Extra Practice Experiment Techniques to Establish Causation

Extra Practice: Experiment
Techniques to Establish
Causation

Raja Almukkahal
Larry Ottman

Danielle DeLancey
Addie Evans
Ellen Lawsky
Brenda Meery

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www.ck12.org Chapter 1. Extra Practice: Experiment Techniques to Establish Causation

1CHAPTER Extra Practice: Experiment

Techniques to Establish Causation

Learning Objectives

• Identify the important characteristics of an experiment.
• Distinguish between confounding and lurking variables.
• Use a random number generator to randomly assign experimental units to treatment groups.
• Identify experimental situations in which blocking is necessary or appropriate and create a blocking scheme

for such experiments.
• Identify experimental situations in which a matched pairs design is necessary or appropriate and explain how

such a design could be implemented.
• Identify the reasons for and the advantages of blind experiments.
• Distinguish between correlation and causation.

Extra Practice: Experiment Techniques to Establish Causation

1. As part of an effort to study the effect of intelligence on survival mechanisms, scientists recently compared
a group of fruit flies intentionally bred for intelligence to the same species of ordinary flies. When released
together in an environment with high competition for food, the percentage of ordinary flies that survived was
significantly higher than the percentage of intelligent flies that survived.

a. Identify the population of interest and the treatments.
b. Based on the information given in this problem, is this an observational study or an experiment?
c. Based on the information given in this problem, can you conclude definitively that intelligence decreases

survival among animals?

2. In order to find out which brand of cola students in your school prefer, you set up an experiment where each
person will taste two brands of cola, and you will record their preference.

a. How would you characterize the design of this study?
b. If you poured each student a small cup from the original bottles, what threat might that pose to your

results? Explain what you would do to avoid this problem, and identify the statistical term for your
solution.
c. Let’s say that one of the two colas leaves a bitter after-taste. What threat might this pose to your results?
Explain how you could use randomness to solve this problem.

3. You would like to know if the color of the ink used for a difficult math test affects the stress level of the test
taker. The response variable you will use to measure stress is pulse rate. Half the students will be given a test
with black ink, and the other half will be given the same test with red ink. Students will be told that this test
will have a major impact on their grades in the class. At a point during the test, you will ask the students to
stop for a moment and measure their pulse rates. In preparation for this experiment, you measure the at-rest
pulse rates of all the students in your class.

Here are those pulse rates in beats per minute:

TABLE 1.1:

Student Number At Rest Pulse Rate
1 46

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Student Number TABLE 1.1: (continued)
2
3 At Rest Pulse Rate
4 72
5 64
6 66
7 82
8 44
9 56
10 76
11 60
12 62
54
76

a. Using a matched pairs design, identify the students (by number) that you would place in each pair.
b. Seed the random number generator on your calculator using 623.

Use your calculator to randomly assign each student to a treatment. Explain how you made your assignments.
(FYI: to select random numbers, use the RandInt command found under MATH, PRB. Following the RandInt
command on your home screen, you’ll enter the smallest # in your list of student numbers, largest # in your
list of student numbers, and then the # of students you’re wanting to select. Remember to check to see if you
have selected the same student more than once!)

c. Identify any potential lurking variables in this experiment.
d. Explain how you could redesign this experiment as a repeated measures design?

4. A recent British study was attempting to show that a high-fat diet was effective in treating epilepsy in children.
According to the New York Times, this involved, “...145 children ages 2 to 16 who had never tried the diet,
who were having at least seven seizures a week and who had failed to respond to at least two anticonvulsant
drugs."

a. What is the population in this example?
b. One group began the diet immediately; another group waited three months to start it. In the first group,

38% of the children experienced a 50% reduction in seizure rates, and in the second group, only 6
percent saw a similar reduction prior to beginning the diet. What information would you need to be able
to conclude that this was a valid experiment?
c. Identify the treatment and control groups in this experiment.
d. What conclusion could you make from the reported results of this experiment?

