Handbook of Learning Disabilities

570 Author Index

White, O. R., 307 Wong, E. H., 231
Whitehouse, D., 224 Wong, J., 543
Whitesell, N. R., 232 Wong, R., 326, 389
Whittlesey, J. R. B., 23 Wood, F. B., 26, 141, 144, 145, 251, 514
Whorton, D., 422 Wood, H. M., 251
Wichern, D. W., 506 Wood, K. D., 418, 422
Widaman, K. F., 199, 201 Woodcock, R. W., 71, 146, 515, 521
Wiederholt, J. L., 16, 17, 76, 146 Woodward, J., 96, 312, 314, 317, 318, 415,
Wiener, J., 231, 232
Wiener, M., 173 454, 542, 543
Wiest, D., 231 Wothke, W., 473
Wiig, E. H., 81 Wray, D., 390
Wijsman, E. M., 256, 257, 260, 263, 265, 347 Wu, E., 477, 480
Wilce, L. S., 162, 163, 164
Wilder, A. A., 301, 302 Xin, F., 418
Wilkinson, L., 474
Will, M. C., 27, 111, 418 Yamashita, T. S., 204
Willcutt, E. G., 258 Yamaura, A., 520
Williams, J. P., 293, 295, 296, 297, 299, 300, Yao, Y., 199
Yates, C., 346, 347
301, 302, 303, 342 Yeung, A. S., 229, 230, 231
Willis, S., 386 Yopp, H. K., 218
Willis, W. G., 45, 46, 248 Young, A., 142, 143, 144
Willows, D. M., 173 Ysseldyke, J. E., 25, 77, 84, 113
Wilson, K., 187, 193 Yuan, K. H., 478
Wilson, L. R., 84 Yule, W., 84
Wilson, M., 456
Wimmer, H., 46, 144, 149, 152, 218 Zacks, J., 524
Winne, P. H., 392, 393, 394 Zee, D. S., 136
Winograd, P., 383 Zeffiro, T. A., 242, 243
Wise, B. W., 39, 251, 258, 277, 278, 354, 355, Zeger, S. L., 128, 265
Zemitzch, A., 490
477 Zhang, X., 38
Wise, R., 521 Zhang, Y., 218
Wishner, J., 85 Zhao, L. P., 265
Witelson, S. F., 520 Ziegler, J., 516
Witzki, A. H., 186 Zigler, E., 229
Wolf, M., 45, 46, 49, 130, 140, 141, 142, 144, Zigmond, N., 71, 99, 113, 116, 117, 118, 119,

145, 148, 149, 150, 153, 221, 222, 243, 250, 120, 538, 539, 540, 546
278, 279, 286, 287, 288, 501, 516 Zimmerman, B. J., 323, 349, 350, 392
Wolff, P. H., 257 Zollers, N., 82, 111
Wolraich, M., 442 Zolman, J. E., 159, 221
Wong, B. Y. L., 78, 81, 231, 299, 326, 349, 355, Zvi, J., 353
389, 390, 391, 392, 393, 420, 454, 456

Subject Index

Page numbers followed by f indicate figure and t indicate table.

Ability profiles, 36–38 Androgen secretion, neuronal pruning
Abstraction, 308 hypothesis, 249
Academic self-concept, 8
Achievement Anomia, 242
Applied behavioral analysis, 78–79
genetic research, 264 Apprenticeship
self-concept, 229, 230–231
working memory, 191–194 cognitive strategies instruction writing,
Achievement subtypes, 40–44f, 41f, 42f, 43f. See 457–458, 458–459

also Subtypes of LD description, 451
Active thinking, promoting, 375 reciprocal teaching, 455
Activities-oriented instruction science education, 463
See also Sociocultural model
effectiveness of, 376 Appropriate education, 58. See also Free
science and social studies education, 373–374
See also Instruction appropriate public education
Adaptive instruction, 118–119. See also Aptitude by treatment interactions, 49–50. See

Instruction also Problem-solving model
Advocacy Arithmetic disabilities

focus of, 82 description, 7, 199–204, 202t, 203t, 209–210
goals of, 87 rapid automatic naming, 145
pseudoscience, 83 working memory, 191, 193
See also Political discipline See also Mathematical disabilities
Aggregation analyses, 265 Articulation, 219, 242
Alleles, 260–261, 266. See also Genetics Ascertainment, 266. See also Genetics
Alphabetic principle Assessment
assessment of spelling, 357t–358t curriculum-based measurement, 437–443
spelling and, 11 dual-discrepancy approach, 443
writing systems, 214–215 Emergent period, 23
America 2000 goals, 364. See also Science English-language learners, 94–96
first-grade observational study, 99
education individualized education programs, 71

571

572 Subject Index

Assessment (continued) Brain functioning
integrated model of classification, 52 arithmetic disabilities, 207
mathematical problem solving, 308–310, dyslexia, 518–522f, 519f, 520f, 522–524,
311–313 523f
phoneme awareness, 218 functional brain imaging, 517–518
problem-solving model, 32–33 minimal brain dysfunction, 35–36, 77–78
rapid automatic naming, 140–141
reading disabilities, 244 Brain injury, 20
self-concept, 236–237 Brain structure
spelling, 356, 357t–358t
U.S. Foundation period, 20–21 arithmetic disabilities, 207
vocabulary skills, 221 attention, 185
corpus callosum, 247–248
Association, 266. See also Genetics dyslexia, 250, 524–526f
Association studies, 261, 261–263. See also European Foundation period, 17–18
executive functioning, 126
Genetics gender differences, 519f–520
Attention neurofibromatosis type 1, 131–132
perisylvian region, 245–247f, 246f
achievement subtypes, 40–44f, 41f, 42f, 43f planum temporale, 244–245
ADHD, 126 temporal-parietal region, 248–249
controlled, 184–188 Tourette syndrome, 134–136
cooperative learning, 426 Turbulent period, 26
fluency, 287
science and social studies education, 365 Choline, neurofibromatosis type 1, 131
U.S. Foundation period, 20 Chromosome, 266. See also Genetics
visual-spatial processing, 209 CIRC, 420–421, 421–422, 423. See also
word prediction programs, 352
working memory, 183 Cooperative learning
Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder Classification of LD
achievement subtypes, 40–44f, 41f, 42f, 43f
arithmetic disabilities, 200, 206, 210 ability profiles, 36–38
comorbidity, 209 cluster analysis, 14, 510
description, 126 description, 4, 34–35, 35–36
executive processing, 187 historical perspective, 30–31
Kennedy Krieger Institute Research Center, integrated model, 50–52, 51f
IQ discrepancy, 38–40
127f–128 legislative influence, 59–60
neurofibromatosis type 1 and, 129, 130–131, problem-solving model, 33
schools’ view of, 86
132 Classification research, 4
overlap and, 35–36 Cluster analysis
processing characteristics, 6 description, 14, 501–502, 510–511
rapid automatic naming, 145 external validity, 508–509
reading disabilities, 242 internal validity, 506–508, 507f
research issues, 82 theory formulation, 502–506, 505f
self-regulated strategy development, 334t uses of, 509–510
Tourette syndrome and, 133–136 See also Methodology
Automaticity factor, 347, 523–524 Co-teaching
Autosome, 266. See also Genetics description, 119
outcomes-based efficacy studies, 113–114
Behavior qualitative research, 539
cluster analysis, 508–509 Coached elaborations, 370–372. See also
cooperative learning, 426
disorder, 232 Instruction
management, 404–405 Cognitive behavior modification theory, 78–79
Cognitive neuropsychological subtypes, 45. See
Behavioral-neurogenetics approach, 6
Biological basis for LD, 26 also Subtypes of LD
Bradyphrenia, 133 Cognitive neuroscience, ADHD, 126

