Eastern Word Buddhist Art

South Asia - Nepal 51

Seated Jambhala

10th century
Maitreya, the messianic bodhisattva
characterized as the Buddha of the
Future, stands in a graciously exag-
gerated posture, the body beautifully
counterbalanced. He holds his raised
hand in the gesture of exposition
(vitarka mudra) and in his lowered
hand displays a flask (kamandalu)
universally understood in South
Asian culture as the container of
amrta, the elixir of life. In a Buddhist
setting, the flask is understood as
the promise of Maitreya’s coming.
The elegant aesthetics of this sculp-
ture embody contemporary eastern
Indian Pala styles, yet it displays a
startling elegance combined with an
almost austere economy of surface
decoration: jewelry is restrained,
textile patterns minimally suggest-
ed. The scale is exceptional, as is
the aesthetic sensibility of the artist
responsible for this work.

Historical period(s)
early Eastern Javanese period
Dimensions
H. 11 1/2 in. (29.2 cm); W. 8 5/8 in.
(21.9 cm); D. 5 in. (12.7 cm)
Collection
The Metropolitan Museum of Art
Classification(s)
Sculpture
Geography
Nepal
Provenance
Samuel Eilenberg , New York
(until 1987; donated to MMA)

52 Eastern World Buddhist Art - A brief introduction to Buddhist artworks

Pair of This pair of painted wooden manuscript covers shows a series of Buddhist deities
Manuscript seated on lotus thrones before aureoles, interspersed with cauri-fans hanging
Covers with above and ritual utensils below. Above are nine bodhisattvas, with Manjushri at
Buddhist Deities center; below, Prajnaparamita is accompanied by six other Taras, flanked by two
wrathful guardians.
11th–12th century

Historical period(s) Collection Geography
Thakuri periods The Metropolitan Museum of Art Nepal
Dimensions Classification(s) Provenance
2 1/4 x 21 3/16 in. (5.7 x 53.8 cm) Paintings Private collection
(until 1983; donated to MMA)

South Asia - Nepal 53

Chakrasamvara and
Vajravarahi

1575–1600
The twelve-armed Chakrasamvara embracing his consort,
Vajravarahi, is a highly charged vision by an advanced
master of tantric Buddhism. Potent color dynamics add
tension to the picture. The blue figure of Chakrasamvara
has additional heads in yellow, green, and red (symbol-
izing the colors of the Jina “Victor” Buddhas). With his
principal hands he grasps Vajravarahi and holds a bell and
a thunderbolt scepter.
Chakrasamvara’s iconography closely resembles that of
Shiva (both have three eyes and hold a skull cup, trident,
and elephant skin); such concordance of Buddhist and
Hindu iconography has its origins in the tantrism of me-
dieval eastern India. Here Chakrasamvara and Vajravarahi
trample a blue Bhairava and a red Kalartri, showing their
dominance over these Hindu gods.

Historical period(s)
Malla period
Dimensions
28 x 24 in. (71.1 x 61 cm)
Collection
The Metropolitan Museum of Art
Classification(s)
Painting
Geography
Nepal
Provenance
Zimmerman Family Collection ,
New York, until 2012, sold to MMA

54 Eastern World Buddhist Art - A brief introduction to Buddhist artworks



Akshobhya, the The Buddha reaches his right hand down in bhumisparsha mudra, marking
Buddha of the the moment when the historic Buddha Shakyamuni called upon the earth
Eastern goddess to witness his resistance of the forces of Mara, immediately prior to his
Pure Land experiencing enlightenment. In the Esoteric Buddhist tradition, this iconography
is associated with Akshobhya, cosmic Buddha of the East. The lotus buds
17th–19th century embellishing the mandorla and the open flower serving as his throne may refer
to the celestial abode of Akshobhya. This icon may have been integrated into the
wall of a stupa or shrine as part of a set of directional Buddhas.

Historical period(s) Collection Geography
16th-17th century The Metropolitan Museum of Art Nepal
Provenance
Dimensions Classification(s) Heeramaneck Galleries , New York,
H. 20 in. (50.8 cm); W. 14 3/4 in. (37 5 Sculpture until 1962, sold to MMA
cm); D. 6 1/2 in. (16.5 cm)

56 Eastern World Buddhist Art - A brief introduction to Buddhist artworks

Armlet for an At the center, crossed vajras indicate the cardinal directions and the universe’s
Image with axis—a place of ultimate stability where the Buddha reached enlightenment—
Crossed Vajras which is marked here with a diamond. The gems, semiprecious stones, and coral
convey ideas of purity and together form a mosaic that evokes the crystalline
17th–19th century nature of the heavens. On either side of the armlet are reddish-coral kirtimukha
faces that symbolize the relentless passage of time.

Historical period(s) Collection Geography
17th-18th century The Metropolitan Museum of Art Nepal
Dimensions Classification(s) Provenance
2 5/8 x 7 1/4 in. (6.7 x 18.4 cm) Jewelry Lockwood de Forest , New York,
until 1915; sold to MMA

South Asia - Nepal 57

Vajracharya Elaborate crowns such as this example were worn by the hereditary Vajracarya
Priest’s Crown Buddhist priests of Nepal, who occupy the highest rank in the Nepalese Bud-
dhist community. Vajracarya is both a caste and a family name, and the desig-
16th–17th century nation entitles it holders to perform reserved priestly functions, analogous to
the privileges held by Brahmans in Hinduism. This crown is dominated by five
diadem plaques and surmounted by a half-vajra. The dated inscription records
that it was commissioned by two named devotees, to be worn on the occasion
of the consecration of newly installed icons of Chakrasamvara and Heruka.
The consecrations were performed by srī Bekhāsi deva Vajrācārya of Naka
Bahicā of OBāhā, “on Thursday, the 10th of the dark half of Bhādra, during the
Pusyā naksatra and the Siddha yoga” (1717).

