BUKU SYARAHAN SULUH BUDIMAN - Pro

SYARAHAN PERDANA PROFESOR Profesor Dr. Ramlee Bin Mustapha New Discoveries in TVET: Identification of Vocational Intelligence (VQ) and the Development of Vocational Taxonomy (VT) Based on Empirical Evidence

New Discoveries in TVET: Identification of Vocational Intelligence (VQ) and iii SYARAHAN PERDANA PROFESOR the Development of Vocational Taxonomy (VT) Based on Empirical Evidence Profesor Dr. Ramlee Bin Mustapha New Discoveries in TVET: Identification of Vocational Intelligence (VQ) and the Development of Vocational Taxonomy (VT) Based on Empirical Evidence PENERBIT UNIVERSITI PENDIDIKAN SULTAN IDRIS TANJONG MALIM, PERAK 2024

First Printing 2024 © Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris 2024 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical including photocopy, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the Authors. Published in Malaysia by Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris 35900 Tanjong Malim, Perak Darul Ridzuan, Malaysia Tel: 05-450 6000, Faks: 05-459 5169 Laman Sesawang: www.upsi.edu.my E-mel: [email protected] Typesetting and graphic by Pejabat Karang Mengarang (UPSI PRESS) Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris 35900 Tanjong Malim, Perak Darul Ridzuan, Malaysia Printed by Nur Niaga Sdn Bhd No.55 Jalan 6/2, Taman Industri Selesa Jaya, 43300 Sri Kembangan, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia

CONTENTS Preamble vii 1 Introduction 1 2 Vocational Intelligence 2.0 Vocational intelligence (VQ) 3 2.1 Evolution of the concept of intelligence 3 2.2 Multiple intelligences 5 2.3 Concept of vocational intelligence 6 2.4 Methods to determine the elements of VQ 8 2.5 Inventories of VQ 8 2.6 Results on VQ 8 2.7 Contributions of VQ 13 3 Vocational Taxonomy 3.0 Vocational taxonomy (VT) 20 3.1 Weaknesses of Bloom taxonomy 21 3.2 The needs of VT in TVET 22 3.3 Methods to determine vocational domains 29 3.4 Inventories of VT 30 3.5 Results on VT 32 3.6 Contributions of VT 38 4.0 Conclusion 40 5.0 Bibliography 42 Biography 59

This professorial lecture is about introducing a new intelligence and a new taxonomy based on my extensive fundamental research on TVET spans over two decades. There are two sections of my lecture. The first one is about Vocational Intelligence (VQ) and the second part is about Vocational Taxonomy (VT). Even though these two original ideas were coming from me but the empirical evidence to support my theories was derived in forms of PhD research and research grants. I am forever indebted to my two “brave” former PhD students–Dr. Rahayu Ahamad Bahtiar and Dr. Norhazizi Lebai Long–who were willing to take the challenge to accept my “killer” PhD topics. Dr. Rahayu’s research was on identifying vocational intelligence and developing an instrument to measure vocational intelligence (MyVQ) while Dr. Norhazizi’s task was to develop a new taxonomy for vocational educators and practitioners. This presentation will elaborate on both new discoveries in the field of TVET. These topics will imbue with the theoretical perspectives, epistemological deliberation, hypothesis testings, empirical data analyses, and then the results will prompt to the practional applications of these noble findings. PREAMBLE

Previous empirical studies related to vocational intelligence are very few. This clearly shows that there is a significant knowledge gap for me and my PhD student to conduct a detailed study on vocational intelligence. Our research results show that there are five (5) domains describing a person’s vocational intelligence (VQ): (a) vocational personality, (b) vocational interest, (c) visualization ability (d) motor skills, and (e) vocational creativity. There is little conceptual difference between intelligence and talent. Talent is defined as the natural ability that exists in a person to do a task. Therefore, vocational talent refers to a person’s manual dexterity ability to perform or complete a task. Someone who has vocational intelligence is those who have personality, interests, talents, and vocational skills. Historically, the study of intelligence began with IQ (Intellectual Quotient) then MI (Multiple Intelligence), and EQ (Emotional Intelligence) but none really focused on VQ (Vocational Intelligence). Why do we believe that identifying and measuring vocational intelligence is important? Can we identify from a young age – innovators or creators like Steve Jobs who despite his academic achievements are not very high (only high school qualifications without a university degree) but are seen to have high “vocational intelligence”? What are the characteristics of those who have a high inventive tendency? If children’s vocational talents can be assessed early, these students can be nurtured early to become INTRODUCTION 1

2 Syarahan Perdana Profesor Profesor Dr. Ramlee Bin Mustapha future creators and in the long term can improve Malaysia’s position as one of the innovative countries. Pupils and teenagers with high vocational talent and intelligence can be given priority for admission to Technical Schools, Vocational Training Institutions, Vocational Colleges, Community Colleges, Polytechnics, and Technical Universities. This public lecture is divided into two parts: First, to present the basic concepts and theories of VQ. And it is also to introduce an inventory (MyVQ) that can measure the vocational intelligence of children and teenagers in Malaysia. This inventory has been developed through research and meets the psychometric criteria used. The second part is to delve on the second discovery which is the Vocational Taxonomy (VT). Taxonomy is also important for assessment. Bloom taxonomy is often used in the design of test questions in education. However, Bloom’s taxonomy does not provide criteria to evaluate hands-on practical activities (Ennis, 1985). Activities in VET such as visualizing, designing, machining, and problem-solving usually require cognitive and psychomotor competences. By emphasizing hands-on and practical skills, the psychomotor domain is important in vocational education and training (Ramlee, 2017; Okwelle, 2013). Therefore, the development of vocational taxonomy is critical.

VOCATIONAL INTELLIGENCE 2 2.0 VOCATIONAL INTELLIGENCE (VQ) 2.1 Evolution of the concept of intelligence Based on the literature, intelligence has been given various definitions such as the capacity for abstraction, logical thinking, understanding, reasoning, self-awareness, learning skills, emotional regulation, planning, creativity, critical thinking, and problem solving. Intelligence also has been defined as the ability to draw conclusions based on information, environment and context (Sharma, 2008). The evolution of the concept of intelligence began at the beginning of the 20th century. When talking about intelligence, we often hear or read about IQ or intelligent quotient, which refers to the ability and ability to acquire and use knowledge from a cognitive or intellectual aspect (Cohen & Swerdlik, 2009). Intellectual intelligence refers to human mental capacity and understanding developed through thought, experience and senses. It is the ability to generate knowledge by using existing information. It also includes other intellectual functions such as attention, learning, memory, judgment and reasoning. To measure cognitive intelligence, intellectual intelligence (IQ) tests are used. The abbreviation “IQ” was coined by the psychologist William Stern for the German term Intelligenzquotient – the term IQ was used

4 Syarahan Perdana Profesor Profesor Dr. Ramlee Bin Mustapha for the scoring method for intelligence tests at the University of Breslau that Stern described in his book published in 1914 (Stern & Whipple, 1914). During Stern’s time, several other psychologists were looking for ways to quantitatively assess individual differences. Alfred Binet and Théodore Simon, for example, were developing tests to assess children’s mental age to identify learning disabilities, but had no standardized way to compare these scores across populations of children. Stern proposed a change in the formula for intelligence, which had previously been calculated using the difference between an individual’s mental age and chronological age. Instead, Stern suggests dividing an individual’s mental age by their chronological age to obtain a single ratio. This formula was later improved by Lewis Terman, who multiplied the intelligence result by 100 to obtain a whole number (Lamiell, 2003). Stern, however, cautions against using this formula as the only way to categorize intelligence. He believes that individual differences, such as intelligence, are very complex and there is no easy way to quantitatively compare individuals to each other. Concepts such as mental retardation cannot be defined using a single intelligence test, because there are several factors that are not tested by the test, such as volitional and emotional variables. Since the beginning of the 20th century, various types of IQ tests have been introduced. However, controversy and debate related to IQ also arise (Neisser, et al., 1996; Plucker, 2003). Controversy about IQ refers to the debate about the use, interpretation and misuse of IQ (Intelligence Quotient) tests. This controversy has dragged on for decades and involves various perspectives, criticisms and ethical concerns. Among the main points of IQ controversy include the validity and reliability of instruments or tests that are said to measure IQ. Critics argue that IQ tests are not completely valid or reliable measures of intelligence. Studies show that cultural factors, language, socioeconomics, age, and environmental influences affect IQ scores. The debate also focused on the relative contribution of genetics (nature) and environment (nurture) to IQ. Some research finds a genetic role while others highlight the importance of environmental factors such as education, nutrition, and early childhood experiences.