Subject Index 573

Cognitive processes confirmatory methods of analysis, 480
comprehension, 293–294 data management, 471–473, 472f
mathematical disabilities, 204, 205t, 206–209 description, 350–351
graphical exploratory analysis, 474
Cognitive strategies instruction handwriting, 351–353
description, 11–12, 383–384, 396–397 instructional programs, 354–355
effectiveness of, 376 spelling, 353–354
sociocultural model, 464 writing, 359, 390
writing, 385, 387–388, 456–460 Concept formation, 40–44f, 41f, 42f, 43f
See also Strategies instruction Conceptual knowledge, 206–207
Concordance, 266. See also Genetics
Collaboration Confirmatory methods in research, 13–14,
cognitive strategies instruction writing, 458,
460 475–480. See also Methodology
science education, 462 Consonants, 170–171. See also Phonological

Combination designs, 496–498. See also KU- processing
CRL research; Methodology Constructivist approach to instruction, 11,

Comorbidity 365–366. See also Instruction
ADHD, 127f–128 Content-driven approach to instruction, 11,
arithmetic disabilities, 200–201, 209, 210
genetics, 258, 264–266 365–366, 375–376. See also Instruction
overlap and, 35–36 Cooperative Integrated Reading and
reading disabilities, 242
Tourette syndrome, 133 Composition. See CIRC
Cooperative learning
Compensation approach to instruction,
118–119. See also Instruction description, 12, 417–418
experimental studies of, 418–422
Complex trait inheritance, 266. See also observational studies of, 422–424
Genetics teachers’ use of, 424–428
See also Instruction
Composition strategies, 10, 385. See also Cooperative Thinking Strategies, 495
Writing Coping self-statements, 391–392
Core-curriculum standards, 463
Comprehension Corpus callosum, 247–248, 250. See also Brain
cooperative learning, 421
corrective reading program, 405–407, 406t structure
description, 158–159, 293–294 Corrective reading, 405–407, 406t, 413. See
dyslexia, 516
evaluation of the instructional program, also Reading
300–302 Counting
fluency, 287
informational text, 302–303 contextual knowledge, 207
instruction, 303–304 description, 7
intervention effects, 9 semantic memory deficits, 208
main idea, 295–297 working memory, 206
memory, 187–188, 189, 192, 193–194 Counting-all procedure, 202t–204, 203t, 207.
mnemonic instruction, 384
narrative text, 297 See also Arithmetic disabilities; Strategy-
peer tutoring, 376 choice model
reciprocal teaching, 454–456 Counting-on procedure
relationship to rapid automatic naming, contextual knowledge, 207
142–145, 143t description, 201, 202t–204, 203t
responsiveness to instruction, 302 See also Arithmetic disabilities; Strategy-
science and social studies education, 365 choice model
sentences, 223–224 Culturally diverse learners, 544–545. See also
strategies instruction, 385, 490 English-language learners; Ethnic groups
theme identification, 298–300 Curriculum-based measurement
verbal, 264–266 description, 13, 437–438
vocabulary, 221–222 identifying nonresponders, 12–13, 441–443
psychometric features, 438–440
Computer technology treatment effectiveness, 440–441
See also Assessment

574 Subject Index

Data management, 471–473, 472f assessment of spelling, 357t–358t
Decoding assumptions of, 242
description, 34–35
comprehension, 159 dual-discrepancy approach, 444–445
corrective reading program, 405–407, 406t IQ discrepancy, 244
dyslexia, 516 neurofibromatosis type 1, 128
first-grade observational study, 100t Dichotomous trait, 266. See also Genetics
fluency, 287 Dictation, 351–352. See also Computer
morpheme awareness, 220
PHAST Track Reading Program, 283–286, technology
Direct Instruction
284f, 285f, 285t
rapid automatic naming, 153–154 component analysis, 414–415
reading disabilities, 242 corrective reading, 405–407, 406t
remediation, 281 curricula, 413–414
Decomposition, 202t–204, 203t. See also definition of, 403–404
description, 12, 412–413
Arithmetic disabilities; Strategy-choice before implementation, 404
model lessons, 404–405
DEFENDS strategy, 389. See also Strategies meta-analysis, 407–410, 411t
instruction research results, 403
Definition of LD supplementary information, 407
description, 35–36, 294–295 See also Instruction
discipline, 76 Discipline of LD
double-deficit hypothesis, 244 description, 76, 86–88
Emergent period, 21–24 historical foundations, 76–77
historical perspective, 4–5, 30–31 political, 82–86
identification and, 87 scientific, 77–82
individualized education programs, 71 Discordance, 266. See also Genetics
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, Discrepancy concept
59 description, 83–84, 160
IQ, 85 English-language learners, 95
legislative influence and, 4 individualized education programs, 71
memory research, 183–184 legislative influence, 60
National Joint Committee on LD, 24–25 See also Definition of LD; IQ discrepancy
problems with, 77, 83–84 Dizygotic twins, heritability studies, 257–258
reading disabilities, 275 DNA, 260–261, 266. See also Genetics
science and social studies research, 366–367 Domain general processing, 149–150
sociocultural model, 453–454 Domain specific processing, 149–150
three-tier approach, 355–356 Dominant, 266. See also Genetics
Turbulent period, 25–27 Double-deficit hypothesis
U.S. Office of Education, 24 description, 145–148, 146t, 243–244
Depression, 231–232 neurobiological model and, 252
Development of reading skills Dual-discrepancy approach
analogy vs. rules, 171 identifying nonresponders with curriculum-
consonants, 170–171
grapheme–phoneme conversion rules, based measurement, 441–443
165–168 nonresponders, 437, 443–445
orthographic processing, 175–178 Dual-route theories of reading, 162–164. See
phonological processing, 162–165, 171–172
semantic processing, 173–175 also Phonological processing
syntactic awareness, 172–173 Dyscalculia, 207. See also Arithmetic disabilities
theoretical approach, 161–162 Dysgraphia, 256, 347
vowels, 168–170 Dyslexia
working memory, 173
See also Reading cluster analysis, 510
Diagnosis corpus callosum, 247–248
arithmetic disabilities, 200, 210 description, 213–214
double-deficit hypothesis, 243–244
estimates of heritability, 257–258