Historical period(s) Collection Geography
Thakuri periods The Metropolitan Museum of Art Nepal
Dimensions Classification(s) Provenance
H. 12 in. (30.5 cm); W. 7 1/2 in. (19.1 Metalwork Mr. and Mrs. Robert Rubin, New
cm); D. 6 3/4 in. (17.1 cm) York (until 1984; donated to MMA)

58 Eastern World Buddhist Art - A brief introduction to Buddhist artworks



The Birth of the Buddha

18th-19th century

Elaborate crowns such as this ex- the occasion of the consecration of
ample were worn by the hereditary newly installed icons of Chakrasam-
Vajracarya Buddhist priests of Nepal, vara and Heruka. The consecrations
who occupy the highest rank in the were performed by srī Bekhāsi deva
Nepalese Buddhist community. Va- Vajrācārya of Naka Bahicā of OBāhā,
jracarya is both a caste and a family “on Thursday, the 10th of the dark
name, and the designation entitles it half of Bhādra, during the Pusyā nak-
holders to perform reserved priestly satra and the Siddha yoga” (1717). The
functions, analogous to the privileg- inscription concludes by listing the
es held by Brahmans in Hinduism. punishments incurred by those who
This crown is dominated by five covet the crown as well as the merits
diadem plaques and surmounted by earned by its donors, extolling: “[May
a half-vajra. The dated inscription it be] auspicious for all time.”
records that it was commissioned by
two named devotees, to be worn on

Historical period(s)
18th-19th century
Dimensions
14 1/2 x 12 1/4 in. (36.8 x 31.1 cm)
Collection
The Metropolitan Museum of Art
Classification(s)
Metalwork
Geography
Nepal
Provenance
Lockwood de Forest , New York
, until 1915; sold to MMA

60 Eastern World Buddhist Art - A brief introduction to Buddhist artworks



Mongolia

Taiwan

Korea

EAST ASIA

China

Japan

MONGOLIA

Buddhism is an ancient Indian religion that originated in and around
the ancient Kingdom of Magadha (now Bihar, India), and is centered on
the teachings of the Gautama Buddha, who was regarded as a “Buddha”
(“Awakened One”) despite the fact that there were other Buddhas before
him. Beginning during the Buddha’s lifetime, Buddhism expanded outside
of Magadha. The Buddhist community broke into two branches under the
reign of the Buddhist Mauryan Emperor Ashoka: the Mahsghika and the
Sthaviravda, each of which expanded throughout India and splintered into
countless sub-sects. The Theravda, which is found in Sri Lanka and Southeast
Asia, and the Mahyna, which is found in the Himalayas and East Asia, are the
two primary branches of Buddhism today. Vajrayana Buddhism is frequently
categorized as a branch of Mahyna Buddhism, although some academics
believe it to be a separate branch entirely.

Artwork 03
Art-
work 03

Artwork 01

Artwork 04

Artwork 02

64 Eastern World Buddhist Art - A brief introduction to Buddhist artworks

01 02 03 54 04 05 06
Magzor Gyalmo, Nine Diety Tsiu Marpo Palace of the Coral Mask of Mongolian
the Queen Who Offering 19th century Protector Begtse Begtse Tsam Religious
Repels Armies 18th century page 19th century early 20th Ceremony
18th century page 52 page 56 century Nicholas
page 50 page 57 Roerich 1927 -
1928
page 58

07 08
Labyrinth game Tomorrow
Nomin Bold Nomin Bold
2012 2014
page 60 page 61

Artwork 05 Artwork 08

Artwork 06

Artwork 07

East Asia - Mongolia 65

Magzor Gyalmo,
the Queen Who
Repels Armies

18th century

The Glorious Goddess, the Queen
Who Repels Armies, is a category
of female guardian goddesses that
encompasses a wide range of mani-
festations and variants on the early
origin narrative. Some believe there
are twenty-one varieties of popular
prayer that have been documented;
others argue that some of these forms
are exclusive to the Himalayas and
Tibet. The Glorious Goddess has a
list of one hundred names in ancient
Tibetan writings, perhaps of Indian
origin. She is shown with four arms
and is regarded the goddess’s primary
and primal form, akin to the Hindu
deity Kali.

Another form in this class is the
Queen Who Repels Armies, who ap-
pears with only two arms. She is sup-
posed to be the terrifying incarna-
tion of the Hindu goddess Sarasvati,
who is revered in both Hinduism and
Buddhism, according to her origin
tale. In both form and function, the
Bon Queen of the World resembles
the Buddhist Glorious Goddess and
the Hindu Kali.

Historical period(s) Collection Geography
18th century Rubin Museum of Art Mongolia
Dimensions Classification(s) Provenance
H 56.125 x W 39.5 x D 1.25 in. Silk appliqué with pearls Joseph Fernando , Sri Lanka and USA
(by 1956 until d.)