New Discoveries in TVET: Identification of Vocational Intelligence (VQ) and 5 the Development of Vocational Taxonomy (VT) Based on Empirical Evidence Critics also argue that IQ labels can lead to stereotypes, discrimination and inaccurate predictions of an individual’s potential. They argue that IQ scores can be used to justify unequal treatment or limit opportunities for individuals with lower IQ scores. However, the IQ score assessments can also be misused or misinterpreted – which may have negative consequences. For example, IQ scores have been used to support racist or biased policies where the admission rates of minority or vulnerable students to well-known universities are minimal. Later, the world was introduced to the theory of multiple intelligences (Gardner, 1983). 2.2 Multiple intelligences Howard Gardner, a Harvard psychologist, proposed the theory of multiple intelligences in 1983. This theory challenges the traditional view of intelligence as a general ability (g-factor) that can be measured using IQ tests. Gardner argued that human intelligence is multifaceted and consists of eight different constructs: ● Linguistic Intelligence – The ability to use language effectively for communication, expression and problem solving ● Logical-Mathematical Intelligence – The ability to reason, solve problems, and perform mathematical operations ● Spatial Intelligence – The ability to perceive and manipulate objects in space, create visual representations, and orient oneself ● Kinesthetic-Physical Intelligence – The ability to use the body for physical activity, coordination, and motor skills ● Musical Intelligence – The ability to compose, perform, appreciate and understand musical patterns ● Interpersonal Intelligence – The ability to understand and interact with others, empathize, and communicate effectively ● Intrapersonal Intelligence – The ability to understand oneself, reflect on experiences, and make meaningful connections ● Naturalistic Intelligence – The ability to observe, categorize, and appreciate nature and its systems Yet the main criticism of Gardner’s theory is the lack of empirical evidence. Some scholars critical of Gardner’s theory argue that there is insufficient scientific evidence to support the existence of eight separate types of intelligence.

6 Syarahan Perdana Profesor Profesor Dr. Ramlee Bin Mustapha Based on Gardner MI, the related concept to vocational intelligence is bodily-kinesthetics intelligence. According to Gardner, kinestheticphysical intelligence refers to a person’s ability to process information physically through hand and body movements, control and expression. We define vocational intelligence (VQ) as an individual who has a vocational personality, vocational interest, vocational talent, vocational skills and vocational creativity. 2.3 Concept of vocational intelligence In general, Gottfredson (1997: 13) defines intelligence as: Intelligence is a very general mental capability that, among other things, involves the ability to reason, plan, solve problems, think abstractly, comprehend complex ideas, learn quickly and learn from experience. It is not merely book learning, a narrow academic skill, or test-taking smarts. Rather, it reflects a broader and deeper capability for comprehending our surroundings – ‘catching on,’ ‘making sense’ of things, or ‘figuring out’ what to do. Vocational intelligence refers to an individual’s acuteness of mind and body coordination and his or her speed of motor dexterity (Ramlee & Rahayu, 2021). However, there is a significant gap in empirical research on vocational intelligence (VQ). The majority of research focuses on either IQ or EQ – very little empirical research examines vocational intelligence or kinesthetic-physical intelligence. However, there are several studies focused on the factors that influence students’ vocational choices (Achter, et al., 1999; Baker Jr., 2004; Bromet, 2005; Kent, 2008; Momberg, 2004; Proyer 2006; Ramlee et al., 2010), personality of TVET students (Gunkel et al., 2010; Holland, 1997; Kent, 2008; Ng & Feldman, 2009; Schultz & Schultz, 2009), interests of TVET students (Allison et al., 1999; Asnul Dahar & Zulkifli, 2010; Feldman & Whitcomb, 2004; Hein, 1997; Schmidt, 2001), vocational skills (Achter et al., 1999; Covey & Colosimo, 2004; Rahayu et. al, 2015) & Bruijn, 2011; Farazawani, 2007; Ross, 2008). Some other studies focused on individual vocational talents in higher education or in the workplace but very little research was conducted on primary school students. Therefore, this fundamental research was carried out to map vocational intelligence among primary school students.

New Discoveries in TVET: Identification of Vocational Intelligence (VQ) and 7 the Development of Vocational Taxonomy (VT) Based on Empirical Evidence This presentation introduces the concept and theory of vocational intelligence, or VQ for short, as a new concept that is closely related to technical and vocational education and training (TVET). TVET involves vocational knowledge and skills, practical and experiential experience. TVET also provides individuals with relevant skills for a job so that the individual gets a suitable job (UNESCO, 2016). Vocational intelligence can also be defined as an individual’s natural capacity in the vocational domain (Rahayu, 2018). Specifically, vocational intelligence refers to the sharpness of mind and individual body coordination as well as the motor dexterity of an individual (Ramlee & Rahayu, 2021). In order to succeed in a vocational career in the future, we believe that the vocational intelligence of students is important to identify so that students – from a young age – can be given the opportunity to follow technical and vocational streams if their VQ scores are high. Rahayu Ahamad Bahtiar (2018) empirical research found that there are five (5) domains that describe a person’s vocational intelligence (VQ): (a) vocational personality, (b) vocational interest, (c) visualization ability (d) motor skills, and (e) vocational creativity. Vocational interest can be defined as an individual’s tendency towards a certain field of work, especially a vocational field, which will give satisfaction to the individual. Ability is the present capacity of an individual to do specific tasks. Aptitude is the individual’s potential to master a skill in the future. Talent is a specific natural ability to do a task with excellence. But this talent needs to be honed with practice. TVET involves many practical or hands-on activities. Therefore, TVET requires individuals who have good motor skills regardless of the TVET field they are engaged in. According to Schmidt and Wrisberg (2008), motor skills can be viewed from two perspectives: the task perspective and the performance efficiency perspective. Motor skills from a task perspective can be classified into three types: (a) based on how the task is structured, (b) the relative importance of motor and cognitive elements, and (c) the level of environmental factors. Motor skills from the perspective of performance efficiency are based on the extent to which the goal can be achieved to the maximum and the extent to which the use of energy and movement time is minimal (Schmidt & Wrisberg, 2008).

8 Syarahan Perdana Profesor Profesor Dr. Ramlee Bin Mustapha The vocational skills referred to are motor skills from a task perspective, based on the way tasks are organized as suggested by Schmidt and Wrisberg (2008). Palmer (2007) on the other hand defines vocational skills as learned or acquired abilities, or the acquisition of practical competencies required to perform certain tasks. Therefore, vocational skills can be defined as practical competence 2.4 Methods to determine the elements of VQ The research design used to identify and measure vocational intelligence was a model development. Model development is used when a researcher develops a model or theory to explain or predict a phenomenon. In addition, one of the research objectives was to develop an inventory for assessing vocational talents of students. The design and developmental research (DDR) (Richey, et al., 2004) was employed to develop MyVQ where three phases were involved: need analysis, design and development, and implementation and assessment. The DDR model is an iterative design process where the result of one phase will be used to start the next phase. 2.5 Inventories of VQ This research aimed to develop a test inventory for assessing students’ vocational intelligence (MyVQ). The MyVQ consisted of six sections: Section A was designed to collect demographic data of the respondents such as gender, type of school, family background, parents’ occupation, and etc. Section B was a personality inventory to assess the students’ vocational personality. Section C was a vocational interest inventory. Section D was a visualization test and Section E was motor / kinesthetics manual test. Finally, Section F was designed to measure vocational creativity. 2.6 Results on VQ MyVQ was tested on 400 Year Six students from three (3) types of primary schools in Peninsular Malaysia to test their vocational intelligence. The test results are as in the next section, organized by section in the MyVQ instrument.

New Discoveries in TVET: Identification of Vocational Intelligence (VQ) and 9 the Development of Vocational Taxonomy (VT) Based on Empirical Evidence Demographics of respondents A total of 400 respondents from five zones in Peninsular Malaysia took the MyVQ test. The number of respondents in each zone is almost the same, namely 20.0% (80 respondents) from the northern zone, 20.0% (80 respondents) from the eastern zone, 19.8% (79 respondents) from the western zone, 21.0% (84 respondents) from the southern zone, and 19.2 % (77 respondents) from the middle zone. The number of respondents based on gender is also almost the same, 51.8% of respondents are male while 48.3% of respondents are female. The percentage of respondents for each ethnic group is almost representative of the percentage of the population of each ethnic group in Malaysia where the Malays are the majority ethnic group in the population. A total of 50.0% of respondents were Malay, 22.8% of respondents were Chinese, 26.5% of respondents were Indian, and 0.8% of respondents were from other ethnic groups. Based on the types of school, as many as 50.3% of respondents were from National Schools (SK), 24.0% of respondents from Chinese National Schools (SJKC), and 25.8% of respondents from Tamil National Schools (SJKT). Personality A total of 223 (55.8%) respondents were found to have an above average score (>13.71) for realistic personality. And, Overall, 214 (53.8%) respondents scored above average (>15.80) for artistic personality. Realistic & artistic interests Overall, a total of 184 (46.0%) respondents were found to obtain above average scores for realistic interests (>21.27). In general, 197 (49.3%) respondents tend to have an artistic interest where the score obtained for the artistic interest item is above the average score (>23.35). Vocational interest A total of 203 (50.8%) respondents scored above average (>44.62) for the vocational interest section of MyVQ.