Subject Index 575

European Foundation period, 18 self-regulation
functional brain imaging, 518–522f, 519f, strategies instruction, 396–397
Epigenetic, 266. See also Genetics
520f, 522–526, 523f Epistasis, 266. See also Genetics
genetics, 249–250, 256, 262–263 Ethnic groups. See also Culturally diverse
intervention effects, 9
neurobiological basis, 14–15, 250, 251–252, learners; English-language learners
invalid placement, 94–96
517–524, 526–527 representation of, 26–27
neurological basis, 8, 242–243, 514–515f European Foundation period, 3, 17–18
neuronal pruning hypothesis, 249 Evaluation, 58–61, 70–71. See also Assessment
orthographic processing, 10–11, 243, 347 Executive functioning
phonological processing skills, 275 achievement, 191–194
planum temporale, 245 ADHD, 126
pseudo-words, 163–164 arithmetic disabilities, 210
rapid automatic naming, 141, 144–145, comprehension, 192
description, 7
150 effects of reading disability on, 134
research issues, 82 fluency, 286–287
scientific discipline of LD, 81 Kennedy Krieger Institute Research Center,
theoretical models, 515–517
Turbulent period, 26 127f–128
memory, 184–185, 186–188, 193–194, 206
Education Tourette syndrome, 133–134
private school reimbursement, 69–70 visual-spatial processing, 209
U.S. Foundation period, 18–21 word prediction programs, 352
writing, 11
Education of All Handicapped Children Act Exploratory methods in research, 13–14,
description, 24–25
litigation and, 58 473–475. See also Methodology
service delivery models, 111 Expository writing
See also Legislative influences
cognitive strategies instruction writing, 459
Eligibility DEFENDS strategy, 389
legislative influence, 58–61 self-regulated strategy development, 339, 340t
legislative issues, 70–71 Expressivity, 266. See also Genetics
schools’ view of, 86 Eye movement, dyslexia, 251

Emergent period, 3, 21–24 Fine motor skills, handwriting, 346
Empirical subtyping methods, 46–49, 48f Finger counting, 202t–204, 203t, 206. See also
English-language learner
Arithmetic disabilities; Strategy-choice
components of educational programs, model
103–105 Fluency
attaining, 286–287
first-grade observational study, 100t, 101t comprehension, 293
instructional principles, 105–107 dyslexia, 523–524
qualitative research, 544–545 handwriting training, 347
See also Culturally diverse learners; Ethnic nonresponders, 443
spelling training, 348
groups; Languages other than English Focal dysplasias, 248. See also Brain structure
English-language learners Fragile X syndrome, 127f–128
Free appropriate public education
first-grade observational study, 97–102 litigation and, 58
instructional issues, 5 procedural issues, 61–62
representation of, 94–97 substantive issues, 62–66
subtyping studies, 49 See also Individuals with Disabilities
English transcribes phonemes, 214–215. See also Education Act
Full-inclusion service delivery models
Reading disabilities classroom experience, 115–120, 116f
Environment

cooperative learning, 418, 425–426
dual-discrepancy approach, 442
familial aggregation, 257
least restrictive, 66–70
metacognitive theory, 78–79

576 Subject Index

Full-inclusion service delivery models strategy instruction, 491–496
(continued) See also KU-CRL research; Methodology
Group therapy, 237
cooperative learning, 423 Guided Instruction in Science through Multiple
outcomes-based efficacy studies, 113–114
qualitative research, 536, 537–540 Literacies. See GIsML
self-concept, 231 Gyral morphology
See also Mainstreaming; Placement
Functional brain imaging description, 245–247f, 246f
description, 517–518 dyslexia, 250, 251–252
dyslexia, 518–522f, 519f, 520f, 522–526,
Handwriting problems
523f early interventions, 345–346, 347–349, 356,
359
Gender differences early interventions and, 10–11
brain organization, 15 as a precursor to writing disability, 346–347
dyslexia, 514, 519f–520 three-tier approach, 355
handwriting, 347 writing, 325
process of learning, 134
Haplotype, 266. See also Genetics
Gene, 266. See also Genetics Heritability, 266. See also Genetics;
Generalization
Inheritability
self-regulated strategy development, 336t, Homework, cooperative learning, 419
338–339, 342
Identification of LD
sociocultural model, 464 classifications and, 4
See also Transfer-of-learning definition of LD and, 87
Genetic heterogeneity, 266. See also Genetics description, 34–35, 35–36
Genetic statistical modeling, 266. See also dual-discrepancy approach, 444–445
historical perspective, 30–31
Genetics Individuals with Disabilities Education Act,
Genetics 59–60
intraindividual differences model, 32
arithmetic disabilities, 201 IQ discrepancy, 38–40, 85
description, 256–257 legislative issues, 70–71
dyslexia, 251–252, 514–515 overlapping conditions, 84–85
estimates of heritability, 257–258 problem-solving model, 32–33
familial aggregation, 257 problems with, 83–84
mapping, 261–263, 266–267 reluctance, 256
mathematical disabilities, 205t self-concept and, 232–233
modes of inheritance, 258–263
neurobiological basis for disorders, 249–250 Immersion approaches, 104. See also English-
neurofibromatosis type 1, 128 language learners
rapid automatic naming deficits, 144
reading and writing disabilities, 8–9 Inclusion programs. See Full-inclusion service
See also Inheritability delivery models
Genome, 266. See also Genetics
Genotype, 266. See also Genetics Individualized education programs
GIsML, 460–463 computer technology, 350
Grapheme–phoneme conversion rules including methodology, 71
acquisition of, 165–168 procedural issues, 61–62
vs. analogy, 171 substantive issues, 62–66
consonants, 170–171
description, 163 Individuals with Disabilities Education Act
phonological processing skills, 163–164, computer technology, 350
definition of LD, 4, 71, 77
164–165 identification and, 59–60
semantic reading errors, 174–175 individualized education programs, 57
See also Phonological processing litigation, 58, 74t–75t
Group design placement, 66–70
description, 14