66 Eastern World Buddhist Art - A brief introduction to Buddhist artworks



Nine Diety This style of artwork, which shows sky's upper edge, a wrathful valance
Offering the items and qualities of wrathful demarcating the area.
deities as well as gifts offered to The handheld items, robes, and
18th century them, is frequently seen in specific decorations of Vajrabhairava, one
chapels dedicated to protector of the most prominent personal
deities. Unlike other wrathful meditation deities of the Gelug
subjects, this one is depicted on School of Tibetan Buddhism, to
a homogeneous background that which most Mongolians subscribe,
includes a grassy ground at the are depicted in the middle of this
bottom, a misty horizon, and a blue picture above a lotus. On each side,
sky. Heads, animal pelts, flayed he is flanked by four deities. The “five
skins, guts, and bones hang from the

68 Eastern World Buddhist Art - A brief introduction to Buddhist artworks

snouts” vital to Mongolian existence Historical period(s) Collection
are depicted at the bottom of the 19th century Rubin Museum of Art
picture, among the various gifts Dimensions Provenance
offered to the wrathful protective 28 x 62 5/8 in. Unknown
deities: horses, bovines (cows and Geography Classification(s)
yak), camels, sheep, and goats. Mongolia Painting (Ground mineral pigment
on cotton)

East Asia - Mongolia 69

Tsiu Marpo

19th century

Tsiu Marpo is a Buddhist religious The king, outraged by this, sent
guardian. According to the texts, men to kill the monk. The princess
he lives in a red copper castle in the attempted to dissuade him by telling
west, surrounded by red mountains, him the truth of the matter, but he
red valleys, and red rivers—a scene did not listen, and out of protest she
indicated by the sculpture’s forms. vowed to be reborn as the hostile
He is dressed like a warrior and spirit sister of the monk in a future
wields a lance in his raised hand, life, then threw herself off a cliff,
as well as a heart that he tore from committing suicide, in protest.
a Buddhist foe and a trap that he Chorwa, meanwhile, fled to the
employs as a weapon. His entourage Himalayas, and his mind became
is supposed to comprise nine nude downcast and full of evil intentions.
messengers, one of whom may He then proceeded to go on a killing
be seen here, as well as a “life- and raping spree, but eventually the
destroying” copper wolf that moves king’s army caught up to him and
quietly. Predatory birds, such as the stabbed him to death. Before he died,
one at the top of this sculpture, are the monk swore to be reborn as a
commonly found in the company of tsen demon, and the “executioner of
protective deities. all beings.”

But Tsiu Marpo is much older than Thereafter he hatched from an egg
the story recounted above. In fact, in produced from the union of a deity
one account it is said: “According to named “Lekpa” and a female tsen.
the Tantra of the Red-Razored One When he was born, he had six other
the being that would become the tsen demon brothers growing inside
deity Tsi’u Marpo was born during his body – (2) the “black obstacle
the dispensation of the Buddha might demon” in his head, the (3)
Kashyapa as the Khotanese Prince “divine might demon” in his bones,
Chorwa. Chorwa is said to have had (4) “rock might demon” in his body
faith in Buddhism and to have taken heat, (5) “knife might demon” in his
monastic ordination. One day, when blood, (6) “serpentine might demon”
he was meditating alone in the forest, in his pus, and (7) “defiling might
the daughter of the local king was demon” in his ‘messy rotten garments
bathing nearby when she was bitten of flesh.’ Together they became the
by a venomous snake. Chorwa was seven wild tsen brothers.”
able to save her life by giving her a (Source: Bailey, C. (2015). Tsi’u
medicinal antidote, but when two Marpo: History, Narrative & Myth)
evil ministers saw this, they spread
the false rumour that the monk and
the princess were making love.

Historical period(s) Collection Geography
19th century Rubin Museum of Art Mongolia
Dimensions Classification(s) Provenance
17 3/4 × 14 1/8 × 2 3/4 in Sculpture (Wood with mineral Unknown
pigments)

70 Eastern World Buddhist Art - A brief introduction to Buddhist artworks

East Asia - Mongolia 71

Palace of the His amazing masterpiece shows the home of the ferocious guardian and god
Protector Begte of battle Begtse, carved from a single piece of wood, a traditional material
in Mongolian Buddhist art. He is said to live in a pavilion made of bones,
19th century surrounded by twenty-nine butchers chopping up human bodies. Standing
skeletons support the structure, sitting skeletons with diamonds over their
heads decorate the rooftops, and garlands of guts and hearts dangle from the
rafters in this example of his castle made nearly completely of skeletons and
body parts. The terrifying imagery closely resembles the visionary literary
descriptions intended to propitiate Begtse:
“The blood of humans and horses flows together to make a lake...” Mountains
surround the area, with a leather castle perched atop the highest point... with
carnelian parapets and skull pinnacles.”
This intricately carved panel was most likely used as a backdrop for statues of
the protector deity and his entourage.

Historical period(s) Collection Geography
19th century Rubin Museum of Art Mongolia
Dimensions Classification(s) Provenace
20 3/4 × 30 3/4 × 1 7/8 in. Sculpture ( Wood, pigments) Unknown

72 Eastern World Buddhist Art - A brief introduction to Buddhist artworks

Coral Mask of Despite the odd materials used, the worldly guardian Begtse (Mongolian:
Begtse Jamsaran) wears a dancing mask that follows traditional dimensions and
traditions. Begtse coral masks are one-of-a-kind in Mongolia, with less than
early 20th century ten known to exist. Begtse rose to prominence in that region as the guardian
of the Bogda Gegeens, Mongolia's Buddhist leaders.

