context, 473–74, 512
Attitudinal measures, 152–54 Bibliography (Society for Research in Contrary evidence, 251
Attributes, variables versus, 113 Child Development), 86 Control procedures, in experiments, 297–300
Audience Chi-square test, 192, 193, 195, 610 Control variables, 117
Chronology, of events, 508 Convenience sampling, 145–46
identification of, 70 Closed-ended questions, 386–87 Convergent design analysis, 550
for research reports, 266–67 semi-, 387 Convergent parallel design, 540, 542
Codebook, 176 Copyright laws, 93

643

644 SUBJECT INDEX

Core category, 435, 436 Data analysis, 10, 18 Description, 247–48
Core List of Books and Journals in Education, 86 in action research designs, 591 broad-to-narrow, 472
Correlation constant comparative, 434–35 elements of, 249
in correlational designs, 356–57 theme analysis versus, 472–73
bivariate, 338 data preparation in, 175–82, 201
defined, 338 in experimental design, 324–25 Descriptive approach, 274
multiple, 350 by hand or computer, 239–41 Descriptive fieldnotes, 217
negative, 345 layering, 251–52 Descriptive questions, 124
partial, 348–49 matching to design, 550, 552–53 Descriptive statistics, 182, 183
point-biserial, 346 in mixed methods designs, 556–57
positive, 345 organization in, 238–39 for categorical variable, 185
zero-order, 338 process, 182–95 for depression scores, 184
Correlational designs, 21, 337–74 qualitative computer programs, 241–43 measures of central tendency, 184–85
characteristics of, 342–53, 358 in qualitative research, 236–64 measures of variability, 186–87
defined, 338, 358 in quantitative research, 174–203 tests, 183–87
development of, 338–39, 358 of research questionnaire, 398 Designs
displays of scores, 342–45 statistical program for, 178–79 action research, 22, 576–601
ethical issues in, 353–54, 358–59 steps in qualitative, 237–38, 261 alternating treatment, 318, 320
evaluation of, 357, 359 steps in quantitative, 175 convergent parallel, 540, 542
example of, 361–74 thematic, 473 correlational, 21, 337–74
explanatory design, 340–41 transcription in, 239 embedded, 544–46
multiple variable analysis, 348–53 ethnographic, 21, 461–500
prediction design, 341–42 Databases, 86–89 experimental, 20–21, 294–336
steps in, 354–57, 359 assessing for missing data, 181–82 explanatory, 340–41
types of, 339–42, 358 cleaning, 181 explanatory sequential, 542–43
use of, 338, 358 ERIC, 82, 86–89, 93, 96, 101, 158, 168 exploratory sequential, 543–44
Correlation coefficient online, 82 factorial, 311–13
Pearson’s, 356 as references sources, 82 grounded theory, 21, 422–60
product-moment, 338 individual, 313–20
Correlation matrix, 344–45 Data coding, 441–42 mixed methods, 22, 534–75
Covariates, 298 Data collection, 17, 189 multiphase, 547
controlling for, 299 multiple baseline, 318, 319