Subject Index 577

procedural issues, 61–62 text processing strategies, 367–368
service delivery models, 111–112 theme identification, 298–300
substantive issues, 62–66 transfer-of-learning, 313–315
Information processing, 78–79, 201 writing, 323–324, 328
Informational text, 294, 302–303. See also Text See also Cognitive strategies instruction;

structure Cooperative learning; Direct Instruction;
Inheritability Intervention; Sociocultural model
Integrated model, 4, 50–52, 51f
description, 266 Intervention
dyslexia, 514–515 achievement subtypes, 43–44
estimates of, 257–258 assessing response to, 274–275
familial aggregation, 257 assessment of spelling, 357t–358t
modes of, 258–263 duration of Direct Instruction, 410
neurofibromatosis type 1, 128 early, 275–277, 345–346, 356, 359
rapid automatic naming deficits, 144 evaluating with curriculum-based
Turbulent period, 26 measurement, 440–441
See also Genetics fluency, 286–287
Inhibitory mechanisms, 7, 209 integrated model of classification, 52
Inquiry-oriented instruction, 372–373, 542–543. IQ discrepancy, 39–40
KU-CRL research, 483–486
See also Instruction memory, 195–196
Instruction neurobiological model, 252
older children, 277–279
activities-oriented instruction, 373–374 past research, 274
apprenticeship, 451 phoneme awareness, 225
assessment, 356, 357t–358t problem-solving model, 32–33
classroom experience, 115–120, 116f rapid automatic naming, 153–154
coached elaborations, 370–372 reading fluency, 525–526
comprehension, 293–294, 303–304 self-concept, 233–235, 237–238
computer technology, 350–355 spelling and handwriting, 347–349
culturally diverse learners, 544–545 strategies instruction, 384–388, 388–392
early interventions, 276–277 subtyping studies, 49
effective, 318–319 three-tier approach, 355–356
effects on problem-solving, 315–318 U.S. Foundation period, 18–21
evaluation of the comprehension program, word identification and decoding, 9
See also Instruction; Remediation
300–302 Intraindividual-differences approach
finding the main idea, 295–297 ability profiles, 36–38
fluency, 287 classification in, 36
informational text, 302–303 compared to problem-solving model, 33–34
inquiry-oriented instruction, 372–373 description, 4, 31–32
mathematical problem solving, 319 integrated model, 50–52, 51f
mnemonic instruction, 368–370 IQ discrepancy, 38–40
nonresponders, 431–432, 433t–436t, 437 Invented spelling, 349. See also Spelling
older children, 277–279 IQ
peer tutoring, 374–375 achievement subtypes, 40–44f, 41f, 42f, 43f
PHAST Track Reading Program, 283–286, definition of LD, 85
English-language learners, 94–96
284f, 285f, 285t executive processing, 187
phonics-oriented, 225 genetic research, 264–266
qualitative research, 540–543 mental retardation, 85–86
response to, 52, 279–283, 282f, 302 neurofibromatosis type 1, 129, 131
science and social studies education, 365–366, reading and development, 6–7
reading disabilities, 160, 213
375–376 science and social studies education, 372–373
self-regulated strategy development, 328–331,

332t–334t, 335t–336t, 337–342, 340t
short-term memory, 256–257
spelling and handwriting, 347–349
strategies instruction, 384–388, 388–392,

392–395

578 Subject Index

IQ (continued) writing systems, 214
U.S. Foundation period, 19 See also English-language learners
Laterality, perceptual-motor match, 23
IQ discrepancy Least restrictive environment, 66–70, 71. See
classification research, 4
compared to dual-discrepancy approach, also Placement
445 Left-handedness, neuronal pruning hypothesis,
criticism of, 432
description, 160 249
dyslexia, 213 Legislative influences
historical perspective, 30–31
intraindividual differences model, 32, 38–40 description, 4, 70–72
memory research, 183–184 Emergent period, 23
responsiveness to treatment, 13 evaluation and eligibility, 58–61
See also Discrepancy concept individualized education programs, 61–66
litigation and, 57–58
Kennedy Krieger Institute Research Center, placement, 66–70
126–128, 127f Solidification period, 24–25
Letter knowledge
Keyboarding, 351, 354. See also Computer fluency, 287
technology phoneme awareness, 219
production, 358t
Keyword method, 368–370. See also Mnemonic reversal, 358t
instruction Lexical functioning
comprehension, 293
Kinesthetic sensations, 23 dyslexia, 518–519
KU-CRL research empirical subtyping methods, 47–49, 48f
fluency, 287
combination design, 496–498 writing systems, 215
description, 483–486, 498–499 Linkage analyses, 260–261, 266–267. See also
group design, 491–496
single-subject design, 486t–491 Genetics; Inheritability
Linkage disequilibrium mapping, 261. See also
Labeling, 232–233, 256. See also Identification
of LD Genetics
Litigation
Laminar heterotopias, 248. See also Brain
structure causation and, 60–61
description, 70–72
Language evaluation and eligibility, 59–61
development of, 24, 274–275 individualized education programs, 61–66
Direct Instruction curricula, 413 legislation and, 57–58
gender differences, 520 placement, 66–70
handwriting as, 346 summary of cases, 74t–75t
neurobiological basis for disorders, 243 Locus, 267. See also Genetics
processes, 7–8 Long-term memory
processing, 220–224, 224–225, 264, 286–287 arithmetic disabilities, 7, 208–209
science and social studies education, 365 comprehension, 192
skills, 216, 216–217 handwriting, 346–347
writing systems, 214–215 Simple View of writing, 349–350f
sociocultural model, 464
Language-based approach, 213–214. See also writing problems, 10
Reading disabilities See also Memory
Low achievement, 84–85. See also
Language disorders, 17–18, 249–250
Languages other than English Underachievement

development of phonological skills, 172 Main idea
orthography, 215 DEFENDS strategy, 389
phoneme awareness, 218 science and social studies education, 367–368
rapid automatic naming, 144–145, 149–150
semantic reading errors, 174 Mainstreaming
syntactic awareness, 173 classroom experience, 115–120, 116f
vowels, 169–170
working memory, 173