Historical period(s) Collection Geography
early 20th century Rubin Museum of Art Mongolia
Dimensions Classification(s) Provenance
20 × 19 × 13 1/2 in. (estimated) Sculpture ( Papier-mâché, coral, Unknown
metal, fabric)

East Asia - Mongolia 73

Mongolian
Tsam Religious
Ceremony

Nicholas Roerich 1927 - 1928

The painting was created by Nicholas good over evil. Besides the common
Roerich in Darjeeling after the idea, there is a hidden deep meaning
Central-Asian expedition (1924-1928). to this ceremony that had always
Here the artist captured a fragment of been protected and kept unavailable
an ancient mystery common in India, for the uninitiated ones. The central
Tibet, Buryatia, and the northern tanka is dedicated to Amitayus — the
part of Mongolia. N. Roerich saw it in Buddha of Eternal Life, whose red
1926-1927, when he was in Mongolia body symbolizes love and mercy for
with his expedition. Since it was a all living beings. In his hands folded
religious ceremony, in 1930-s the in a meditation mudra he is holding
Mongolian Tsam ceased to be held a bowl with Amrita (the nectar of
in the region. Thus, the painting immortality). White Tara (in the right
by N. Roerich depicting this rare part of the painting) is holding a lotus
religious service is very important that symbolizes purity and holiness.
for modern oriental studies.The wide In the eight hands of Ushnishavijaya
space of the painting is filled with we can see attributes of spiritual
many abstract figures depicting the health and long life. The enormous
ceremony spectators. On the opposite size of the tankas with the images of
side of the Temple there is a canopy the highest deities depicted on them
made of red, blue and yellow silk that is a symbol of these deities’ presence
casts a shadow on the ground. Over at the ceremony. The symbolism of
the canopy there are several huge the dancing Lamas’ costumes, the
tankas with the images of the highest meaning of their magical movements
deities of Buddhist pantheon. In the and words remain shrouded in
left part of the painting we can see mystery connected with the cosmic
ritual pipes on a stand. A group of processes involving both Gods and
Lamas dressed in special garments people. This creates an affinity
and hats perform a ritual around the between the oriental mysteries born
mandala, the tension of their poses in ancient days and the Egyptian
reflecting their full concentration on and Ancient Greek mysteries, all of
the ritual. The sacred mystery music them being a source of the higher
and dances tell us about the victory of knowledge and beauty.

Historical period(s) Classification(s)
1927 - 1928 Paintings

Dimensions Geography
w1525 x h965 cm Mongolia

Collection Provenance
International Centre of the Roerichs Unknown

74 Eastern World Buddhist Art - A brief introduction to Buddhist artworks

East Asia - Mongolia 75

Labyrinth game
Nomin Bold 2012

Bold’s art is an example of modern
Mongol zurag, a critical resurrection
of a painting style created during
the early twentieth-century Mongo-
lian independence struggle. Mongol
zurag (literally, ‘Mongolian painting’)
synthesised elements of Tibetan
Buddhist tangka painting, Chinese
guohua, and the Khitan equestrian
art of the Liao dynasty (907–1125).
It was characterized by ultra-fine
brushwork, bright colors, flattened
perspective, and themes drawn from
everyday life. It arose to address
issues of secular nationalism in the
aftermath of China’s Xinhai Revolu-
tion in 1911, when Mongolia declared
independence from the Manchu
Qing dynasty.
Bold’s art is an example of modern
Mongol zurag, a critical resurrection
of a painting style created during
the early twentieth-century Mongo-
lian independence struggle. Mongol
zurag (literally, ‘Mongolian painting’)
synthesised elements of Tibetan
Buddhist tangka painting, Chinese
guohua, and the Khitan equestrian
art of the Liao dynasty (907–1125).
It was characterized by ultra-fine
brushwork, bright colors, flattened
perspective, and themes drawn from
everyday life. It arose to address
issues of secular nationalism in the
aftermath of China’s Xinhai Revolu-
tion in 1911, when Mongolia declared
independence from the Manchu
Qing dynasty.

Historical period(s) Collection Geography
2012 Queensland Art Gallery Mongolia
Dimensions Classification(s) Provenance
194 x 144cm Painting Gallery of Modern Art Foundation.

76 Eastern World Buddhist Art - A brief introduction to Buddhist artworks

Tomorrow

Nomin Bold 2014

Bold’s work is an example of contem-
porary Mongol zurag, a critical re-
vival of a painterly idiom developed
during the Mongolian independence
movement of the early twentieth cen-
tury. Characterised by its ultra-fine
brushwork, bright colours, flattened
perspective and themes drawn from
everyday life, Mongol zurag (literally,
‘Mongolian painting’) synthesised
elements of Tibetan Buddhist tangka
painting, Chinese guohua and the
Khitan equestrian art of the Liao
dynasty (907–1125). It emerged to ad-
dress themes of secular nationalism
at the time of Mongolia’s declaration
of independence from the Manchu
Qing empire after China’s Xinhai
Revolution of 1911.
As Mongolia came under Soviet in-
fluence, Mongol zurag was subsumed
into the officially mandated socialist
realist style that would dominate
Mongolian culture from the bloody
Stalinist purges of the 1930s until
the Democratic Revolution of 1990.
Established as a subject at the Mon-
golian University of Arts and Culture
as Mongolia sought to reconstitute
its national identity in the late 1990s,
Mongol zurag has been adopted by a
passionate new generation of art-
ists who find within it the means of
addressing the contradictions of their
lives at a time of unprecedented ur-
banisation, financial precariousness
and competing cultural influences.