Co-vary, 338 in action research designs, 590 narrative research, 21–22, 501–33
Cover letter, for questionnaires, 392, 398 administration of, 169–70, 171 prediction, 341–42
sample, 393 audiovisual materials, 224–25 qualitative, 128
Crisis of representation, 466 in correlational designs, 355–56 quantitative purpose statements,
Criterion variable, 341 defined, 9
Critical action research, 582 documents, 223–24 research questions, and hypotheses,
Critical ethnographies, 466–68 ethical issues in, 23–24, 169–70, 230–32, 112–27
Critical sampling, 208 quantitative structure, 273
Cross-sectional survey designs, 377–79 233–34 repeated measures, 315–16
types of, 378 by ethnographers, 471 single-subject, 316–18
Cultural themes, 468–69 in ethnographic designs, 477–78 survey, 21, 375–421
Culture, defined, 462, 481 flow of activities in, 150 transformative, 546–47
Current Index to Journals in Education, 87 through individual stories, 508 within-group, 313–20
Curvilinear distribution, 345 instruments, 157–69 Diagram, 255
interviews, 217–22 Dialectic action research spiral, 580, 581
Data in mixed methods designs, 548, 549, Dictionaries, use of, 85
accounting for missing, 181–82 Difference scores, 178
choosing types of, 151–57 555–56 Digital object identifier (DOI), 99
cleaning, 181–82 in narrative research designs, 515 System, 99
coding, 238, 243–45, 261 observations, 212–17 Dimensionalized property, 426
emic, 471 qualitative, 204–35 Directional alternate hypothesis, 127, 188
ethical issues with, 440 in qualitative research, 212–25, 233 Disconfirming sampling, 209
etic, 471 qualitative versus quantitative, 19 Dissertation Abstracts Ondisc, 89
exploring, 243, 261 in quantitative research, 14, 140–73 Dissertation Abstracts (University Microfilms
factual, 157 questions, 135 International), 89
grid for inputting information, 180 steps in, 140–41, 170–71, 205, 233 Dissertations, 268
inputting, 179–81 in survey research designs, 383, 404 proposals for, 268–69
interpretation of, 10 types of, 150–57, 171, 213 quantitative and qualitative, 269–70
negotiation, 471 web-based electronic, 156 Distribution
organization of, 238–39 zigzag, 433 curvilinear, 345
qualitative, 152 Data interpretation kurtosis, 611
reporting procedures, 225–28, 233 in correlational designs, 357 nonnormal, 611
scoring, 175–76 in ethnographic designs, 478–80 normal, 186
selection of, 156–57 in qualitative research, 257–59, 262 skewed, 611
sharing, 279 Data recording protocols, 225 Documents, 223–24
transcription of, 239 Decision making, research lines and, 6 data collection, 223–24
Defense, proposal, 612–13 field issues in, 230
Degree of association, 347–48 Dynamic process, action research as, 587
Degrees of freedom (df), 190
Dependent variables, 115