Subject Index 579

cooperative learning, 423, 426 independent researchers, 194–195
least restrictive environment as, 67–68 IQ, 160
litigation, 68–69 phonological system, 188–190
outcomes-based efficacy studies, 113–114 visual-spatial processing, 190–191
qualitative research, 536, 537–540 See also individual types
self-concept, 231 Mendelian inheritance, 259, 267. See also
self-esteem issues, 71
See also Full-inclusion service delivery models; Genetics
Mental retardation, identification, 85–86
Placement Metacognition
Maintenance
description, 308
cognitive strategies instruction, 383 mathematical problem solving, 312
self-regulated strategy development, 336t, reciprocal teaching, 454–456
science and social studies education, 365
338–339, 342 situated activity, 451
Major genes, 267. See also Genetics strategic content learning, 392–393, 396
Marker, 267. See also Genetics strategies instruction, 293–294, 391–392
Marxist ideology, definition of LD, 80 teaching transfer-of-learning, 313–314
Mathematical disabilities theory of, 78–79, 81
working memory, 187–188
achievement subtypes, 40–44f, 41f, 42f, 43f writing, 390
cognitive functioning, 204, 205t, 206–209 Methodology
description, 199–200, 306–307 confirmatory methods of analysis, 475–480
mathematical problem solving, 320 data management, 471–473, 472f
neurobiological indices, 525–526 exploratory methods of analysis, 473–475
problem solving, 10, 318 group design, 491–496
rapid automatic naming, 145 individualized education programs, 62–66,
working memory, 187
See also Arithmetic disabilities 71
Mathematical problem solving single-subject design, 486t–491
description, 307–308 See also Cluster analysis; individual types;
effective instruction, 318–319
enhancing, 310–315 Qualitative research
future research, 319–320 Mindful abstraction, 308. See also Abstraction;
recommendations, 318
strategies instruction, 391–392 Metacognition
tasks to study, 308–310 Minimal brain dysfunction, 35–36, 77–78. See
See also Problem solving
Mathematics also Brain functioning
cooperative learning, 418–419, 421 Minority students
Direct Instruction curricula, 413
meta-analysis of Direct Instruction, 409 invalid placement, 94–96
neurobiological indices, 525–526 representation of, 26–27
qualitative research, 542–543 See also Culturally diverse learners; English-
strategy instruction in the elementary grades,
language learners
384 Miscounting, working memory, 206
Megalencephaly, neurofibromatosis type 1, Mnemonic instruction

131–132 DEFENDS strategy, 389
Meiosis, 260. See also Genetics effectiveness of, 376
Memory elementary grades, 384
science and social studies education, 367,
academic performance, 7
achievement, 191–194 368–370
applications of research, 195 sociocultural model, 464
arithmetic disabilities, 208–209 See also Instruction; Strategies instruction
contributions to reading, 6 Modernism, 27
description, 182 Monozygotic twins, heritability studies,
executive system, 184–185
handwriting, 346–347 257–258
Morpheme awareness

language processing skills, 7–8
reading disabilities, 219–220, 224–225
writing systems, 215

580 Subject Index

Morphemes theory, 214–215. See also Reading NICHD learning disability research centers,
disabilities 81–82

Morphological processing Nodular heterotopias, 248. See also Brain
assessment of spelling, 357t–358t structure; Neurobiological indices
fluency, 287
spelling, 356 Nonresponders
curriculum-based measurement, 12–13,
Motor development, 23 12–13
Multipass Strategy, 489 dual-discrepancy approach, 443–445
Multiple analysis of variance approaches, 14 identifying with curriculum-based
measurement, 441–443
N-acetylaspartate, neurofibromatosis type 1, reading instruction, 431–432, 433t–436t,
131 437
theme identification, 302
Naming ability, 224–225 See also Responsiveness to intervention
Naming speed, 140, 221–222, 279. See also
Nonverbal learning disability, 127, 129
Rapid automatic naming Nonverbal short-term memory, 47–49, 48f. See
Narrative skills, cluster analysis, 502–503
Narrative text also Memory; Short-term memory

comprehension, 297 Obsessive–compulsive disorder, 133
description, 294 Oligogenic inheritance
self-regulated strategy development, 339,
definition, 267
340t dyslexia, 259
See also Text structure See also Genetics
Nested analysis of growth in reading, 51f–52 Orthographic processing
Neural correlates, arithmetic disabilities, 207 assessment of spelling, 357t–358t
Neurobiological indices confirmatory methods of analysis, 476–478
corpus callosum, 247–248, 247–248 description, 10–11, 175–178
description, 242–243, 251–252 dyslexia, 243, 518–519
double-deficit hypothesis, 243–244 fluency, 287
dyslexia, 14–15, 250, 514–515f, 526–527 genetics, 263
genetics, 249–250 handwriting, 346
gyral morphology of perisylvian region, inheritability of, 258
memory, 185–186, 187–188
245–247f, 246f neurobiological model and, 251, 252
neuronal pruning hypothesis, 249 rapid automatic naming, 148–153, 153–154
phonological processing skills, 275 speech feedback software, 353–354
planum temporale, 244–245 spelling, 354–355, 356
reading, 517–524 Orthographies
remediation, 288 description, 161
temporal-parietal region, 248–249 language and, 214–215
theoretical models, 250–251, 515–517 spoken language, 220–224
Neurodevelopment, handwriting, 346–347 vowels, 168–170
Neurofibromatosis, processing characteristics, 6
Neurofibromatosis type 1 Paired associate learning, 40–44f, 41f, 42f, 43f.
Kennedy Krieger Institute Research Center, See also Peer tutoring

126–128, 127f Paragraphs, 216–217, 367–368
research results, 128t–132 Peer relations
Neurolinguistic model, 251
Neurological functioning acceptance, 231–232
dyslexia, 15 cooperative learning, 418
European Foundation period, 17–18 qualitative research, 537
executive functioning, 126 science and social studies education, 365
reading disabilities, 8 See also Relationships
Turbulent period, 26 Peer tutoring
Neuronal pruning hypothesis, 249. See also comprehension, 376
cooperative learning, 421
Neurobiological indices
Neuropsychological processing, 78–79