Historical period(s) Collection Geography
2014 Queensland Art Gallery Mongolia
Dimensions Classification(s) Provenance
194 x 144cm Painting(Gouache, old scripture Gallery of Modern Art Foundation.
sheets on cotton)

East Asia - Mongolia 77

CHINA

Art, politics, literature, philosophy, medicine, and material culture have all
been influenced by Chinese Buddhism, also known as Han Buddhism.

The incorporation of a vast corpus of Chinese translations of Indian Buddhist
texts, as well as Taoist and Confucian writings produced in China, into a
printed canon had far-reaching consequences for the spread of Buddhism
throughout the East Asian cultural sphere, including Korea, Japan, and
Vietnam. The confluence of Indian and Chinese folk religions is also a feature
of Chinese Buddhism.

Artwork 01

Artwork 02

Artwork 03

78 Eastern World Buddhist Art - A brief introduction to Buddhist artworks

01 02 03 04 05 06
Theatrical The Buddhist Thousand-armed Buddhist monk Buddhist Deity, Buddha’s hand
Costume for deity Vajradhara Avalokitesvara Bodhidharma Ushnishavijaya 18th century
the Role of a Qing dynasty (Sahasrabhuja- (Chinese: Damo) (Zun Sheng page 69
Buddhist Cleric (1644-1911) avalokitesvara) 17th century fo mu)
Qing dynasty page 65 ArtistQing page 67 late 17th–18th
(1644–1911) dynasty century
Kangxi period (1644-1912), page 68
(1662–1722) About 1750
page 64 page 66

07 08
Theatrical robe Altar vase
for a Buddhist late 18th century
priest page 71
18th century
page 70 Artwork 08

Artwork 07

Artwork 05

Artwork 04

Artwork 06

East Asia - China 79

Theatrical This vibrant ensemble is a theatrical adaptation of a jiasha, or Buddhist vest-
Costume for ment, which is typically rectangular in shape and slung over one shoulder. It
the Role of a follows several Buddhist clerical dress standards, such as the division of the
Buddhist Cleric piece into parts: columns and a framework encircled by a border with extra
squares at the corners.
Qing dynasty (1644–1911)
Kangxi period (1662–1722)

Historical period(s) Collection Geography
Qing dynasty (1644–1911), Kangxi The Metropolitan Museum of Art China
period (1662–1722)
Dimensions Classification(s) Provenance
Overall: 42 x 102 1/2 in. Costumes-Tapestries (Silk, metal- Mrs. Maurice Casalis , Lyme, CT
(106.7 x 260.4 cm) lic-thread and feather tapestry (kesi)) (until 1945; donated to MMA)

80 Eastern World Buddhist Art - A brief introduction to Buddhist artworks

The Buddhist This sculpture mixes Tibetan symbolism and aesthetic techniques with the
deity Vajradhara old Chinese tradition of lacquered wood carving. The Qing dynasty’s Manchu
rulers had strong ties with Tibet’s prominent religious families, and Tibetan
Qing dynasty (1644-1911) Buddhism was practiced by many within the Qing court. During the reign of
the Qianlong emperor, the royal family commissioned numerous magnificent
works of art for use in Tibetan Buddhist temples in Beijing and other north-
ern Chinese cities. These works were made under the direction of Tibetan
monks and in a Tibetan style, but many of them, like this one, were made in
Qing imperial workshops by Chinese workers.

Historical period(s) Collection Geography
Qing dynasty (1644-1911) The Metropolitan Museum of Art Asian Art Museum

Dimensions Classification(s) Provenance
H. 78.7 cm x W. 59.6 cm x D. 48.3 cm) Sculpture(Hollow dry lacquer inlaid Unknown
with semiprecious stones)

East Asia - China 81

Thousand-armed
Avalokitesvara
(Sahasrabhuja-
avalokitesvara)

ArtistQing dynasty
(1644-1912), About 1750

Multi-armed images of Guanyin, the
bodhisattva (enlightened being) of
compassion, are popular in several
schools of Chinese Buddhism. In its
fullest form, the bodhisattva has one
thousand arms and hands. Each hand
has an eye in its palm that perceives
the suffering of the world, and each
bears a token that offers a means of
salvation.This version has twenty two
pairs of arms.

Wearing a crown decorated with
figures of the Five Dhyani (Wisdom)
Buddhas, Guanyin sits on a lotus
throne before a lunar halo. Above its
head, two hands hold aloft an image
of the bodhisattva’s patron, Ami-
tabha, the Buddha of Infinite Light.
Two other hands, palms together,
form a mudra (gesture) of reverence,
while a third pair rests in a sign of
meditation. The other thirty-eight
hands hold symbolic objects, such
as a vajra (thunderbolt) to represent
enlightenment; willow branches to
sprinkle compassion upon believers;
a sword to sever the bonds of igno-
rance; and a lotus to indicate the
flowering of the mind. At the foot of
the lotus throne stands a Buddhist
monk, who offers smoke from an
incense burner as an act of devotion.