SUBJECT INDEX 645

EBSCO Information Services, 89, 101 types of, 464–68, 481 Focus group interviews, 218–19, 384
Editing, in research, 25 use of, 462, 481 Future research directions, 199, 259
Educational Administration Abstracts, 86 Etic data, 471
Educational research, 26 Evaluation, of research, 10–11, 15, 289 Gatekeepers, 24, 211–12, 214
Educational Researcher, 503 Evidence Glossaries, use of, 85
Educational topic, 64 based on consequences of testing, Grounded theory designs, 21, 422–60
Education Index, 86
Effect size, 188 164–65 categories in, 431
based on internal structure, 163–64 characteristics of, 431–39, 443
determining, 195 based on relations to variables, 164 coding categories in, 425, 427
Electronic sources, 86 based on response processes, 162 constant comparative data analysis,
E-mail interviews, 219–20 based on test content, 162
Embedded design, 544–46 contrary, 251 434–35
deficiency in, 69–70 constructivist design, 429–30
analysis, 552–53 Experiences, 507 core category, 435, 436
Emerging design, 428–29 chronology of, 508 defined, 423, 443
Emerging questions, 130 exploring, 507 development of, 423–24, 443
Emic data, 471 individual, 507–8 emerging design, 428–29
Encoding, 278 Experimental approach, 274 ethical issues in, 439–40, 444
Enculturation, 469 Experimental designs, 20–21, 294–336 evaluation of, 442–43, 444
Encyclopedia of Educational Research, between-group, 309–13 example of, 446–60
defined, 326 memos, 438–39
68, 84 ethical issues in, 321–22, 326–27 process approach, 431–32
Encyclopedias, 84–85 evaluation of research in, 325, 327 saturation and, 433
End-of-text references, 98–99 example of, 330–36 selection of, 430
Equivalent time series design, 314 experiments and, 295–96 steps in, 440–42, 444
ERIC database, 82, 86–89, 93, 96, 101, steps in, 322–25 systematic design, 424–28
threats to internal validity in, 308 theoretical sampling, 432–34
158, 168 types of, 307–20, 326 theory generation, 436–38
Errors use of, 326 types of, 424–30, 443
Experimental treatment, 300 use of, 423, 443
in inferential statistics, 192–94 Experimental unit of analysis, 323 validation of, 442
sampling, 146 Experiments writing reports, 442
type I, 193 blocking variables in, 299–300 Groups
type II, 193 characteristics of, 296–306, 326 cohort studies, 380
Ethics, 27 conditions in, 301 comparisons, 302
in action research designs, 588 conducting, 324, 327 culture-sharing, 469–70
bias, reducing, 277–78 covariates in, 298 equating, 296
context of, 22 defined, 295 random assignment and, 296–97
in correlational design, 353–54 development of, 295–96
in data collection, 23–24, 169–70, 230–32, group comparisons in, 302 Hand analysis, of qualitative data, 239–41
homogeneous samples in, 298–99 Handbooks, 85
233–34 matching of participants, 298 Headings, 100–101
in data reporting, 24 outcome measures in, 301–2 Hierarchical tree diagram, 254
in ethnographic designs, 474–75 pretests and posttests in, 297–98 Homogeneous sampling, 208, 298–99
in experimental designs, 321–22, treatment conditions in, 300–301 Hoover-Dempsey and Sandler model, 122
true, 309 Hunches, 121
326–27 use of, 295 HyperRESEARCH, 242
in grounded theory designs, 439–40, 444 validity, threats to, 302–6 Hypotheses, 136–37, 281
in mixed methods design, 553–54 Experts, approaching, 67–68
in narrative research designs, 512–13, 517 Explanatory research design, 340–41 alternative, 126, 127, 188
practices to observe, 23 Explanatory sequential design, 542–43 defined, 111
in qualitative research, 277–82 Exploratory design analysis, 552 instrument recording procedures, 165
in survey research designs, 402 Exploratory sequential design, 543–44 null, 126, 188
in writing, 278–80, 289 External validity, 303 quantitative, 112–27, 125–27
Ethnographic designs, 21, 461–500 threats to, 306 in survey research designs, 403
case studies, 465–66 Extraneous variables, control over, variables from, 150–51
characteristics of, 468–74 Hypothesis testing, 187, 188–92
context or setting, 473–74 297–300 outcomes in, 193
critical, 466–68 Extreme case sampling, 208
cultural themes and, 468–69 Independent variables, 116–17
culture-sharing group in, 469–70 Factorial designs, 311–13 locating, 118
defined, 462, 481 Factual information, 154–55 measured, 117
description, themes, and interpretation in, Field issues, 228–30, 233–34 types of, 116
Fieldnotes, 216, 217
472–73 Indexed publications, 86
development of, 462–63, 481 descriptive, 217 Individual designs, 313–20
ethical issues in, 474–75, 481 Field texts, 508 Individual experience, 507–8
evaluation in, 480, 482 Fieldwork, 467, 470–72 Individual stories, 508
example of, 485–500 Figures, 196–97 Inferential statistics, 182, 187–95
fieldwork, 470–72
realist, 464–65 errors in, 192–94
researcher reflexivity, 473–74
shared pattern in, 470
steps in, 475–80, 481–82