5. Researchers want to know how chemically fertilized and treated grass compares to grass grown using only
organic fertilizer. Also, they believe that the height at which the grass is cut will affect the growth of the lawn.
To test this, grass will be cut at three different heights: 1 inch, 2 inches, and 4 inches. A lawn area of existing
healthy grass will be divided up into plots for the experiment. Assume that the soil, sun, and drainage for
the test areas are uniform. Explain how you would implement a randomized block design to test the different
effects of fertilizer and grass height. Draw a diagram that shows the plots and the assigned treatments.

6. What are some other ways that researchers design more complicated experiments?

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www.ck12.org Chapter 1. Extra Practice: Experiment Techniques to Establish Causation

7. When one treatment seems to result in a notable difference, how do we know if that difference is statistically
significant?

8. How can the selection of samples for an experiment affect the validity of the conclusions?

9. Design a matched pairs experiment to determine whether students prefer the taste of Pepsi or Coke when the
test is blind.

10. Twenty overweight males agree to participate in a study of the effectiveness of 5 different diets. The researcher
calculates how many pounds overweight each subject is by looking at the difference of the subject’s weight to
his ideal weight. The researcher uses a randomized block design.

a. How many experimental units are there?
b. How many factors are there?
c. How many treatments are there?
d. How many blocks will the researcher set up? Explain.
e. How many subjects will there be in each block? Explain.
f. Describe how the subjects within each block will be assigned to a treatment.

11. A group of 300 first grade students is available to compare the effectiveness of two different methods for
teaching arithmetic.

a. Outline the design of an experiment to make this comparison. What will your response variable be?

12. You want to compare three treatments for preventing the common cold: a vaccine, 1 gram of vitamin C taken
daily and a placebo. You have 300 subjects available to you. Describe how you would use these subjects in an
experiment to compare these treatments.

13. Describe the difference between an observational study and an experiment. What advantages do experiments
have over observational studies?

14. A teacher wants to study the effectiveness of computer software that teaches arithmetic with the standard
arithmetic curriculum for first grade students. She determines the level of each student in the class and divides
them into two groups: one will have instruction on the computer; the other will have the standard curriculum.
At the end of the year the two groups are retested and compared for increase in facility with arithmetic.

a. Is this an experiment?
b. What are the explanatory and response variables?
c. If teachers are asked to volunteer to use the computer software, are there any confounding variables?

Explain.

15. Experiments can help determine cause and effect. Discuss some difficulties that can occur in the use of
experiments.

16. Find an example of an observational study in the news. Specify the explanatory and response variables and
explain whether confounding variables were likely to be a major problem in interpreting the results.

17. Find an example of a randomized experiment in the news.

a. What are the explanatory and response variables? Was a relationship between them found?
b. What treatments were assigned?
c. Was a control group used or a placebo?
d. Was the study a matched-pair design, a block design or neither?
e. Was the study single blind, double blind or neither?

18. A study reported in the Journal of Pediatrics, DOI 10.1016/j.peds.2010.07.026, published by Elsevier, looked
at the relationship between dog ownership and eczema in children. Data was gathered from 636 children who
were enrolled in a allergy study which was examining the effects of environmental particulates on childhood
allergy development. The children enrolled were considered to be at high risk for developing allergies because
both of their parents had allergies. The children were tested for 17 different allergies on a yearly basis from
ages 1 to 4 and their parents completed surveys. The study concluded that if children who tested positive for
dog allergies had a dog before age 1 year, they were less likely to develop eczema by age 4 years. Do you
think this is based on an observational study or an experiment? Explain.

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19. A study considering the association of suicide attempts with acne and treatment with the drug isotretinoin was

reported in the British Medical Journal, 2010:341:c5812. The objective of the study was to assess the risk of
attempted suicide before, during and after treatment of severe acne with this drug. Over 5,000 patients, aged
15 to 49 years were prescribed the drug and observed before, during and after the treatment. The conclusion
of the study was that there was an increased risk of attempted suicide up to six months after ending treatment
with the drug.

a. Was this an observational study or an experiment? Explain.
b. Give an example of a possible confounding variable in this study.
20. Choose an issue of public policy that you feel could be clarified by an experiment. Discuss the statistical
design of your experiment. What are the treatments? What are the response variables? Do you recommend
blocking?

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