Historical period(s) Collection Geography
Qing dynasty (1644-1912), About 1750 Birmingham Museum of Art China

Dimensions Classification(s) Provenance
w12.5 x h21.5 x d7.13 IN Costumes-Tapestries (gilt bronze) Unknown

82 Eastern World Buddhist Art - A brief introduction to Buddhist artworks

Buddhist monk
Bodhidharma
(Chinese: Damo)

17th century

The bald head, meditative posture,
and monastic clothing identify this
figure as Bodhidharma, the Indian
monk credited with founding the
Chan (or Zen) tradition of East
Asian Buddhism.

Historical period(s) Collection Geography
17th century The Metropolitan Museum of Art China

Dimensions Classification(s) Provenance
H. 4 1/4 in. (10.8 cm); W. 3 1/4 in. (8.3 Horn (Rhinoceros horn) Private collection , Berlin (1950s–
cm); D. 2 3/4 in. (7 cm) 1985; sold to private collector/dealer)

East Asia - China 83

Buddhist Deity,
Ushnishavijaya
(Zun Sheng fo mu)

late 17th–18th century

Ushnishavijaya, one of numerous
female goddesses who came to
play a significant part in Indian
Buddhist rites throughout the
seventh and eighth centuries, may be
distinguished by the tools she wields.
She has three faces and is supposed
to represent the ushnisha, the
Buddha's cranial protuberance. As a
result, she is commonly connected
with the development of spiritual
understanding practices. In her
upper right hand, the goddess holds
a tiny sitting Buddha, while in her
upper left, she holds a two-pronged
vajra hanging on a long rope. A bow
and arrow are held in her second
set of hands, while a four-pronged
vajra (a ceremonial tool symbolizing
adamantine strength) is clutched
in her third. The sculpture’s lowest
hands, the seventh and eighth, make
a beneficent gesture while holding
a covered vase. During the Qing
period, the sculpture’s style shows
the strong links that existed between
the Buddhist civilizations of Tibet,
Mongolia, and China.

Historical period(s) Collection Geography
late 17th–18th century The Metropolitan Museum of Art China

Dimensions Classification(s) Provenance
H. 7 in. (17.8 cm); W. 4 3/4 in. (12.1 Sculpture (Gilt brass; lost-wax cast) Michael C. Hughes, LLC. , New York,
cm); D. 3 3/4 in. (9.5 cm) until 2007; sold to MMA

84 Eastern World Buddhist Art - A brief introduction to Buddhist artworks

Buddha’s hand

18th century
The Buddha’s-hand citron takes its
common name from the shape of its
fruit, which resembles the idealized
fingers of the Buddha. Although the
fruit is not edible, it has a strong
fragrance and is used as an offering
at the altar. Its name in Chinese,
foshou, has almost the same sound
as the words for “fortune” (fo) and
“longevity” (shou), adding another
layer of good wishes.

Historical period(s) Collection Geography
18th century The Metropolitan Museum of Art China
Dimensions
H. 4 in. (10.2 cm) Classification(s) Provenance
Hardstone (Carnelian) Heber R. Bishop , New York (until
1902; donated to MMA)

East Asia - China 85

Theatrical robe for This type of robe, known as a kasaya and intended for a Buddhist priest, is a
piece of rectangular fabric that is wrapped over an inner robe and fastened
a Buddhist priest in the front with a hook. The lining of this example bears a stamp that reads
“Used in the Grand Theatre (Daxiji yong),” which indicates the robe was worn
18th century by an actor in the imperial theater in the Forbidden City rather than by an

actual priest.

Historical period(s) Collection Geography
18th century The Metropolitan Museum of Art China

Dimensions Classification(s) Provenance
43 3/4 x 92 1/2 (at top) x 96 1/2 (at Costumes-Woven (Silk brocade Unknown
bottom) in. (111.1 x 235 x 245.1 cm) patchwork)

86 Eastern World Buddhist Art - A brief introduction to Buddhist artworks

Altar vase This skilfully modelled vase, with a shape inspired by Tibetan metal proto-
types and a complexity of decoration typical of late Qing dynasty Imperial
late 18th century porcelain, was used on altars in the Imperial palace. The main decoration com-
prises eight lotus blooms and the eight Buddhist emblems of Happy Augury
(‘baji xiang’). The eight Buddhist emblems, popular motifs in Chinese decora-
tion, are the canopy, the royal umbrella, the conch shell, the vase, the wheel of
the law, the endless knot, the lotus flower and the pair of fish.

Historical period(s) Collection Geography
late 18th century ‘Asian Art’, AGNSW Collections, China
1994, pg. 205. Provenance
Dimensions Classification(s) Douglas Wrightuntil
25.4 x 15.5 cm Ceramic

East Asia - China 87

TIBET

Tibetan Buddhism (also known as Indo-Tibetan Buddhism or Sino-Indian
Buddhism) is the predominant Buddhist tradition in Tibet and Bhutan. It also
has followers in the Himalayan areas (such as Ladakh and Sikkim), most of
Central Asia, the Southern Siberian regions (such as Tuva), and Mongolia.