646 SUBJECT INDEX

Information telephone, 219, 384–85, 400 Matching, 298, 300
factual, 154–55 training of interviewers, 399–400 Maximal variation sampling, 207–8
gatekeepers for, 24, 211–12, 215 transcription of, 240 MAXQDA, 243
useful, 27–28, 77, 106–7, 137–38, 171–72, types of, 218–20 Mean, 184
202, 234, 262–63, 289–90, 327–28, 359, Intrinsic case, 465 Measurement and Evaluation in Counseling
407, 444–45, 482–83, 517–18, 559–60, 593 In vivo codes, 244, 431
Iowa Test of Basic Skills, 167 and Development, 159, 168
Informed consent Issue subquestions, 134–35 Measurement of Inappropriate and Disruptive
forms, 149
obtaining, 148–50 Jargon, avoiding, 389 Interactions (MIDI), 154
review board approval, 148 Journals, 86 Measures, identification of, 151–57
from review boards, 148–50 Measures of central tendency, 184–85
sample of, 149 articles for, 270 Measures of relative standing, 187
online, 91 Measures of variability, 186–87
Ingenta (database), 82 sample record from, 90 Median, 185
Institute of Education Sciences (IES), 82 Justification, of research problem, 66–69 Mediating variables. See Intervening variables
Institutional review board Member checking, 259
Key terms, 82 Memos, 438–39
approval, 210–11 Knowledge, 4 Meta-analysis, 351, 353
permissions and, 148 Kuder-Richardson split half test, 161, 162 Mixed methods designs, 22, 534–75
Institutional review boards, 22–23 Kurtosis distribution, 611
Instrumental case, 465 advocating for design in, 537
Instruments Language characteristics of, 548–53, 558
criteria for choosing, 158–67 in ethnographies, 470 convergent parallel (or concurrent) design,
data collection, 157–69, 171 jargon, 389
data recording procedures, 165 reducing bias in, 277–78 540, 542
defined, 14, 151 data analysis, 556–57
example of, 153 Lean coding, 244 data analysis and, 550, 552–53
locating or developing, 157, 158, 404 Legitimacy, crisis of, 463, 466 data collection in, 548, 549, 555–56
modifying, 157 Levels of headings, 100–101 defined, 535, 557–58
reliability and validity of, 159–62 Libraries, academic, 83, 86 development of, 536–39, 557–58
search for, 157–58 Library of Congress, 83 development of questions in, 556
selection of, 167–69 Library resources, using, 9, 25 diagrams, 553
for survey research designs, 385–90 Life history, 504 embedded design, 544–46
Interaction effect, 117, 314 Likert scale, 167, 170, 376, 544 ethical issues in, 553–54, 558
Interconnecting themes, 252, 253 Limitations, defined, 199 evaluation of, 557, 559
Internally consistent, 161 Line graphs, 197 example of, 561–75
Internal validity, 303 Linking devices, 281 explanatory sequential design, 542–43
threats to, 304–6, 308 Literature feasibility of, 554–55
Internet, advantages and disadvantages of, 91 multiphase design, 547
Interpretation comparisons to, 258 notation system for, 537
data, 10 early stage, 89, 91 permissions in multiphase projects, 554
defined, 257 evaluation of, 91–92 priority in, 548–49
in ethnography, 473 justification in, 67–68 rationale for, 548, 555
of quantitative results, 197–99 locating, 82–91 reflective period in, 538
Interrater reliability, 161 map, 95–97 sequence in, 549–50
Interrupted time series design, 314 organization of, 92–97 steps in, 554–57, 558–59
Interval estimate, 114, 187 primary and secondary, 83 transformative design, 546–47
Intervals, confidence, 187 review of, 8–9, 14, 15, 17 types of, 538–47, 558
Interval scales, 167 selection of, 91–92 use of, 535–36, 557–58
Intervening variables, 118–19, 348 types of, 83–91 writing reports, 557
Interventions, 21, 301 Literature review, 79–139 Mode, 185
Interviews, 217–22 concluding statement, 103 Moderating variables, 117–18
checklist, 222 defined, 80, 105 Multiphase designs, 547
computer-assisted telephone extent of, 102 permission in, 554
in qualitative study, 104–5 Multiple baseline design, 318, 319
interviewing, 377 quantitative versus qualitative, 80–81 Multiple correlation, 350
conducting, 220–22 steps in, 81–103, 105–6 Multiple regression, 349–51, 610
defined, 217 study-by-study, 102 Multiple variable analysis, 348–53
design of, 398–400 thematic, 102 meta-analysis, 351, 353
e-mail, 219–20 types of, 102–3 multiple regression, 349–51
field issues in, 230 writing, 98–103, 101–3 partial correlations, 348–49
focus group, 218–19, 384 Longitudinal survey designs Multistage cluster sampling, 145
note taking during, 221 cohort studies, 380
one-on-one, 218, 384 panel studies, 380 Narrative discussion, 254, 256
probes in, 221, 222 trend studies, 379–80 Narrative hook, 65
protocol for, 225–27 types of, 378 Narrative passage, elements of description
sample transcription, 246
stance of interviewer, 399 Malach Burnout Inventory, 378 in, 249
steps in, 400 Maps, 254 Narrative research designs, 21–22, 501–33
survey, 382
author of, 504
central phenomenon in, 514