10 Syarahan Perdana Profesor Profesor Dr. Ramlee Bin Mustapha Visualization In terms of visualization ability, a total of 167 (41.8%) respondents achieved a score above the mean value (>21.26). Overall, 215 (53.8%) respondents achieved scores above average (>41.61), showing that more than 50% of respondents showed a tendency towards motor skills. Vocational creativity In terms of vocational creativity, a total of 167 (41.8%) managed to achieve a score above average (>16.88). VQ formula for composite scores MyVQ consists of six (6) sections. However, only the scores from the five sections are considered in the calculation of the composite score, vocational intelligence score or VQ score. The vocational intelligence composite score, VQ, is calculated using the following formula: VQ = VP + VI + VZ + VS + VC where VP = vocational personality score VI = vocational interest score VZ = visualization ability score VS = motor skill score VC = vocational creativity score VQ scores follow a normal distribution with a mean of 153.88 and a standard deviation of 19.23. Sample VQ scores are calculated using formulas and tabulated to produce initial norms for VQ. There are four levels of vocational intelligence: low, medium, high and gifted. Students who score below 130 are considered to have low vocational intelligence while students who score between 130 and 169 are considered to

New Discoveries in TVET: Identification of Vocational Intelligence (VQ) and 11 the Development of Vocational Taxonomy (VT) Based on Empirical Evidence have a moderate level of vocational intelligence. Students with a high level of vocational intelligence are those who score between 170 and 189 while students who score above 190 are considered gifted. Based on the Table 1, as many as 2.2% (9 people) of the respondents with a score of 190 and above are considered gifted in the vocational field. A total of 18.5% (74 people) of respondents are considered highly talented in the vocational field, 69.5% (278 people) of respondents are considered average and 9.8% (39 people) are low. Of the total study respondents, 20.7% (83 people) of the respondents are considered gifted and highly talented in the vocational field and are recommended to go to the TVET stream. Table 1 Interpretation of the VQ scores Score VQ level % (n) 190 and above Gifted 2.2 (9) 170 to 189 High 18.5 (74) 130 to 169 Moderate 69.5 (278) Less than 130 Low 9.8 (39)

12 Syarahan Perdana Profesor Profesor Dr. Ramlee Bin Mustapha Table 2 Vocational intelligence profile of Malaysian students based on gender, zone and type of school The initial norm for students with high VQ who scored 170 and above (in the level of high vocational intelligence and gifted) is proposed to be selected to follow the vocational stream. The focus of 21st century education is no longer solely on students’ literacy and numeracy. It is important to ensure that students are equipped with important and relevant knowledge and skills that will help them find employment in the future. In this study, vocational creativity was found to be one of the characteristics of vocational intelligence and the vocational creativity score among the sample was found to be low. Only 167 (41.8%) respondents achieved a score above average (>16.88). Therefore,

New Discoveries in TVET: Identification of Vocational Intelligence (VQ) and 13 the Development of Vocational Taxonomy (VT) Based on Empirical Evidence creativity should be integrated in the curriculum so that students can be nurtured to be more creative. Creativity is not only related to art or the production of art projects but more to high-level thinking and how to process data (Weissman & Hendrick, 2014). The findings of this study also support the importance of creativity in the Primary School Standard Curriculum or Primary School Standard Curriculum (KSSR). In KSSR, the importance of literacy and numeracy is not denied, in fact it needs to be enhanced with 21st century skills such as ICT, creativity and innovation, and entrepreneurship. In addition, the emphasis on students’ higher order thinking skills (KBAT) is timely. Students’ ability to read and count is no longer sufficient for them to succeed. Furthermore, there is a deficiency in the primary school curriculum in Malaysia where aspects of vocational interest, vocational personality, visualization abilities and motor skills as well as vocational creativity are not emphasized at the primary school level. The counselors at the school are also less skilled in the aspect of vocational counseling. The VQ profile of primary school students in Malaysia based on the sample selected in this research is categorized into four levels according to the initial VQ norm. The vocational intelligence profile of the sample selected in this research is as follows: 2.2% have VQ at the gifted level with a score of 190 and above, 18.5% of the sample is considered to have a high VQ in the vocational field (score between 170-189), 69.5% of the sample is considered moderate (score between 130-169) and 9.8% of the sample has VQ at a low level (score less than 130). If students with gifted and high VQ are combined, 20.7% of the sample is considered to have a high level of vocational intelligence. These are potential students who are successful in the TVET field. In addition, VQ data can provide basic information to predict the number of students to enter a vocational stream. It is also important to plan the placement of TVET students as well as the places offered. Researchers suggest that pupils in the high and talented VQ category are given priority for admission to the TVET stream. Next, the contributions of the findings of this study will be discussed 2.7 Contributions of VQ The results of this study have shown that vocational intelligence (VQ) among students can be identified by using the developed MyVQ inventory. This section discusses the theoretical and practical implications of the study.

14 Syarahan Perdana Profesor Profesor Dr. Ramlee Bin Mustapha Theoretical implications There are three main theories that are used as the basis of this study. The conceptual framework of this study is based on three main theories, namely – Trait and Factor Theory (Parsons, 1909), Holland’s Personality Theory (Holland, 1997), and Multiple Intelligence Theory (Gardner, 1983). Based on the theory of Parsons (1909), the ideal career choice is based on matching personal characteristics (abilities, abilities, resources and personality) with job factors (wages, environment, etc.) to achieve career success. In other words, an individual will be more productive in his career when his personal characteristics match the needs of the job and the environment. Like Parsons, Holland (1997) also believes that individuals are more likely to be satisfied with their careers if they choose jobs that match their personality traits. For example, realistic individuals are more likely to be satisfied with careers that involve working with their hands, while artistic individuals are more likely to be satisfied with careers that involve creative expression. Holland’s study (1997) provides another theoretical perspective where vocational personality can be used as one of the criteria in identifying vocational intelligence. Gardner (1983) proposed a theory of multiple intelligences. This theory challenges the traditional view that refers to intelligence as a general ability. Gardner argued that there are nine different types of intelligence – each relatively independent of the others. One of the intelligences that form the basis of vocational intelligence (VQ) is kinesthetic-physical intelligence – it is the intelligence of using the body for physical activity, coordination, and motor skills. Findings in VQ research support these theories with an additional criterion for vocational success, namely creativity. The theory of vocational intelligence (VQ) presented by Ramlee Mustapha and Rahayu Ahamad Bahtiar also predicts that a child with VQ intelligence has the potential to become a skilled worker, technopreneur and/or inventor in the future, if the vocational talent is nurtured. The characteristics of vocational intelligence identified from this research are vocational personality, vocational interest, visualization ability, motor skills, and creativity. As explained in Chapter 1, one of the definitions of vocational intelligence (VQ) is the natural capacity

New Discoveries in TVET: Identification of Vocational Intelligence (VQ) and 15 the Development of Vocational Taxonomy (VT) Based on Empirical Evidence of a person in a vocational field or individual capacity to perform or complete a task using mind-body coordination and physical dexterity rather than purely cognitive intelligence. Apart from the domains proposed by Parsons (1909), Holland (1997) and Gardner (1983), this study found that inventive vocational creativity is important as one of the domains of vocational intelligence (VQ). In the era of IR 4.0 (Schwab, 2014) and the era of the intelligence revolution (Marr, 2020), the integration of human intelligence and machine intelligence is used to develop human civilization. Human civilization from the economic and social aspects should be developed with relevant education and employment. Thus, it is critical that vocational intelligence is identified from childhood so that the appropriate education stream can be suggested. Based on this study, another type of intelligence was identified which is vocational intelligence (VQ). The findings also show that individuals may have different levels of vocational intelligence. They may have VQ at the gifted, high, medium or low level. Therefore, this research not only contributes to the theory of intelligence but can also develop an inventory (MyVQ) to measure that intelligence. The findings of this study also support Holland’s theory (Holland, 1997) in the aspects of realistic and artistic personality. The findings of the study show that children who have VQ, the majority have a realistic and artistic personality. In addition, the empirical data of the study supports the theory of multiple intelligences by Gardner (1983) from the aspect of physical kinesthetic intelligence or manual dexterity. There are two main contributions of this study. First, it can identify the existence of vocational intelligence (VQ) based on the initial theory by Gardner who proposed the existence of kinesthetic-physical intelligence. This study completes Gardner’s theory by collecting empirical data that supports five (5) VQ domains namely: (a) vocational personality, (b) vocational interest, (c) visualization ability, (d) motor skills, and (f) vocational creativity. Second, the MyVQ inventory to measure children’s VQ in primary school was developed and tested. Although the MyVQ inventory is still in the prototype stage, it is hoped that there will be an agency or company that can produce this inventory commercially so that VQ testing can be carried out widely.