Artwork 01

Artwork 02

Artwork 03

88 Eastern World Buddhist Art - A brief introduction to Buddhist artworks

01 02 03 04 05 06
The Bodhisattva An Arhat, a Ritual Crown Manuscript Roundel with nitiation Card
Avalokiteshvara Buddhist Saint with the Five Cover with Karma Lineage (Tsakalis):
in the Form of 14th century Transcendent Prajnaparamita 16th century Akshobya
Padmapani, the page 75 Buddhas Attended by page 78 early 15th
Lotus Bearer late 14th–early Sadakshari century
12th century 15th century Lokeshvara page 79
page 74 page 76 and a Tara
14th–15th
century
page 77

07 08
Avalokiteshvara Green Tara
as Shadakshari- 18th century
Lokeshvara page 81
late 15th century
Artwork 05 page 80

Artwork 07

Artwork 06 Artwork 08
Artwork 04

East Asia - Tibet 89

The Bodhisattva This Padmapani descends from a series of eleventh-century bodhisattva icons
Avalokiteshvara produced under the patronage of the Guge kingdom. It belongs to a larger
in the Form of tradition of metal bodhisattva icons made in western and central Tibetan
Padmapani, the workshops under both Kashmiri and Indian Pala dynasty influences. The
Lotus Bearer inlaid silver for the eyes and copper for the lips, and the jewelry details, reflect
Tibetan responses to Pala models. A softness to the anatomy points to its
12th century twelfth-century date, as do the crown, ear ornaments, and engraved textile
designs on the waist cloth.

Historical period(s) Collection Geography
12th century The Metropolitan Museum of Art Tibet
Provenance
Dimensions Classification(s) Private collection Tibetan (until
H. 21 1/4 in. (54 cm); H. (incl. base) 22 Sculpture (Bronze with later tur- 1992; sold to International
1/2 in. (57.2 cm); W. 8 in. (20.3 cm); D. quoise inlay) Handiscrafts in Hong Kong)
4 in. (10.2 cm)

90 Eastern World Buddhist Art - A brief introduction to Buddhist artworks

An Arhat, a An arhat (“venerable”) holds the highest rank in the Buddhist hierarchy,
Buddhist Saint immediately below a Buddha. This bearded saint is seated in a yogic posture
and holds an opened handscroll, as if preaching. This sculpture has a startling
14th century naturalism, suggestive of a portrait from life.

Historical period(s) Collection Geography
14th century The Metropolitan Museum of Art Tibet
Dimensions Classification(s) Provenance
H. 8 1/16 in. (20.5 cm) Sculpture (Stone with color) Donld J. and Polly Bruckmann
, Easthampton, NY (until 1994;
donated to MMA)

East Asia - Tibet 91

Ritual Crown Monks wearing such crowns during rituals wore them, and they were fre-
with the Five quently part of dancing outfits used in public ceremonial performances. Each
Transcendent of the Tathagata Buddhas is represented in one of the five registers (from
Buddhas left to right): Ratnasambhava (yellow), Amitabha (red), Vairochana (white),
Amoghasiddhi (green), and Akshobhya (blue) (blue). These Buddhas, led by
late 14th–early 15th century Vairochana, rule over the directional Pure Lands. This magnificent crown,
which is one of the oldest specimens to exist, was most likely created by a
Newari artisan working in Tibet.

Historical period(s) Collection Geography
late 14th–early 15th century The Metropolitan Museum of Art Tibet
Dimensions Classification(s) Provenance
Each panel: 7 1/2 × 4 7/16 in. Paintings Jeffrey Kossak , New York (until 1985;
(19 × 11.2 cm) donated to MMA)

92 Eastern World Buddhist Art - A brief introduction to Buddhist artworks

Manuscript Cover with
Prajnaparamita Attended by
Sadakshari Lokeshvara
and a Tara

14th–15th century

Historical period(s) Collection Geography
14th–15th century The Metropolitan Museum of Art Tibet
Dimensions Classification(s) Provenance
8 5/8 x 27 7/16 in. (21.9 x 69.7 cm) Woodwork [ David Tremayne Ltd. , London,
until 1990, sold to MMA]

East Asia - Tibet 93

Roundel with The monks depicted here are dressed in the robes of the Karma tradition
Karma Lineage of Tibetan Buddhism, and the central figure likely represents Mikyo Dorje
(1500–1599), the eighth head of that lineage. The other seven monks repre-
16th century sent earlier incarnations of him, including Marpa (1012–1098) and Milarepa
(1040–1123). Vajradhara presides above, and Mahakala, the order’s great protec-
tor, stands below.

Historical period(s) Collection Geography
16th century The Metropolitan Museum of Art Tibet
Dimensions Classification(s) Provenance
H. 3 1/2 in. (8.7 cm); W. 2 7/8 in. (7.3 Sculpture [ Carlton Rochell Ltd. , New York,
cm); D. 1/2 in. (1.3 cm) until 2003, sold to MMA]

94 Eastern World Buddhist Art - A brief introduction to Buddhist artworks

Nitiation Card (Tsakalis): Akshobya

early 15th century

Tsakali cards were used by itinerant this mandala, the Maha Vairochana with each deity and delusions, such
teachers moving from one monastery sutra tells us that Vajrasattva should as pride, jealousy, and hatred, with
to another in order to evoke Vajraya- be venerated in order to purify the each of the possible rebirths. It is
na Buddhist deities. When laid on mind prior to undertaking advanced remarkable that these cards, perhaps
the ground in the form of a mandala, tantric techniques. This accords with the earliest set of tsakali that survives
as seen here, they functioned to cre- the inscriptions on the back of each intact, together form a mandala suit-
ate a fixed sacred space like that of a card, which associate mental states able for the ritual of initiation.
temple. The deities shown on these
initiation cards include the Tathaga-
ta Buddhas, various bodhisattvas,
fierce protectors, and the six possi-
ble realms of rebirth seen across the
bottom. They probably were made by
a Nepali artist for a Tibetan patron
of the Nyingma school of Tibetan
Buddhism.