SUBJECT INDEX 647

characteristics of, 505–12, 517 Ordinal scales, 166–67 Propositions, 428
chronology of events, 508 Outcome measures, 301–2 theoretical, 437
collaboration with participants in, 512
combining narrative forms in, 505 Panel studies, 380 Protocols, 17, 225
context or setting, 512 Parental involvement study, 13–16, 75–76, data recording, 225
data collection, 509, 515 interview, 225–27
defined, 502, 516 104–5, 136, 170, 199–200 observational, 17, 227
development of, 502–3, 516 Participant observer, 214
ethical issues in, 512–13, 517 Participatory action research, 582–85 Psychological Abstracts (APA), 89
evaluation of, 516, 517 Participatory (self-reflective) research, 586 PsycINFO, 89, 90, 101
example of, 521–33 Pearson’s correlation coefficient, 356, 610 PsycLit, 89
individual experiences, 507–8 Percentile rank, 187 Publication Manual of the American
life history, 504 Performance approach, 274
personal experience story, 504 Performance measures, 151 Psychological Association (APA), 98,
restorying, 510–11, 515 Permissions 100, 101, 106, 196, 197
sources in, 504–5 Purpose
steps in, 513–16, 517 informed consent, 148–50 of proposal, 268
theoretical lens in, 505 obtaining, 147, 171, 233 for research, 9, 59, 60, 109–39
three-dimensional space structure, 511 types of, 147–50, 210–12 Purposeful sampling, 206–9
types of, 503–5, 517 Personal experience story, 504 random versus, 206
use of, 502, 516 Personal reflections, 258 types of, 207
validity of, 516 Phi coefficient, 195, 347 Purpose statements, 17, 60, 136–37
writing, 516 Pilot testing, 390 defined, 9, 110
Negative correlation, 345 Plagiarism, 279 in qualitative research, 128, 131–32
Negative linear relationship, 345 Plan of action. See Action plan in quantitative research, 122–24
Negotiation data, 471 Point-biserial correlation, 346 Puzzles, solving, 25
Net scores. See Difference scores Point estimate, 194 p values, 192, 357
Nominal scales, 165–66 Point of view, appropriate, 280–81
Nondirectional alternate hypothesis, 127, 188 Policy debates, effect of research on, 6 Qualitative research
Nonnormal distribution, 611 Policy makers, reports for, 271–72 abstract elements for, 94
Nonparticipant observer, 214–15 Population, 21, 403 central phenomenon in, 129–35
Nonprobability sampling, 142, 145 defined, 142 central questions in, 133
Normal distribution, 186 representative, 141 characteristics of, 13–16, 26
curve, 189 sampling from, 381–82 using codes to build descriptions and
Normal probability curve, 186 specifying, 141–47 themes, 247–52
Notation system, for mixed method target, 142, 381 coding process in, 243, 244
Positive correlation, 345 computer programs for, 241–43
designs, 537 Positive linear relationship, 345 conducting, 2–56
Notes Posttests, 297–98 data collection, 204–35, 212–25
Power analysis formula, 608–9 data interpretation in, 236–64
field, 216, 217 Practical action research, 579–82 dissertations, 269–70
interview, 221 Practical issues, in action research, 586 emerging processes in, 130–31
taking, 93–94 Practice, research and, 4–6 ethics in, 277–82
Null hypotheses, 126 Prediction, 125 ethnographic case studies in, 466
testing, 188 Prediction research design, 341–42 explanations in, 122
type I errors, 193 Predictor variable, 341 field issues in, 229
type II errors, 193 Preliminary exploratory analysis, 243 hand analysis in, 239–41
NVivo, 243, 260 Presentation, of results, 197 interconnecting themes in, 253
Pretests, 297–98 literature review in, 80–81
Observation, 227–28 Primary sources, 83, 351, 352 mixed methods designs in, 536
behavioral, 154 Priority, 549 narrative discussion in, 254, 256
checklist, 217 Probability sampling, 142 permissions in, 210–12, 233
defined, 213 Probable causation, 120 purpose statements, 110, 128, 131–32
field issues in, 230 Probes, 221, 222 quantitative versus, 19–22
fieldnotes in, 216, 217 Procedural subquestions, 135 reporting findings, 253–57
process of, 212–17, 215–17 Process approach research designs, 20–22
protocol for, 227 evaluating research with, 285–87 research problems and, 63–64
roles in, 214–15 in grounded theory designs, 431–32 research questions, 111, 128, 132
scoring sheet, 155 Process of research, 7 sample size, 209–10
Product-moment correlation coefficient, 338 sampling in, 206–10
Observational protocol, 17 Professional associations, 23 scientific structure, 275
One-on-one interviews, 218, 384 Proportional stratification sampling, 145 storytelling structure, 275
One-tailed test of significance, 189 Proposals validity of, 259–60
Open coding, 424, 428 conference, 270–71 variables in, 115
Open-ended questions, 218, 220 defense, 612–13
for dissertations and theses, 268–69, Qualtrix, 383
on questionnaires, 220 Quantitative research
in survey research design, 386–87 269–70
Open-ended response, 218 guidelines for, 271 abstract elements for, 93
Operational definition, 151 purpose of, 268 characteristics of, 16–19, 26
Opportunistic sampling, 209 conducting, 2–56