16 Syarahan Perdana Profesor Profesor Dr. Ramlee Bin Mustapha Practical implications The practical implications of this research from the aspect of VQ testing to primary school students so that the student’s vocational profile can be developed. In addition, the primary and secondary school curriculum also needs to be modified so that the VQ domains can be applied across the curriculum. Practical implications for educational institutions are also elaborated. VQ testing The use of the MyVQ inventory can help the student selection process for the TVET stream. Students selected with the help of MyVQ are suitable and have the potential to succeed in the TVET field. In addition, the Curriculum Development Department may consider including the five VQ domains that have been identified into the curriculum or cocurriculum in primary and secondary schools. Curriculum at the school level The findings of this study can also be considered in the design and development of curricula, programs or courses in training institutions for pupils, students, vocational trainee teachers, teachers and lecturers. The VQ domains can be included in the learning curriculum, teaching modules, practical syllabus and vocational teacher training programs in line with the course syllabus. Educational and training institutions There are five domains of vocational intelligence (VQ) found from this research, namely: vocational personality, vocational interest, visualization ability, motor skills and creativity. Based on these findings – schools, vocational training institutions and educational institutions such as universities or teacher training institutions can consider applying the domains of vocational intelligence into vocationally oriented programs and courses – whether existing courses or new courses to be developed.

New Discoveries in TVET: Identification of Vocational Intelligence (VQ) and 17 the Development of Vocational Taxonomy (VT) Based on Empirical Evidence The VQ domains to be applied are in line with the goal of the Malaysian National Education Philosophy – to produce holistic students who are balanced intellectually, spiritually, emotionally and physically. Therefore, holistic vocational students can be produced to ensure higher quality vocational students who will eventually contribute to the national economy as skilled workforce, technopreneurs or inventors. TVET institutions should also consider these VQ domains in selecting students for vocationally oriented programs and courses apart from program and course specific requirements. Vocational students can be selected using the MyVQ inventory that has been developed and based on initial norms as a guide. Therefore, students who are identified as having VQ are encouraged to continue their studies at TVET institutions. As for teacher training, the VQ aspect needs to be included in their syllabus or module. In addition to being able to identify students with high vocational intelligence, MyVQ can also provide information about student strengths and weaknesses. Therefore, vocational teachers or teachers who will teach the students to be able to plan their lessons based on the MyVQ criteria. Students’ strengths need to be enhanced and used to their advantage while students’ weaknesses are improved and focused on during instruction. Therefore, this will lead to better quality teaching and learning sessions which in turn will lead to better quality of vocational students. Student profiles based on the MyVQ test can help teachers or institutions in the strategic planning of educational institutions. Predictions about graduates’ marketability are also made based on the vocational intelligence profile of the students concerned. In terms of facilities, the type and quantity of learning materials required for teaching and learning in TVET institutions can be prepared before student registration. Thus, teaching and learning sessions can be conducted without facility constraints. In terms of teachers, the education management can provide enough teachers for the TVET courses offered as well as maintain and improve the quality of teachers to meet future needs.

18 Syarahan Perdana Profesor Profesor Dr. Ramlee Bin Mustapha The role of parents MyVQ is an alternative instrument for the selection of vocational students. For parents, apart from being a guide, information from MyVQ can also create awareness among parents and the community about the importance of the five domains of vocational intelligence (VQ). Parents can use MyVQ profile information to identify their children’s strengths and weaknesses. Various strategies can be done by parents after knowing the information about their child’s vocational intelligence. Malaysia Ministry of Education In the future, if this MyVQ inventory is adopted, the Malaysian Ministry of Education (KPM) may consider using or incorporating MyVQ in the current assessment system. Also in the future, part of this inventory can be applied in digital form to make it easier for respondents to take this test online. In the future, the government or the private sector may also consider establishing an Inventor Academy to nurture students with high vocational intelligence or talent. Students who are found to be talented or have high potential in vocational fields should be trained to become skilled workers, technopreneurs or innovators. The main contribution of the study The main contribution of this research is the development of a new inventory to measure students’ vocational intelligence called MyVQ. Students with high vocational aptitude (VQ) should be suggested to choose the TVET stream. The MyVQ inventory requires respondents to perform practice tests and answer written questions as directed in the question book. It is a holistic approach in determining students’ vocational intelligence by combining kinesthetic and written inventories to measure different domains of vocational intelligence. The developed MyVQ inventory consists of a kinesthetic board with a set of tools, and a written inventory (a book of questions and answers that measure vocational personality, interests and visualization). The kinaesthetic board is a double-sided flip board that is used to perform three different tasks to measure gross and fine motor skills. Therefore, various tasks can be done using one board (kit). This is a new test kit

New Discoveries in TVET: Identification of Vocational Intelligence (VQ) and 19 the Development of Vocational Taxonomy (VT) Based on Empirical Evidence that integrates the concept of fun in learning while assessing students’ VQ at the same time, i.e. it allows students to have fun while taking a serious test. After students take the MyVQ test, information or results from the MyVQ inventory based on this test can be used by various TVET stakeholders such as students, teachers, parents, TVET institutions, the Ministry of Education and others, for their benefit. The findings of the study show that only 21% of primary school students have high vocational intelligence. It is hoped that if MyVQ inventory is used, in the future more students who have VQ will be nurtured to become future inventors and successful technopreneurs.

3.0 Vocational Taxonomy (VT) Taxonomy is important in human civilization. In the history of human civilization, taxonomy has been used to classify flora and fauna for decades. Aristotle (384-322 SM) is said as the first philosopher who classified living things and his classification has been used until today such as vertebrate and invertebrate animals (Leroi, 2014). Theophrastus (371-287 SM), a student of Plato and Aristotle, had classified plants and his botany work known as De Historia Plantarum, comprised 480 plant species (Eamonn, 2012; Manktelow, 2010). Theophrastus is also known as the Father of Botany. Caesalpino (1519-1603), an Italian philosopher and botanist, is considered as “the first taxonomist” who classified plants according to their fruits and seeds. He wrote De Plantis Libri XVI (1583) that is considered as the first textbook in botany. The book laid the foundation of the plant morphology and physiology (Isely, 2002). Etymology of taxonomy comes from Greek: “taxa” means group or unit, or “tassein” which means classify and “nomos” means the law or regulation (Das & Kholia, 2010). Generally, there are hierarchical structures with rules that clearly define the taxonomic components and how they are organized (Bailey, 1994). In the field of science, taxonomy is the classification system for living things such as flora and fauna. There was once when taxonomy was only referred to the scientific classification of living organisms, but later, the word was used for the broader meaning. Almost all things − living objects, non-living VOCATIONAL TAXONOMY 3

New Discoveries in TVET: Identification of Vocational Intelligence (VQ) and 21 the Development of Vocational Taxonomy (VT) Based on Empirical Evidence objects, places, and events, can be classified according to a taxonomy. Therefore, a taxonomy is a systematic classification system (Anderson et al., 2001; Bailey, 1994). According to Gusnetty (2013), taxonomy is a tool to classify domains according to fixed criteria. For example, the taxonomy for physics has grouped things according to liquid, solid, and gas states. As for taxonomy in the botanical field, it has grouped plants according to certain criteria, for example, plants with one cell and plants with many cells. In the psychology and education field, taxonomy refers to the hierarchy of knowledge and thinking process, which could map the teaching and learning processes. In the field of education, Bloom taxonomy was created to classify the three domains – cognitive, affective and psychomotor. According to Bloom (1956), cognitive domain involves the development of students’ thinking; affective domain involves the development of students’ attitude and values; and psychomotor domain involves the development of students’ physical skills. 3.1 Weaknesses of Bloom Taxonomy Taxonomy is also important for assessment. Bloom taxonomy is often used in the design of test questions in education. In formulating quality questions, scholars of measurement and evaluation, such as Bloom (1956) and Sanders (1966), have introduced a taxonomy of questions as a guide to assist educators to formulate questions that fit their learning objectives. In developing assessment tools, taxonomy can be used to develop multi-level cognitive questions, ranging from low to high levels that challenge students’ thinking skills. The levels in the Bloom taxonomy could be used to map learning outcomes, preparation of tests and development of a curriculum. This taxonomy enables teachers to evaluate the achievement of their educational objectives. However, Bloom’s taxonomy does not provide criteria to evaluate hands-on practical activities (Ennis, 1985). Activities in VET such as visualizing, designing, machining, and problem-solving usually require cognitive and psychomotor competences. By emphasizing hands-on and practical skills, the psychomotor domain is important in vocational education and training (Ramlee, 2017; Okwelle, 2013). Therefore, the development of vocational taxonomy is critical.