Tsakali cards were used individually
to align a disciple with a deity from
the vast pantheon. First, the disciple
sought permission from the deity,
either through a dream or under the
guidance of a teacher. The associ-
ated ritual involved visualizing the
deity as described in recited mantras
(incantations) and with an image—in
this case, the deity represented on
the tsakali.

The cards form a mandala if the first
one is placed in the middle and the
following cards are arranged clock-
wise, as is auspicious. The bodhi-
sattvas Samantabhadra (male) and
Sambantabhadri (female), appearing
in the upper corners, have as their
esoteric counterpart the central and
most important figure, Vajrasattva.
While there is no text explaining

Historical period(s) Collection Geography
early 15th century The Metropolitan Museum of Art Tibet
Dimensions Classification(s) Provenance
Each 6 1/4 x 5 3/4 in. (16 x 14.5 cm) Paintings Gerry Virtue , Sydney (about 1989
until about 2000; consigned at or
sold to Sam Fogg Rare Books)

East Asia - Tibet 95

Avalokiteshvara
as Shadakshari-
Lokeshvara

late 15th century

This painting represents the “six-
syllables form” of Avalokiteshvara,
evoking the mantra om mani
padme hum. Surrounding him are
bodhisattvas, an array of protectors,
and a lineage of monks. This
manifestation of Avalokiteshvara is
especially associated with the Dalai
Lama, who is understood as an
incarnation of this form. Sadaksari-
Lokeshvara is conventionally white,
though here is represented all gold,
the most radiant of colors.

Historical period(s) Collection Geography
late 15th century The Metropolitan Museum of Art Tibet
Provenance
Dimensions Classification(s) Mr. and Mrs. Harry Kahn , New York
Image: 40 3/8 x 31 1/4 in. (102.6 x 79.4 Paintings (until 1985; sold to MMA)
Framed: 51 3/8 x 41 9/16 in. (130.5 x
105.6 cm)

96 Eastern World Buddhist Art - A brief introduction to Buddhist artworks

Green Tara

18th century
In the center Green Tara is golden in
color with one face and two hands.
Her right hand is extended forward
resting on her knee in the gesture of
generosity while holding the stem of
a blue lily with the fingertips. Above
her are the Protectors of the Three
Families, the Bodhisattvas Manjushri,
Avalokiteshvara and Vajrapani.
Further, there are twenty-one
manifestations of Tara surrounding
the main image

Historical period(s) Collection Geography
18th century ubin Museum of Art Tibet
Dimensions Classification(s) Provenance
45 1/8 x 29 7/8 in. Paintings Unknown

East Asia - Tibet 97

XINJIANG

The ancient region of what is now Xinjiang was divided into two parts: the
Tarim Basin (also known as Altishahr) and Dzungaria, and was populated
by Indo-European Tocharians and Saka Buddhists. They fell under Chinese
authority as the Protectorate of the Western Regions during the Han dynasty
owing to battles between the Han and the Xiongnu, and as the Protectorate
General to Pacify the West during the Tang dynasty due to hostilities between
the Tang and the First, Western, and Eastern Turkic Khaganates. After the An
Lushan Rebellion, the Tang dynasty relinquished authority of Xinjiang in the
Protectorate General to Pacify the West and the Four Garrisons of Anxi.

Artwork 04

Artwork 02 Artwork 03
Artwork 01

98 Eastern World Buddhist Art - A brief introduction to Buddhist artworks

01 02 03 04 05 05
Buddha with Monk Holding a Seated Rondel with Head of Buddha Standing Images
radiate halo and Lotus Bodhisattva Seated Buddha 6th–7th century of the Buddha
mandorla 6th–7th century 6th–7th century 6th–7th century and Bodhisattva
5th–6th century page 104 700
page 100 page 101 page 102 page 103
page 105

Artwork 05

Artwork 06

East Asia - Xinjiang 99

Buddha with radiate halo
and mandorla

5th–6th century
This portable shrine from the northern
branch of the Central Asian Silk Road
was probably the centerpiece of a
three-part traveling shrine—a small
triptych with doors. Two donors on
the base venerate what appears to be a
pot overflowing with vegetation. Such
shrines for personal devotion traveled
with merchants and pilgrims. While
the Buddha, especially his hairstyle,
can be related to Chinese imagery,
the overall presentation of the figure
and the combined halo and mandorla
show connections to the Afghan and
Gandharan visual tradition

Historical period(S)
5th–6th century
Dimemtion
H. 14 1/4 x W. 5 1/2 x D. 2 5/8 in. (36.2 x 14
x 6.7 cm)
Collection
The Metropolitan Museum of Art
Classification(S)
Sculpture
Juniper wood with traces of color and gold
Georaphy
Xinjiang
Provenance
Edgar Worch , New York, until 1929;
sold to MMA

100 Eastern World Buddhist Art - A brief introduction to Buddhist artworks