648 SUBJECT INDEX

Quantitative research (continued) References, in texts, 98–100 Research questions, 136–37, 281
data analysis in, 174–203 Reflexivity, 474, 538 defined, 60, 110–11
data and measures, 152 Regression line, 349 importance of, 112
data collection, 14, 140–73 Regression table, 350, 351 instrument recording procedures, 165
dissertations, 269–70 Relationship questions, 124–25 qualitative, 128, 132
hypotheses, 125–27 Reliability quantitative, 14, 112–27, 124–25
literature review in, 80–81 in survey research designs, 403
mixed methods designs in, 536 alternative forms, 160, 161 variables from, 150–51
participants in study, 141–47 defined, 159
purpose statements, 110, 122–24 of instruments, 159–62 Research reports
qualitative versus, 19–22 internally consistent, 161 audience, 266–67
questions, 14 interrater, 161 balancing research with content, 281
reporting results, 195–97 questions, 164 bias, reducing, 277–78
research designs, 20–22 test-retest, 160, 161 defined, 266, 288
research problems and, 63–64 types of, 160 ethical writing, 278–80, 289
research question, 111 Repeated measures design, 315–16 experimental, 325
research questions, 124–25 Reporting, research, 10–11, 15, 201, 253–57, figures in, 196–97
sampling strategies for, 143 grounded theory designs, 442
scales in, 166 262, 265–92 interconnecting sections in, 281–82
scores in, 177 Representation, crisis of, 466 point of view in, 280–81
theory in, 120–22 Representative sample, 141 for policy makers or school personnel,
Research 271–72
Quasi-experiments, 309–13 presentation of, 197
Quasi-interval, 167 approaches to, 5–6 purpose of, 288
Questionnaires, 113 balancing with content, 281 qualitative, 253–57
data collection, 9–10 quantitative, 195–97
analysis of, 392–98 decision making and, 6 scholarly terms in, 278
confidentiality of answers, 398 definition of, 3 structure of, 272–77, 289
construction of, 392–98, 406 editing in, 25 tables in, 196
cover letter for, 392, 398 ethical issues in, 22–24 title, 282
data analysis of, 398, 399 evaluation of, 10–11, 15, 265–92, 282–87 types of, 267–72
defined, 382 forms of direction in, 110
mailed, 383 future, 199, 259 Resources, 61–62
open-ended questions on, 220 importance of, 3–7 library, 25
response rate for, 390–91 participatory (self-reflective), 586
sample, 394–97 policy debates and, 6 Resources in Education (RIE), 87
in survey research design, 382–84 practice and, 4–6 Response, bias, 391–92
web-based, 383–84 process of, 7, 8, 506 Response rate, 390–92
Questions proposal defense, 612–13 Response return rate, 391
attitudinal, 385–86 purpose, 9, 59, 60, 109–39 Responses, 162, 218
background, 385 qualitative, 2–56 Restorying, 509–11, 515
behavioral, 385–86 quantitative, 2–56 Results
central, 132–34 questions, 17
closed-ended, 386–87 reporting, 10–11, 15, 265–92 description of, 354
comparison, 125 review of literature in, 8–9 explanation of, 199
construction of, 387–90 sharing, 587–88 generalizing, 14
data collection, 135 skills, 24–25 interpretation of, 197–99, 201, 257–59,
demographic, 385 standards, 283
descriptive, 124 steps in, 7–11, 26, 57–78 357
emerging, 130 in teacher education, 5 limitations on, 199
in mixed methods designs, 556 topic, 59, 60 reporting, 195–97, 201, 262, 265–92
open-ended, 218, 220, 386–87 writing in, 25 summarization of, 198–99, 258
personal, 385–86 Research designs, 20–22, 26–27. See also Reversal design, 317
pilot testing, 390 Review of Educational Research, 83, 86,
relationship, 124–25 Designs
reliability, 164 defined, 20, 293 102
research (See Research questions) time in, 61–62 Reviews, 86
sensitive, 386 Research objectives, 111–12, 136–37 RIE. See Resources in Education (RIE)
subquestions, 134–35 Research problems, 6–7
triple-barreled, 389 in action research designs, 589 Saber-Tooth Project, 154
unbiased, 152 defined, 8, 16, 58, 60, 76 Samples, 21, 403
validity, 164 errors with, 61
in experimental design, 322 defined, 142
Random assignment, 296–97, 321–22 identification of, 8, 13, 58–78 homogeneous, 298–99
Random numbers table, 144 justification of, 66–69 representative, 141
Random sampling, purposeful versus, 206 parts of research versus, 59–61, 76 specifying, 141–47
Random selection, 297 possibility of researching, 61–63, 76 statistic, 189–90
Rating, 114 statement of, 64–70, 76 Sample size, 146–47
Ratio scales, 167 using qualitative versus qualitative formulas, 147
Realist ethnography, 464–65 in qualitative research, 209–10
approach, 63–64, 76 tables, 606–9
writing, 66 Sampling
Research process, flow of, 12 confirming, 209
convenience, 145–46