Subject Index 581

science and social studies education, 374–375 genetics, 263
strategic content learning, 395 reading acquisition, 275, 279
See also Instruction; Paired associate learning spelling and, 11
Pegword strategy, 369. See also Mnemonic Phonological coding
genetics, 9, 258, 262, 263
instruction spelling, 347
Penetrance, 267. See also Genetics Phonological model, 15, 516–517
Perinatal environment, 249–250, 251–252 Phonological processing
Perisylvian region, 245–247t, 246t, 250. See achievement, 191–194
acquisition of grapheme–phoneme conversion
also Brain structure; Neurobiological
indices rules, 165–168
PHAB/DI Program, 280–283, 282f. See also analogy vs. rules, 171
Instruction; PHAST Track Reading assessment of spelling, 357t–358t
Program attaining fluency, 286–287
PHAST Track Reading Program classifications, 31
description, 283–286, 284f, 285f, 285t comprehension, 192
fluency, 287 confirmatory methods of analysis, 476–478
See also Instruction consonants, 170–171
Phenotype, 261, 267. See also Genetics deficits in, 275
Phonemes description, 161, 162, 242–243
assessment of spelling, 357t–358t developmental stages, 164–165
deletion, 6, 47–49, 48f, 142 double-deficit hypothesis, 243–244
segmentation, 242 dual-route theories, 162–164
speech perception, 221 dyslexia, 15, 518–519, 526
spelling, 354–355, 356 functional brain imaging, 518
writing systems, 214–215 gender differences, 519f–520
Phonemic awareness genetic research, 264–266
assessment measures, 141 importance of, 140
description, 164 intervention effects, 9
difficulties with, 171–172 IQ, 160
double-deficit hypothesis, 145–148, 146t languages other than English, 172
first-grade observational study, 100t memory, 185–186, 187–188, 188–190,
language processing skills, 7–8
reading disabilities, 217–219, 224–225 193–194
relationship to rapid automatic naming, neurobiological model and, 252
142–145, 143t older children, 277–279
science and social studies education, 365 orthographic processing, 251
scientific discipline of LD, 81 other skills, 171–172
vocabulary instruction, 102 phoneme awareness, 219
working memory, 142 rapid automatic naming, 153
See also Phonological processing reading disabilities, 6
Phonetic representation remediation, 279–283, 282f
language processing skills, 7–8 science and social studies education, 11
reading disabilities, 224–225 scientific discipline of LD, 81
short-term memory, 222–223 semantic reading errors, 175
working memory, 206, 224 speech perception, 221
Phonological Analysis and Blending/Direct spelling, 354–355, 356
Instruction. See PHAB/DI syntactic awareness, 172–173
Phonological awareness Turbulent period, 26
achievement subtypes, 40–44f, 41f, 42f, vowels, 168–170
43f word-level reading disabilities, 31
cluster analysis, 503 See also Reading disabilities
contributions to reading, 6 Placement
dyslexia, 515–517 classroom experience, 115–120, 116f
early interventions, 276–277, 347–349 continuum of, 110–111
effects of, 431–432, 433t–436t dual-discrepancy approach, 442

582 Subject Index

Placement (continued) integrated model, 50–52, 51f
evaluating with curriculum-based IQ discrepancy, 38–40
measurement, 441 mathematical disabilities, 10
invalid, 94–96 science education, 460
legislative influence, 66–70, 71 subtyping studies, 49
qualitative research, 536, 537–540 zone of proximal development, 452
self-concept, 8, 231, 233 Procedural learning
achievement subtypes, 40–44f, 41f, 42f, 43f
Plana symmetry, dyslexia, 8 mathematical disabilities, 205t, 206–207
Planum temporale Process theories, 78. See also Scientific discipline
Prognosis, 43–44
description, 244–245, 247 Pronunciation, 168
dyslexia, 250, 251–252 Pseudo-word reading
neuronal pruning hypothesis, 249 analogy vs. rules, 171
See also Brain structure; Neurobiological genetics, 263
grapheme–phoneme conversion rules, 163,
indices
Political discipline, 82–86, 87. See also 165–166
IQ, 160
Discipline of LD phonological processing, 163–164, 188
Polygenic inheritance, 259, 267. See also vowels, 168
Pull-out education, 111, 112–113, 119. See also
Genetics
Polymicrogyria, 248–249. See also Brain Placement

structure; Neurobiological indices Qualitative research
Polymorphic loci, linkage analyses, 260–261 culturally diverse learners, 544–545
Polymorphism, 267. See also Genetics description, 15, 532–534, 545–547
Postmodernism, 27 insider view of LD, 535–537
Prevalence instruction, 540–543
placement, 537–540
ADHD and neurofibromatosis type 1, 130 selection of studies, 534–535
arithmetic disabilities, 200–201 See also Methodology
comorbidity with neurofibromatosis type 1,
Qualitative trait, 267. See also Genetics
129 Quality of education, English-language learners,
dyslexia, 514
familial aggregation, 257 96–97, 101t–102
issues regarding, 83 Quantitative methods of analysis, 474–475,
mathematical disabilities, 306
Tourette syndrome, 132–133 545–547. See also Methodology
Prevention, 356, 359. See also Intervention Quantitative trait locus, 267. See also Genetics
Private school, reimbursement for, 69–70 Quick Spell Test, 150–151t. See also Rapid
Proband, 267. See also Genetics
Problem solving automatic naming
arithmetic disabilities, 209
Cooperative Thinking Strategies, 495 RAN. See Rapid automatic naming
effects of instruction on, 315–318 Rapid Alternating Stimuli, 141
mathematical disabilities, 306–307 Rapid automatic naming
qualitative research, 542–543
semantic memory deficits, 208–209 achievement subtypes, 40–44f, 41f, 42f, 43f
strategy-choice model, 201–204, 202t, 203t contributions to reading, 6, 142–145
teaching transfer-of-learning, 313–315 description, 140–142, 141f
working memory, 192–193, 193–194 double-deficit hypothesis, 145–148, 146t,
Problem-solving model
ability profiles, 36–38 243–244
aptitude by treatment interactions, 49–50 empirical subtyping methods, 47–49, 48f
classification in, 36 genetics, 262, 264–266
cognitive strategies instruction writing, 458 independent contributions to reading skills,
collaboration, 452–453
compared to intraindividual-differences 143t
reading disabilities, 242
approach, 33–34 remediation, 153–154
description, 4, 31, 32–33 theoretical explorations, 148–153