22 Syarahan Perdana Profesor Profesor Dr. Ramlee Bin Mustapha An alternative taxonomy is needed due to the weakness in the Bloom taxonomy. The taxonomy in education is mainly focused on the cognitive and the affective domains. Psychomotor domain was not highly emphasized due to the nature of the curricula in the secondary and tertiary education which lack of psychomotor domains (Bloom, 1956). Hence, the deficiency of the Bloom taxonomy is that it does not focus on the realm of psychomotor − which is the main domain in vocational education and training. VET involves the mastery of vocational knowledge and skills and fosters the professional attitudes for obtaining and retaining a technical occupation (Ramlee, 2017; UNESCO, 2011). The purpose of this study was to identify the need of vocational taxonomy for vocational instructors and practitioners. The Malaysia’s new vision is for the people to attain quality life as a developed nation focused on relevant knowledge, high-skills, and the well-being of the people through various innovative strategies and transformations. The goal is to reach a balance of psychosocial well-being and economic sustainability of the nation. 3.2 The Needs of VT in TVET Several theories are poignant as the basis for vocational taxonomy. The relevant theories are cognitive, behaviorist, and psychomotor theories. Firstly, cognitivism is relevant to vocational taxonomy in terms of its ability to explain cognitive-based domains in the taxonomy. As proposed by Norhazizi Long (2019), vocational knowledge is the basic level of vocational taxonomy. Theoretical knowledge is acquired through mental process that is apt with cognitive theory. Cognitivism is a learning theory that claims that learning is a thinking process. Human beings do receive not only information but also process the information received, which makes individuals as thinkers who can build and achieve something based on their abilities (Piaget, 1936; Wadsworth, 2004). Bruner (1964), through his study, stated that cognitive development expands through three stages: enactive stage (activities to understand the nature), iconic stage (understand objects through images and verbal visualization), and symbolic stage (have abstract ideas which are influenced by language and logic). Hence, cognitivism involves the process of understanding, verbal visualization, concept-building, reasoning, problem-solving, and inventive thinking (Charcharos et al., 2016; Norhaziz Long, 2019). Norhazizi Long (2019)

New Discoveries in TVET: Identification of Vocational Intelligence (VQ) and 23 the Development of Vocational Taxonomy (VT) Based on Empirical Evidence also proposed visualization, problem-solving and inventive thinking as higher cognitive domains in a vocational taxonomy. Secondly, behaviorism is a theory of learning based on the idea that all behaviors are acquired through conditioning. The theory looks at learning as a behavior conditioning. In other words, behaviorism explains behavioral forming based on the relationship between observed stimulus (S) and response (R). The behaviorist theory is the opposite of the cognitivist theory in which the cognitivism claims that the learning process is the mental process that cannot not be observed directly. In behaviorism, the change in behaviors may reflect that a learning process has occurred and can be observed. Since most learnings in vocational education involve practical tasks, hence, behaviorist theory is apt to explain the learning process in VET. Long (2019) proposed gross and fine motor skills as the intermediate levels in vocational taxonomy. Thirdly, psychomotor theory was proposed by Hermann von Helmholtz (1821 - 1894) and Carl Wernicke (1848-1905) during the 19th century of experimental era. Hermann von Helmholtz is assumed as the father of modern nerve conduction field (Cahan, 1993). By combining the nerve system into the perceptions and behavioral reaction, Helmholtz has an invaluable contribution to the study of psychomotor ability. Helmholtz believed that all perceptions and reactions toward stimulus are directed by the nerve system, which is then controlled by the natural speed of physiology nerve flow (Cahan, 1993). Nevertheless, according to literature, the first theorist who coined the term “psychomotor” was Carl Wernicke. According to his study, Wernicke showed how human’s function could be explained by sensory input, psychomotor output, as well as human conscious and unconscious (intrapsychic). Wernicke used reflex arc or impulse movement during psychological reflex action to explain human interaction with their environment (Weckowicz, 2010). In terms of psychomotor taxonomy, several psychomotor experts have attempted to classify human movements such as Dave (1970), Simpson (1972), and Harrow (1972). Dave’s psychomotor domains mainly focused on imitation and manipulation. It consisted of five main elements: (a) imitation, (b) manipulation, (c) precision, (d) articulation, and (e) naturalization. Simpson (1972) taxonomy, on the other hand, emphasized on adaptability. It comprised seven components: (a) perception, (b) set/readiness, (c) guided response, (d) mechanism, (e)

24 Syarahan Perdana Profesor Profesor Dr. Ramlee Bin Mustapha complex overt response, (f) adaptation, and (g) origination. Finally, a psychomotor taxonomy presented by Harrow (1972) is based on the theory of movement comprising six categories: (a) reflexive motion, (b) fundamental motion, (c) observing ability, (d) physical ability, (e) skill movement, and (f) non-discursive communication skills (Tomei, 2005; Wayne, 2014). Vocational Education and Training The concept of apprenticeship or “craft occupation” has a long history, dating back to the craft guilds of medieval Europe. Apprenticeship was probably the first organized form of vocational education (Roberts, 1957; Mustapha, 1999). An apprentice was bound by a contract, usually seven years to a master craftsman, whose obligation was to teach the apprentice a vocation (Frasca, 1988; McClure, Chrisman, & Mock, 1985). The master, in addition to teaching a trade, was usually required to teach the apprentice reading, writing, and arithmetic (Bennett, 1926). The idea of using schools to train youth for work was not entirely novel in the early nineteenth century (Kantor, 1988). Colonial America viewed apprenticeship and vocational training as something for the lower socioeconomic classes, taught through imitation, not thought processes (Miller, 1993). This was in contrast to European perceptions. In Europe, apprenticeship and vocational training in skilled trades and technical subjects were viewed as vital components in the fierce competition among emerging industrial nations (Law, 1986). Therefore, during the middle 1800s, European states were establishing hundreds of trade and technical schools. However, Americans expended little attention to such a movement as they focused their attention on the establishment of academia and colleges (Law, 1986). Eventually, colonial leaders could no longer romanticize their Renaissance philosophy with the beginning of the Industrial Revolution in Europe during the late 1700s (Miller, 1993). Innovations in farming techniques, mass production processes, and engineering technology led manufacturing to emerge as profitable industries in the United States. The influence of the Industrial Revolution in Europe was also felt in the American education system through the philosophies of two Swiss Educators - Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi (1746-1827) and Philip Emanuel Von Fellenberg (1771-1844). As an educational thinker, Pestalozzi was inspired by the writings and philosophy of Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778). Pestalozzi believed

New Discoveries in TVET: Identification of Vocational Intelligence (VQ) and 25 the Development of Vocational Taxonomy (VT) Based on Empirical Evidence that children in school should learn to work, not only because of the economic value of skill and the habit of labor, but because this experience gave sense-impressions which, like the study of object, became the basis of knowledge. He recognized the fact that “doing leads to knowing” (Bennett, 1926). Pestalozzi also insisted that education must be comprehensive and in harmony with nature. Therefore, he recognized three basic aspects of education: intellectual, moral, and practical education (Heafford, 1967; Mustapha, 1999). His methodology emphasized that the subject taught had to be adapted to the nature of children, their stages of development, and their individual needs. In his experimental schools, educational topics were simplified to their basic elements and then presented in a natural progression from simple to complex relative to the students’ capacity to comprehend (Heafford, 1967). Pestalozzi’s influence on vocational education and training (VET) was important from the eighteenth century to the present. He has been referred to as “the father of manual training” and is considered the founder of modern educational methodology. He established a series of schools in which manual work was combined with general education (Bennett, 1926; McClure, Chrisman, & Mock, 1985; Mustapha, 1999). Pestalozzi believed that the way to alleviate poverty was to train the youth of the poor in work skills. His purpose was not only educational reform but also social reform (Heafford, 1967). At the same time, he believed that it was equally important to cultivate students’ minds and social consciences. An education that emphasized either vocational or general exclusively, created an individual who was of little value to society. Pestalozzi’s first school known as Neuhof was designed to train children, especially those from poor families, in handicrafts, farming, and basic general education (Bennett, 1926). As Pestalozzi developed his methodology, drawing and using real objects became an integral part of the curriculum. He used drawing as a means to sharpen the students’ powers of observation and description, but its importance as a factor in industrial education later increased the appeal of Pestalozzian pedagogy (McClure, Chrisman, & Mock, 1985; Mustapha, 1999). Even though Pestalozzi’s ideas and methodology were widely recognized, his schools were eventually closed because of mismanagement and financial problems.