SUBJECT INDEX 649

critical, 208 Sharing reports, 587–88 Style manuals, 98–101
disconfirming, 209 Significance level, 188 Subject Guide to Books in Print, 86
extreme case, 208 Subquestions, 134–35
homogeneous, 208 one-tailed test, 189
maximal variation, 207–8 statistical, 192 issue, 134–35
multistage cluster, 145 two-tailed test, 189 procedural, 135
nonprobability, 142–46, 145 Simple random sampling, 143 Subscales, 153
opportunistic, 209 Single-item scores, 177–78 Summaries, 84, 85
from population, 381–82 Single-subject designs, 316–18 Summed scores, 178
probability, 142–46 A/B design, 317–18 Survey Monkey, 383
proportional stratification, 145 alternating treatments, 318, 320 Survey research designs, 21, 375–421
purposeful, 206–9 multiple baseline design, 318, 319 administration of, 392, 404
in qualitative research, 143 Skewed distribution, 611 characteristics of, 380–92, 405–6
simple random, 143 Skills, research, 24–25, 27, 61–62 cross-sectional, 377–79
snowball, 146, 209 Snowball sampling, 146, 209 data analysis, 404
stratified, 144–45 Social Science Citation Index (SSCI), 89 data collection in, 383, 404
systematic, 143–44 Social skills, 469 defined, 376
theoretical, 432–34, 441 Sociofile, 101 development of, 376–77
theory or concept, 208 Sociological Abstracts, 89 ethical issues in, 402, 406
typical, 208 Software programs, 241 evaluation of, 404–5, 406
Sampling error, 146 Sources example of, 409–21
formula, 606–8 electronic, 86 follow-up procedures in, 392
Sampling frame, 142, 381, 403 primary, 83, 351, 352 instrument design, 385–90
Saturation, 433 Sources of Stress Questionnaire, 378 interviews, 384–85
Scaled score, 114 Spearman-Brown formula, 161, 162 longitudinal, 379–80
Scales Spearman’s rho, 339, 346 problems in item construction in, 388–89
combined, 167 Spiral of self-reflection, 586 questionnaires, 382–84
interval, 167 Spurious variables. See Confounding steps in, 403–4, 406
Likert, 167, 170, 376, 544 types of, 377–80, 405
of measurement, 165–67 variables unsafe procedures in, 402
nominal, 165–66 Standard deviation (SD), 186 use of, 376
ordinal, 166–67 Standardization, 169 writing reports, 404
ratio, 167 Standards, 283 Syntheses, 86
Scales of measurement, 165–67 Systematic design, 424–28
nominal scales, 165–66 qualitative, 283–85 Systematic sampling, 143–44
ordinal scales, 166–67 quantitative, 283
Scatter diagram, 343 Standard score, 187 Tables, 196
Scatterplots, 197, 342–44 Statement of problem, 76 comparison, 253, 254
Scholarly terms, encoding, 278 audience in, 70 demographic, 254, 256
Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT), 339 examples of, 72–76 regression, 350, 351
School personnel, reports for, 271–72 flow of ideas in, 71 sample size, 606–9
Scientific approach, 274, 275 importance of, 112
Scientific method, 7 quantitative, 112–27 Target population, 142, 381
Scores strategies for writing, 70–72 Teacher education, research in, 5
analysis of, 177–78 writing, 64–70, 76 Teachers’ stories, 504
associations between, 345–48 Statistical indexes, 86 Telephone interviews, 219, 384–85, 400
data, 175–76 Statistical program, selection of, 178–79
depression, 184 Statistical significance, 192 sample technique guide, 401
difference, 178 Statistical tests, 191 Templates, 70–71
displays of, 342–45 Statistics, 610 Test-retest reliability, 160, 161
nonnormal distribution of, 611 defined, 15, 183 Tests and testing
in quantitative analysis, 177 descriptive, 182, 183
single-item, 177–78 family of, 183 content validity, 162
standard, 187 inferential, 182, 187–95 descriptive statistics, 183–87
summed, 178 Stories evidence based on, 164–65
t, 187 defined, 508 hypothesis, 187, 188–92
z, 187 individual, 508 pilot testing, 390
Scoring data, 175–76 organizing elements in, 511 statistical, 191
Scoring sheets, use of, 155 personal experience, 504 of variables, 120–22
Secondary sources, 83 teachers’, 504 Tests in Print (TIP), 158, 168
Selective coding, 426, 442 Storytelling approach, 274, 275, 276 Textbooks, 86
Self-efficacy, 150 Stratified sampling, 144–45 Text segment, 18, 244
Self-reflective research. See Participatory (self- Studies Thematic approach, 274
cohort, 380 Thematic data analysis, 473
reflective) research panel, 380 Thematic literature review, 102
Semi-closed-ended questions, 387 permissions for, 147–50 Themes
Sensitive questions, 386 physical structure of, 272, 273 coding for, 511
Setting, 473–74, 512 selection of participants, 141–47, 171 cultural, 468–69
Shared pattern, 470 structure of, 276–77 description of, 247
trend, 379–80 description versus, 472–73
Study-by-study literature review, 102 development of, 247, 250
hard-to-classify, 249