Subject Index 583

Rational subtypes, 45–46. See also Subtypes of phoneme awareness, 217–219
LD pseudo-words, 163–164
rapid automatic naming, 145
RAVE-O, 287. See also Instruction rational subtypes, 45–46
Reaction time techniques, 201–204, 202t, remediation, 273, 279–283
research-based perspective, 216–217
203t response to remediation, 282f
arithmetic disabilities, 201 scientific discipline of LD, 81
Reading semantic processing, 175
acquisition of, 431 subtypes, 159–160, 346–347
cognitive psychology of, 273 theoretical models, 515–517
confirmatory methods of analysis, 476–478 Tourette syndrome, 133–134
cooperative learning, 420–421 U.S. Foundation period, 19–20
corrective reading program, 405–407, 406t vowels, 169
curriculum-based measurement, 438–440 word-level, 31
defining, 158–159 working memory, 191
development of, 6–7 writing systems, 214–215
Direct Instruction, 409, 413 See also Language-based approach
fluency, 286–287 Recessive, 267. See also Genetics
genetics, 249–250, 262–263 Reciprocal teaching, 454–456. See also
morpheme awareness, 219–220
neural systems, 526f Sociocultural model
neurobiology of, 517–524 Reconstructive elaboration, 370. See also
nonresponders, 431–432, 433t–436t, 437
phoneme awareness, 217–219 Mnemonic instruction
semantic errors, 174–175 Recurrence risk, 267. See also Genetics
sociocultural model, 454–456 Relationships, 231–232, 453. See also Peer
strategy instruction in the elementary grades,
relations
384–388 Remediation
See also Development of reading skills
Reading comprehension. See Comprehension assessing response to, 274–275
Reading disabilities early elementary grades, 275–277
achievement subtypes, 40–44f, 41f, 42f, 43f fluency, 286–287
arithmetic disabilities and, 200–201 older children, 277–279
attaining fluency, 286–287 reading disabilities, 273
characterizing core deficits, 274–275 research results, 287–288
cluster analysis, 508–509, 509–510 response to, 279–283, 282f
cognitive profiles, 6 See also Intervention
consonants, 170–171 Remediation approach to instruction, 118–119,
continuum of, 159
defining, 160–161 224–225. See also Instruction
description, 6, 213–214, 224–225 Responsiveness to intervention
early elementary grades, 275–277
estimates of heritability, 257–258 problem-solving model, 33
European Foundation period, 18 reading disabilities, 279–283, 282f
genetic influences, 8–9 theme identification, 302
grapheme–phoneme conversion rules, See also Nonresponders
Retrieval
165–168 description, 7, 201–204, 202t, 203t
inheritability of, 258–263 semantic memory deficits, 208–209
IQ, 38–40, 160 See also Arithmetic disabilities; Strategy-
language processes, 7–8, 220–224
morpheme awareness, 219–220 choice model
neurofibromatosis type 1 and, 129–130 Rhyming
neurological basis, 8, 242–243
older children, 277–279 dyslexia, 518–519
orthographic processing, 176–178 memory, 194–195, 223
past intervention research, 274 pegword strategy, 369
PHAST Track Reading Program, 283–286,

284f, 285f, 285t
phoneme awareness, 219
phonological processing skills, 171–172

584 Subject Index

Scaffolding strategy instruction in the elementary grades,
description, 452 385–387
GIsML, 460–463
qualitative research, 540, 542 See also Instruction; Writing
reciprocal teaching, 455 Self-regulation
See also Sociocultural model
environment, 328
Schema, 307, 313. See also Problem solving self-regulated strategy development, 328–
Science education
331, 332t–334t, 335t–336t, 337–342,
coached elaborations, 370–372 340t
competing models, 375–376 strategic content learning, 392
description, 11, 364 transition to, 350
instruction, 368–370, 372–373, 373–374, Semantic memory
arithmetic disabilities, 208–209
384, 397 mathematical disabilities, 204, 205t, 206
peer tutoring, 374–375 science and social studies education, 365
research, 366–367, 375, 542–543 See also Memory
sociocultural model, 460–463 Semantic processing
text processing strategies, 367–368 description, 173–175
theoretical models, 365–366 dyslexia, 518–519
Scientific discipline, 77–82, 83, 87. See also reading disabilities, 223–224
working memory, 187–188
Discipline of LD Sensorimotor coordination, reading disabilities,
Scientist notebook, 461–462. See also Science 242
Sentence processing
education; Sociocultural model comprehension, 223–224
Segmented practice, rapid automatic naming, language skills, 216–217
semantic errors, 175
147–148 Service delivery models
Segregation analysis, 259–260, 267. See also classroom experience, 115–120, 116f
description, 5, 110–112, 120–121
Genetics; Inheritability outcomes-based efficacy studies, 112–115
Self-concept See also Placement
Sex chromosomes, 267. See also Genetics
academic performance, 230–231 Sex differences. See Gender differences
description, 8, 230 SFA. See Success for All
future research and intervention, 237–238 Short-term memory
global, 232 academic performance, 7
identification and, 232–233 empirical subtyping methods, 47–49, 48f
intervention, 233–235 genetics, 256–257, 265
measurement, 236–237 handwriting, 346–347
placement, 233 language processing skills, 7–8
relevance of, 229–230 phonological processing skills, 171–172
self-perceptions, 235–236 reading disabilities, 6, 224–225
social, 231–232 Simple View of writing, 349–350f
Self-control components, 11–12 sociocultural model, 464
Self-esteem spelling, 11, 347
achievement, 229, 230 working memory, 173
cooperative learning, 425–426 writing problems, 10
intervention, 235 written material, 216–217
mainstreaming and, 71 See also Memory; Verbal short-term memory
peer acceptance, 231–232 Single-subject design , 14, 486t–491. See also
See also Self-concept KU-CRL research; Methodology
Self-regulated strategy development Situated activity, 450–451. See also
affective emphasis of, 390 Sociocultural model
cognitive strategies instruction, 396 Slow naming, 140. See also Naming speed;
compared to strategic content learning, Rapid automatic naming

393–394
description, 10, 328–330
impact of, 331, 332t–334t, 335t–336t,

337–342, 340t
stages of, 330–331

Subject Index 585

Social constructivism, 13. See also Sociocultural phonemes, 215
model as a precursor to writing disability, 346–347
pseudo-words, 171
Social functioning, 235, 365 reading disabilities, 242
Social interactivity theory, 80 three-tier approach, 355
Social studies education writing, 325
Spelling disability
coached elaborations, 370–372 arithmetic disabilities and, 200
competing models, 375–376 genetics, 262–263
description, 11, 364 prevention, 10–11
instruction, 368–370, 372–373, 373–374 rapid automatic naming, 146t–147
mnemonic instruction, 384 Standardized testing
peer tutoring, 374–375 arithmetic disabilities, 200
research, 366–367, 375, 543 classifications and, 4
text processing strategies, 367–368 curriculum-based measurement, 438
theoretical models, 365–366 English-language learners, 94–96
Social support, 233 historical perspective, 30–31
Sociocultural model individualized education programs, 71
apprenticeship, 451 intraindividual differences model, 32
cognitive strategies instruction writing, legislative influences and, 4
U.S. Foundation period, 20–21
456–460 Stereotyping, 537
collaboration, 452–453 Strategic content learning, 392–395, 396. See
culturally diverse learners, 544–545
description, 13, 450, 463–464 also Strategies instruction
qualitative research, 540, 541–542, 543 Strategies instruction
reading, 454–456
science education, 460–463 compared to strategic content learning, 393
situated activity, 450–451 description, 383–384, 396–397, 396–397
tools and mediational means, 452 elementary grades, 384–388
zone of proximal development, 452 secondary school, 388–392
See also Instruction single-subject design, 489–490
Socratic approach to instruction, 365–366 strategic content learning, 392–395
Solidification period, 3, 24–25 Strategy-choice model, 201–204, 202t, 203t,
Sound categorization, working memory, 142
Sound pattern tasks, rapid automatic naming, 6 208–209. See also Arithmetic disabilities
Speech feedback software, 353–354. See also Structural equation modeling, 14
Subtypes of LD
Computer technology; Spelling
Speech perception, 7–8 achievement, 40–44f, 41f, 42f, 43f
Speech production cognitive neuropsychological, 45
empirical methods, 46–49, 48f
development of, 274–275 rational, 45–46
empirical subtyping methods, 47–49, 48f reading disabilities, 159–160
fluency, 286–287 Subtyping
perception, 221, 224–225 cluster analysis, 508–509, 509–510
phonological processing, 243 double-deficit hypothesis, 145–148, 146t
speech code, 216–217 Success for All, research on cooperative learning,
working memory, 183
Spell checkers, 353. See also Computer 420–421
Syntactic awareness
technology; Spelling
Spelling description, 161–162, 172–173
dyslexia, 516
assessment, 356, 357t–358t fluency, 287
Direct Instruction curricula, 413–414 reading disabilities, 6, 223–224
early interventions, 345–346, 347–349, 356, See also Phonological processing