26 Syarahan Perdana Profesor Profesor Dr. Ramlee Bin Mustapha Von Fellenberg, although using some of the educational methods of Pestalozzi, differed with him in several ways. Von Fellenberg believed that society represented a natural separation of people according to their abilities (Bennett, 1926). Consequently, individuals could be best educated and trained within their own groups. However, each group should also be taught to understand and respect the position and function of the other groups. Therefore, Von Fellenberg’s schools had an academy for sons of the elite, a school of applied science for sons of the middle class, and a farm and trade school for sons of the poor (Roberts, 1957). He carefully selected skills that were necessary to the efficient operation of the school and its farm. As a result, his school was a financial and an educational success. In the early twentieth century, the influence of these two philosophers on American education was profound. With the growth of mass production, the debate was focused on how schools should respond to the new industrial order which had emerged (Kincheloe, 1995). David Snedden, the former Commissioner of Education for Massachusetts, a proponent for social efficiency, argued that schools should focus on the production of social and economic efficiency. Similar to Von Fellenberg, Snedden advocated for the establishment of separate vocational schools to train students in specific job skills. According to social efficiency advocates, vocational education would provide practical training for working-class students and assist them in securing their rightful places in society (Labaree, 1997; Prosser & Allen, 1925; Shor, 1988). However, progressive educators and social reformers, such as John Dewey and Jane Addams, opposed the separation of vocational and academic education. Dewey believed that democracy could not flourish where there was vocational education for one class and liberal education for another (Cremin, 1961; Mustapha, 1999). Similarly, Addams argued that schools should provide all students with the skills they will need to function in society. Hence, the progressive educators advocated work education for all students through raising the consciousness of the learners about the context within which a job was performed and the social significance of the work (Bjorkquist, 1991; Cremin, 1961; Giroux, 1991; Kantor, 1988). Therefore, school should prepare all students with the necessary attitudes, knowledge, and skills for success in the world of work.

New Discoveries in TVET: Identification of Vocational Intelligence (VQ) and 27 the Development of Vocational Taxonomy (VT) Based on Empirical Evidence Labaree (1997) summarized the purpose of education into three categories: democratic equality, social efficiency, and social mobility. From the democratic equality perspective, the purpose of schooling is to provide equal access to education and to prepare all young individuals to become responsible citizens and to play constructive roles in a democratic society (Cremin, 1980; Kaestle, 1983). This is basically the ideology of the progressive education movement. The second educational goal, social efficiency, can be described as the effort to make the school curriculum more practical and responsive to the needs of the job market. Schools should prepare and supply future workers with appropriate skills that will enhance their productivity and, therefore, promote economic growth (Finch, 1993). Vocational and technical education has been generally delivered within the paradigm of social efficiency advocated by the pro-industrial movement since the earlier part of the 20th century (Dentith, 1997; Herschbach, 1979; Mustapha, 1999). The third educational goal, social mobility, is viewed as the preparation of individuals to compete for social positions in society. Vocational and technical education has been broadly defined as efforts by schools to include relevant practical subjects in the curricula which are likely to produce basic knowledge, specific skills, and dispositions that prepare students for employment (Bacchus, 1988; Barlow, 1974; Thompson, 1973; Wenrich, Wenrich, & Galloway, 1988; Mustapha, 1999; 2017). In most developing countries, the main objectives of vocational and technical education have been to expand the occupational choices of students so that they become aware of the emerging cluster skills that are needed in the labor market. In the workplace, broad-based education is required to cope with the postTaylorist work environment in which workers are expected to perform more broadly-defined jobs (Luttringer, 1995; Noyelle & Hirsch, 1995; Williams & Hornsby, 1989). In general, employers expect high school graduates to possess basic skills, effective work habits, and positive attitudes toward work (Heckert, 1984; Lee, 1986; Levin & Rumberger, 1983; Lund & Hansen, 1986; Wellington, 1987). Therefore, vocational and technical education should assist students develop their capacity to learn; to think critically; and, to adjust to rapid changes in technology (Cantor, 1989)

28 Syarahan Perdana Profesor Profesor Dr. Ramlee Bin Mustapha The debate between “academic” and “vocational” education has had high social and political visibility because of the assumption that vocational preparation significantly improves the chances for youth to obtain employment, especially those who are economically or academically disadvantaged (Bacchus, 1988; Dunham, 1989; Jonathan, 1990; Middleton, Ziderman, & Adams, 1993). As the rate of unemployment among the academic stream graduates begins to rise, there is awareness to enhance students’ participation in the vocational stream to ensure the well-being of the people in terms of getting a job. Hence, VET provided a clear pathway to skilled employment (Mustapha, 2017). Since the Industrial Revolution in the late 18th century, progress and prosperity have been closely identified with economic development (Jomo, 1993). Economic competitiveness of a country depends on of the quality of its workforce. Knowledge, skills, and innovativeness of the workforce rely on the education and training systems. Vocational education is perceived as one of the crucial elements in enhancing economic productivity (Min, 1995). Based on the human capital and social efficiency theories, school should prepare and supply future workers with appropriate knowledge and skills that would enhance their productivity and upward mobility, and, therefore, promote economic growth (Becker, 1964; Finch, 1993; Harbison, 1973; Labaree, 1997; Mustapha, 1999; Schultz, 1961). However, the high rate of unemployment among youth in several countries could be due to economic downturn or outdated curriculum. Curriculum for Vocational Education Curriculum and learning are two terms that are related to each other in educational studies. Curriculum is often defined as the planned and guided learning experiences and learning is a process of acquiring knowledge. Sidin (2000) stated that the curriculum is referred to as courses that are offered in a certain program. Curriculum normally consists of a number of components: (a) philosophy of the course, (b) learning outcomes, (c) contents which include knowledge, skills, and values, (d) teaching and learning activities, and (e) evaluation activities. According to Finch and Crunkilton (1999), there are two important elements in a curriculum: students themselves and also the curriculum must be able to provide a learning experience that is not only related to schools but also outside schools. Oliva (1992) defined a curriculum as a plan or a program which is related to experience internalized by

New Discoveries in TVET: Identification of Vocational Intelligence (VQ) and 29 the Development of Vocational Taxonomy (VT) Based on Empirical Evidence students under a school’s supervision. Dewey (1916), an educational philosopher, always holds on tightly to the philosophy or the concept of democracy in education. Democratization of education should provide the opportunity for all students to opt for academics and vocational subjects. Dewey mentioned that vocational education is for all students. Therefore, vocational education curriculum has to focus on students’ performance in mastering their skills related to specific job but at the same time, it provides liberal arts courses to the students. But in most vocational institutions, the curriculum for vocational education focuses on hands-on activities that involved psychomotor skills and kinesthetics. According to Reynolds (1965), psychomotor learning will involve physical movement (motor) and will coordinate with mental process (psycho). In general, mind will control the physical movement. Psychomotor system is related to mind-body coordination. According to Dave (1970), practical hands-on learning is a process to develop a student’s ability to perform physical tasks. Hence, psychomotor domain is highly relevant to vocational education and training because it involves hands-on skills training (Mustapha, 2017; Okwelle, 2013). Vocational curriculum designers are expected to be proficient in content vocational subject matter and curriculum development theories. However, the vocational instructors and curriculum developers often are having a difficult task to map the specific vocational content to a general educational taxonomy (Bloom taxonomy). Hence, a new vocational taxonomy is deemed necessary. Nevertheless, in order to develop a vocational taxonomy, several underpinning theories should be understood. 3.3 Methods to determine vocational domains Due to the deficiency of Bloom’s taxonomy, several related taxonomies have been developed by some researchers (Carbonell, 2004). Hauenstein (1998) developed a taxonomy related to assimilation, adaptation, performance, and aspiration for the affective domain (Walter & Charles, 2013). Harrow (1976) presented a taxonomy for the psychomotor domain, stressing that most educators find that students do not attain the skill level of their intended objectives, but encourage students to learn advanced skills or more complex movements. Although Bloom taxonomy is mainly emphasizing the cognitive domain, other educational psychologists, such as Ebel and Frisbie (1991) and Gagne (1985) have also proposed ways to set teaching objectives in