650 SUBJECT INDEX

Themes (continued) Type I error, 193 predictor, 341
interrelating, 252, 253 Type II errors, 193 in qualitative studies, 115
layering, 251–52 Typical sampling, 208 specifying, 112–14, 150–51
major and minor, 249 theories and testing of, 120–22
ordinary, 248 Uncorrelated relationship, 345 treatment, 117–18, 300, 301
unexpected, 249 Unit of analysis, 141 Variance, 186
use of, 248–51 analysis of, 195, 196, 198, 312, 325, 327,
experimental, 323
Theoretical approach, 274 339, 610
Theoretical lens, 505 Validity Visual coding model, 437
Theoretical propositions, 437 construct, 163, 303 Voice recognition (VR), 377
Theoretical rationales, 121 content, 162
Theoretical sampling, 432–34, 441 of data, 259–60, 262 Wave analysis, 392
Theories defined, 159 Web-based questionnaires, 383–84
external, 303 Within-group experimental design,
defined, 82 in grounded theory design, 442
in quantitative research, 120–22 of instruments, 159–62 313–20
theory of regression, 339 internal, 303 repeated measures, 315–16
Theory generation, 436–38 of narrative research designs, 516 single-subject, 316–18
Theory-in-process, 429 questions, 164 time series, 314–15
Theory sampling, 208 sources of, 163 Within-individual design, 314
Thesis, 268 threats to, 302–6 Within-text references, 99–100
proposal, 268–69 types of, 303 Working Alliance Inventory (WAI), 545
Three-dimensional space narrative structure, Worldviews, integration of, 537
Variability, measures of, 186–87 Writing
511 Variables, 281 ethical, 278–80, 289
Time, in research design, 61–62 grounded theory design report, 442
Time series design, 314–15 associations between, 346 literature review, 98–103
attributes versus, 113 multiple-phase study, 557
equivalent, 314 blocking, 299–300 narrative research designs, 516
interrupted, 314 categorical, 185 one- or two-phase study, 557
Title, conciseness of, 282 confounding, 119 qualitative purpose statements, 131–32, 137
Topic, 59, 60, 64–66, 94 constructs versus, 114 quantitative purpose statements,
Touchtone data entry (TDE), 377 control, 117
Transcription, 239 criterion, 341 122–24, 137
coding, 245–47 defined, 13, 112 quantitative research questions, 124–25, 137
of interviews, 240 dependent, 115 reports, 404
sample of, 246 extraneous, 297–300 in research, 25
Transformative design, 546–47 family of, 114–19 research problem, 66
Treatment variables, 300, 301 identification of, 119–20 statement of problem, 64–70, 70–72, 76
intervening in, 301 independent, 116–17 strategies for, 71–72, 101–3
manipulation of, 302 intervening, 118–19, 348
Trend studies, 379–80 manipulated, 117 Youth Risk Behavior Survey, 377
Triangulation, 259, 536 measured, 113–14, 117
True experiments, 309 mediating, 348 Zero-order correlation, 338
t scores, 187 moderating, 117–18 Zigzag data collection, 433
t test, 192, 194, 610 operationally defined, 151 z scores, 187
Two-tailed test of significance, 189