359 Temporal-parietal region, 248–249. See also
genetic research, 265 Brain structure; Neurobiological indices
orthographic processing, 177
PHAST Track Reading Program, 283–286, Testing. See Standardized testing

284f, 285f, 285t

586 Subject Index

Testosterone, 249, 251–252 Verbal counting, 202t–204, 203t. See also
Text level, 287. See also Comprehension Arithmetic disabilities
Text processing, 367–368. See also Instruction
Text structure Verbal memory
phonological recording skills, 171–172
comprehension, 303–304 phonological system, 188–190
science and social studies education, 367–368 science and social studies education, 365
sociocultural model, 464 See also Memory
strategy instruction, 293–294
Textbook-based approaches to instruction, 11, Verbal short-term memory
empirical subtyping methods, 47–49, 48f
365–366. See also Instruction; Science phonological system, 188–190
education; Social studies education rapid automatic naming, 153
Theme identification See also Memory; Short-term memory; Verbal
comprehension, 298–300 memory; Working memory
evaluation of the instructional program,
300–302 Verbal working memory
responsiveness to instruction, 302 mathematical computation, 193
Three-tier approach, 355–356. See also phonological system, 188–190
Definition of LD rapid automatic naming, 6
Tourette syndrome visual-spatial processing, 191
Kennedy Krieger Institute Research Center, working memory, 187
127f–128 writing, 192
processing characteristics, 6 See also Memory; Verbal memory; Working
research results, 132–136 memory
Transcription skills
description, 346 Visual aids, 106. See also Vocabulary
as a precursor to writing disability, 346–347 Visual attention, 47–49, 48f
reading ability and, 10–11 Visual development, 23
word prediction programs, 352 Visual motor, 40–44f, 41f, 42f, 43f
writing, 11 Visual processing model, 251, 252
Transfer-of-learning Visual processing system, 150
cognitive strategies instruction, 383, 459 Visual-spatial functioning
comprehension, 300, 301
description, 279–280, 296–297 arithmetic disabilities, 209
future research, 319–320 dyslexia, 518–519
informational text, 303 empirical subtyping methods, 47–49, 48f
instruction, 313–315, 315–318, 318–319 fluency, 286–287
mathematical disabilities, 315 mathematical disabilities, 205t
problem solving, 307–308, 310, 318 memory, 190–191
social studies education, 368 working memory, 191
sociocultural model, 464 writing, 192
spelling, 348 Visual-spatial working memory
See also Generalization mathematical computation, 193
Turbulent period, 3, 25–27 working memory, 187, 206
See also Memory; Working memory
Underachievement, 84. See also Low Vocabulary
achievement achievement subtypes, 40–44f, 41f, 42f, 43f
contributions to reading, 144
Unidentified bright objects, neurofibromatosis dyslexia, 516
type 1, 128, 131–132 English-language learner, 105–106
first-grade observational study, 100t
University of Washington Multidisciplinary language processing skills, 7–8
Learning Disabilities Center, 263, mnemonic instruction, 376, 384
264–266 phoneme awareness, 219
quality of education, 102
U.S. Foundation period, 3, 18–21 reading ability, 221–222, 224–225
science and social studies education, 368,
Verbal ability, contributions to reading, 6
Verbal comprehension, genetic research, 462
spelling, 347
264–266 use of visuals, 106

Subject Index 587

Voice recognition, 351–352. See also Computer phonological awareness, 275
technology rapid automatic naming, 142–145, 143t
reading disabilities, 6
Vowels science and social studies education, 365
description, 168–170 semantic errors, 209
PHAST Track Reading Program, 283–286, Simple View of writing, 349–350f
284f, 285f, 285t theoretical framework, 182–183
WIST, 280 verbal, 191
See also Phonological processing visual-spatial processing, 209
word prediction programs, 352
Whole word practice, 147–148. See also Rapid writing problems, 10
automatic naming written material, 216–217
See also Memory
WIST, 280–283, 282f. See also Instruction; Writing
PHAST Track Reading Program; Word cognitive strategies instruction writing,
identification
387–388
Word decoding. See Decoding cooperative learning, 419–420
Word identification description, 323–324
Direct Instruction curricula, 413–414
attaining fluency, 286–287 early interventions, 345–346, 356, 359
remediation, 281 instruction, 328
See also WIST self-regulated strategy development, 328–331,
Word Identification Strategy Training. See WIST
Word-level reading disabilities, 31, 159, 287. See 332t–334t, 335t–336t, 337–342, 340t,
387
also Phonological processing; Reading Simple View of, 349–350f
Disabilities sociocultural model, 456–460
Word prediction programs, 352–353. See also strategy instruction, 388–392, 490
Computer technology students with LD, 324–328
Word problem solving, 192–193. See also working memory, 192
Problem solving Writing disabilities
Word recognition composition strategies, 10
comprehension, 293 estimates of heritability, 257–258
description, 158–159 genetic influences, 8–9
development phases of, 45 modes of inheritance, 258–263
language skills, 216 precursors of, 346–347
memory, 189, 193 prevention, 10–11
Word reversals, 170 Writing system. See Orthographies
Working memory
academic performance, 7 Zone of proximal development
achievement, 191–194 collaboration work, 453
arithmetic disabilities, 206, 210 description, 13, 452
comprehension, 293 science education, 460
description, 162, 173 See also Sociocultural model
development of, 193–194
executive processing, 186–188
independent researchers, 194–195
phonetic, 222–223