30 Syarahan Perdana Profesor Profesor Dr. Ramlee Bin Mustapha the affective and psychomotor domains to assist teachers in the design and implementation of their teaching. However, most teaching models focus on cognitive rather than affective or psychomotor domains (Sperber, 2005). One of the important aspects of vocational education and training is its orientation toward the world of work (Mustapha, 2017). Hence, psychomotor domain is emphasized in VET − particularly concerning the development of physical or practical skills (Okwelle, 2013). Without a well-established vocational taxonomy, there is a gap in the shaping learning objectives and outcomes in the vocational fields, so the development of a vocational taxonomy is critical. Based on vast literature review, it can be concluded that studies related to the development of vocational taxonomy are very limited. To date, there is no single comprehensive classification of vocational domains. This makes it pertinent to develop vocational taxonomy because there is very little corpus of literature on vocational taxonomy. Thus, it is crucial to develop a comprehensive vocational taxonomy. As an initial step, a needs analysis is conducted to identify the importance of taxonomy in vocational education. 3.4 Inventories of VT In this study, a critical analysis was conducted to identify the need of a new taxonomy which is a vocational taxonomy. Prior to that, a corpus of relevant literature was critically reviewed to determine the potential domains that could be included in the vocational taxonomy. As mentioned before, a Bloom taxonomy is used by most vocational educators to map their teaching and assessment activities. However, based on the interview with vocational experts, the Bloom taxonomy is inadequate for assessing psychomotor, visualization, problem-solving, and inventive aspects of vocational and technical fields. To conduct the needs analysis, seven vocational experts were selected to obtain their input regarding the need to develop a vocational taxonomy. The qualitative data from the interview showed, in general, the experts agreed that a new taxonomy in vocational fields is needed. To assess psychomotor domain, a vocational taxonomy is required to classify the levels of vocational competencies. As one of the experts (E06) said:

New Discoveries in TVET: Identification of Vocational Intelligence (VQ) and 31 the Development of Vocational Taxonomy (VT) Based on Empirical Evidence “A new taxonomy is needed that focuses on psychomotor domain to produce skilled workers. This vocational taxonomy could be used to guide the instructors on how to assess the competencies of the trainees”. Another informant (E01) agreed that in order to develop a new vocational program, a curriculum developer needs to map the program to a vocational taxonomy so that main vocational domains are included. Cognitive learning outcomes are usually mapped to Bloom taxonomy but the psychomotor learning outcomes lacks of a clear benchmark. Expert (E01) made this suggestion: “For [vocational] curriculum developers, they need a benchmark [a taxonomy] to map vocational competencies in order to produce a quality skilled worker … for cognitive learning outcomes, we have [Bloom taxonomy] but not for practical aspect [psychomotor domain]… we don’t have. In terms of teaching and learning of vocational subjects, another expert (E02) believed that a vocational taxonomy is needed to arrange the teaching modules and learning activities based on hierarchical structure of knowledge for simple to complex tasks. He (E02) asserted: “In teaching vocational subject … we need a vocational taxonomy because Bloom taxonomy is lacking [inadequate] to map the vocational traits. We need to teach from simple concept [theory] to more complex practical hands-on … students learn through [proper] contexts” In addition, another expert (E03) saw the importance of vocational taxonomy in terms mapping the visualization aspect of vocational subject such as engineering drawings and designs. He asserted that Bloom taxonomy has no domain for visualization, thus a new taxonomy is deemed necessary: “When it comes to measure visualization competence … such as in [engineering] drawings, we have problem to set the benchmark … Bloom taxonomy lacks of category for visualization … so I think we need a new taxonomy…” The importance of vocational taxonomy is often emphasized in vocational assessment. According to informant E07, a vocational taxonomy is pertinent especially for vocational assessment. He emphasized the difficulty of developing vocational tests without a clear

32 Syarahan Perdana Profesor Profesor Dr. Ramlee Bin Mustapha benchmark. For paper and pencil tests (cognitive domain), they are easier to develop based on Bloom taxonomy but for practical handson and problem-solving tasks, they are more difficult to construct. He (E07) explained: “With a vocational taxonomy, it could make it easier for vocational instructors to develop vocational tests … especially the practical [part]. For paper and pencil test [theory part] … we could use Bloom taxonomy.” Based on the qualitative interview data, it can be summarized that a new vocational taxonomy is needed. The vocational taxonomy is important to classify vocational domains from the lowest level which is the theoretical vocational knowledge to the highest level which is the inventive thinking. This vocational taxonomy is crucial for vocational instructors and practitioners. The vocational taxonomy could be used to map the subject content or curriculum, the level of teaching and learning, the practical tasks, and the vocational assessment. 3.5 Results on VT The findings of the study shows that there are six important domains in vocational taxonomy namely knowledge, gross motor skills, fine motor skills, visualization, problem-solving and inventive thinking. Discussions about the six domains are as follows. Vocational knowledge domain Vocational practitioners state that vocational knowledge domain in the vocational taxonomy is a basic domain. The result supports Bloom’s taxonomy (1956) which puts knowledge as the most fundamental level in the education taxonomy. But the differences between the knowledge domain in Bloom’s taxonomy and vocational taxonomy is that the knowledge domain in vocational taxonomy is focused on vocational knowledge that involves theories, practices and the usage of hand tools and machines. In the vocational field, knowledge is seen as an integration of theoretical, conceptual, procedural and practical knowledge. This is because in order to become a competent vocational lecturer, one needs to use career-relevant knowledge in the context in which it is used (Kyarizi, 2015). Vocational knowledge is a remembering process, conveying

New Discoveries in TVET: Identification of Vocational Intelligence (VQ) and 33 the Development of Vocational Taxonomy (VT) Based on Empirical Evidence facts, giving definitions and releasing ideas based on theory and past experience (Bergeron, 2003). Therefore, according to Delphi’s panel of experts, in vocational taxonomy, the basic domain to be mastered by lecturers and vocational students is the knowledge related to their specialisation fields. Findings of first round interviews, Delphi’s experts’ states that the knowledge domain in vocational taxonomy includes aspects of conceptual knowledge, practical knowledge, procedural knowledge and factual knowledge. Conceptual knowledge includes classification and categorization knowledge, principles and general knowledge, theoretical knowledge, models and structures. While the procedural knowledge is related to the knowledge of how an assignment is done. Practical knowledge is related to the theory of a practical work process, aside from the tools in practical teaching involving different types of tools and machines. In addition, factual knowledge is a detailed knowledge of the term that includes certain names and symbols (Anderson & Krathwol, 2001) which are widely used in vocational fields such as concrete symbols, wood and electrical equipment. Based on the findings of the second round and third round interviews, Delphi experts’ concluded that students should master the practical and theoretical knowledge. Gross motor skills domain Vocational educators support the second stage of the vocational taxonomy domain is the gross motor skills in which the proficiency of gross motor skills is important after knowing theoretically for an assignment. According to Magill (2004), there are two types of motor skills namely gross motor and fine motor. Motor skills involves physical movement through nerve and muscle activity. In vocational fields, students use this skill a lot in practical work. The findings are consistent with the findings of Beverly et al. (1989) which found out that the development of motor skills must follow a certain sequence. According to panel of experts’, vocational fields are heavily involved with practical work involving physical movements. Normally, students do practical activities with physical involvement involving main muscles which is their hands and feet. Fast-moving hands in addition to accuracy and speed must also be mastered by vocational students. They should also be able to respond to the target and can direct the movement of the hand to manipulate the object.

34 Syarahan Perdana Profesor Profesor Dr. Ramlee Bin Mustapha According to Doherty and Brennan (2008), gross motor skills are larger movements involving arms, legs or muscles and the whole body involves activities such as running and jumping. Based on the findings of the second and third rounds interviews, experts concluded that vocational students undertook many practical activities as well as the usage of machines and hand tools that involves a lot of gross motor skills. When students have shown progress through their gross motor skills, the process of fine motor skills will occur. Fine motor skills domain The respondents also agreed that the fine motor skills domain should be arranged after gross motor and must be mastered by students in vocational taxonomy. Fine motor skills include eye and hand coordination as well as fingers where these skills require high observations that students must master in the vocational field. The features that need to be in fine motor skills involve three aspects that are aspects of viewing, imagination and also the handling. If these three aspects are combined into one, then it will be the coordination of mind and hands and eyes as a source. Besides that, according to Delphi panel of experts, hand-eye coordination involves many activities that require accuracy in addition to speed, distance and technique. Movements involving fine motors are necessary to produce the accuracy and preciseness of the movement to perform the activity equally. According to Maclean and Wilson (2009) and Dike (2013), vocational practical tasks involve hands-on which are physical movements to carry out a practical assignment. In addition, vocational students should also have the ability to handle equipment via hand-to-finger coordination. This is in line with the research by Cooper (2010) that fine motor skills are needed to handle technical equipment and devices. The result is in line with Logan, Robinson, Wilson and Lucas (2012) which states that fine motor skills involves the usage of small muscles such as fingers and hands to manipulate, control and use of tools and materials. Therefore, through the second and third rounds of interviews, the agreement obtained from the panel of experts -- they agreed that fine motors should be mastered by vocational students by coordination of the hand-to-fingers as well as hands-to-eye, in which the vocational students use their vision to control the movement as

New Discoveries in TVET: Identification of Vocational Intelligence (VQ) and 35 the Development of Vocational Taxonomy (VT) Based on Empirical Evidence well as the finger with the actions of small muscles to do the work that is an important component in the development of fine motor skills. According to Kail (2010), fine motor is to control the movement of smaller muscles and more precise movements by using both fingers and hands as well as eyes. Visualization domain The study also found that vocational students should master visualization skills after the students mastered the gross and fine motor skills to do practical work. Bertoline (1998) defines visualization is the ability to build, manipulate and interpret imaginary images. While Nussbaumer (1998), defines visualization skills including the ability to visualize the images in 2D, illustrating 3D spaces from 2D drawing, rotating the objects and describing the 3D objects. Furthermore, according to Delphi’s panel of experts, visualization is an important element in vocational taxonomy and it is related to vocational fields because visualization skills are coordination between motor skills, mind and imagination. Newcomer et al. (1999) and Ali et al. (2012) states that technical and vocational fields are directly involved with graphic communication through design activities, engineering drawings, technical drawings and also geometric drawings. Hence, based on the findings of the second and third round of interviews, Delphi’s experts found that the ability of visual thinking and sharing of visual ideas with others is important in the design process especially in the early stages of the design process. Visualization skills are important for vocational students to produce new designs or creations through the images in their minds in the form of graphics or paintings. Problem-solving domain The finding shows that problem-solving is an important domain in vocational taxonomy. The problem-solving approach in teaching and learning has evolved from John Dewey’s theories. It has been used primarily in vocational education as a way of linking classroom learning to real-life situations or problems. This brief description focuses on application of problem-solving practices in vocational education and its relationship to contextual learning environment (Brown, 1998).

36 Syarahan Perdana Profesor Profesor Dr. Ramlee Bin Mustapha Based on Delphi panel of experts’ findings, the approach to problemsolving is through project-based learning (PBL). Project-based learning is an educational approach that focuses on creative thinking, problem solving, and interaction between students and peers to create and use new knowledge (Berenfeld, 1996; Marchaim, 2001 & Asan, 2005). Currently, the learning in the vocational field focuses on problem solving (UNESCO, 2001). Therefore, Delphi panel of experts has reached an agreement that problem-solving skills should be mastered by students and arranged after the basic domains such as knowledge, motor skills and visualization. Problem solving skills in teaching and TVET learning is needed as it can help students to enter the job market, because the learning of the students is not only theoretical but also practical. Hence, based on findings in the second and third rounds of interviews, problem-solving skills in vocational taxonomy can stimulate motivation, process and improve student learning achievement by using problems related to a particular subject in the real situation either in the workshop or in the industry. Inventive domain The respondents highly agreed that inventive is the highest domain in vocational taxonomy after students master the previous domains in accordance with the principles of education taxonomy. This domain is best arranged after problem-solving because the same thinking skills concept that involves inventive. The findings are in line with Barak (2006) research stating that inventive thinking is designed to be used together with thinking skills as a way of solving critical and creative skills through activities to create an innovation or creation. These activities provide opportunities for developing creative potential and synthesizing plus applying knowledge and skills by creating inventions or innovations. Innovation means deep thinking that brings new ideas, renews, transforms or generates new plans or theories. Therefore, technical and vocational students need to be prepared to understand new ideas for improvement in their field of study (Ezemno & Offor, 2012). In addition, the Delphi panels asserted that creative and innovative is important in the development of vocational taxonomy. Creative and innovative vocational students will be skilled workers who can think out of the box. A good teaching strategy for the mastery of technical and vocational skills must have certain attributes capable of producing innovation (Amaechi & Thomas, 2016). Therefore, through the findings

New Discoveries in TVET: Identification of Vocational Intelligence (VQ) and 37 the Development of Vocational Taxonomy (VT) Based on Empirical Evidence of the second and third rounds of interviews, vocational taxonomy can be used as a reference to vocational lecturers to improve students’ ability to solve problems and subsequently create new solutions. In addition, with the development of vocational taxonomy can guide lecturers to develop a higher level of thinking process toward critical thinking or creative thinking. Besides, vocational students also should think deeply about invention and how they can engage in activities that involve creativity and futuristic thinking. Table 3 shows the domains of VT, their characteristics and their proper action verbs. Table 3 The main domains of vocational taxonomy and their characteristics Domain Characteristics Action verb i. Vocational knowledge ii. Motor skills iii. Visualization iv. Problemsolving v. Invention The ability to recall specific information such as terms, trends and sequences, classifications and categories, principles and generalizations as well as theories and structures in the vocational field. The ability to use the large muscles of the limbs or the whole body to do practice in the workshop. The ability to use muscles to do more detailed work and requires observation of craftsmanship. The ability to produce new design or design through images in the mind and generated in the form of graphics or 3D drawings in engineering drawings. The ability to think critically and creatively and at a high level (KBAT) to make decisions and use certain strategies to solve a problem creatively involving practical work and designing projects. The ability to produce or create something new that has never existed involves a new high-tech design or method. Label, classify, apply Build, install, join, do finishing, Visualize, imagine, draw Search, generate, solve Design, invent

38 Syarahan Perdana Profesor Profesor Dr. Ramlee Bin Mustapha Based on the empirical findings of Norhazizi Long (2018) research, Figure 1 shows the hierarchy of vocational taxonomy from the lowest level – vocational knowledge to the highest level – invention. Figure 1 The hierarchy of Vocational Taxonomy 3.6 Contributions of VT In the cognitive domains of the original Bloom taxonomy, knowledge is the lowest level of educational objectives followed by comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation. Evaluation is the highest level of educational objectives. In order to reach a higher level, the lower levels should be mastered first (Huitt, 2011). However, much of the educational taxonomy focuses on cognitive domains such as the Bloom taxonomy (1956). The lack of a well-established vocational taxonomy framework makes it difficult for vocational teachers to develop and evaluate the objectives and outcomes of vocational tasks. The findings have several implications from theoretical and practical aspects. From the theoretical point of view, this study contributes to the improvement of existing theories such as cognitive and psychomotor theory. From the practical point of view, this vocational taxonomy implies to the vocational field based on several aspects such as curriculum development, teaching and learning, practical management and assessment. In the context of curriculum development, an educator or curriculum planner can use vocational taxonomy to develop a more

New Discoveries in TVET: Identification of Vocational Intelligence (VQ) and 39 the Development of Vocational Taxonomy (VT) Based on Empirical Evidence comprehensive vocational curriculum to a higher level of thinking involving critical thinking or creative thinking. From the teaching and learning aspects, vocational taxonomy can provide guidance to vocational lecturers to develop objective and learning outcomes. With this vocational taxonomy, vocational lecturers will also be able to arrange the student’s practical process to a certain level involving gross motor skills and fine motor skills. The implication of the assessment aspect is that a vocational lecturer can develop questions that requires thinking development and reflection from the knowledge level to the highest level which is inventive in the vocational field. The findings of this study can be a guide to those involved in making the decision to strengthen the vocational education system to a higher level. This vocational taxonomy development has used Delphi techniques which was the most suitable in development studies. This study can also be extended as a study involving a study of the characteristics of each domain being detailed. This study can also be extended by involving more panel of experts and vocational institutions. The findings of this study can be a guide to those involved in decision-making to strengthen the vocational education system to a higher level.

CONCLUSION 4 Based on Rahayu’s study, another type of intelligence was identified which is vocational intelligence (VQ). The findings also show that individuals may have different levels of vocational intelligence. They may have VQ at the gifted, high, medium or low level. Therefore, this research not only contributes to the theory of intelligence but it has established an inventory (MyVQ) to measure that intelligence. Vocational intelligence is a person’s natural capacity in a vocational domain or an individual’s ability to perform or complete a task primarily using kinesthetic dexterity. Vocational intelligence is also influenced by nature and nurture factors. The findings of this study show that there are 2.2% of the study population who have gifted VQ, 18.5% have VQ at a high level, 69.5% at a medium level and 9.8% at a low level. In terms of vocational taxonomy, in general, taxonomy is an important tool in human civilization. In educational context, since 1956, Bloom taxonomy has been used to classify educational goals, objectives, and outcomes. However, the deficiency of the Bloom taxonomy is that it does not focus on the domain of psychomotor − which is the main domain in vocational education and training. Several theories are poignant as the basis for vocational taxonomy. The relevant theories are cognitive, behaviorist, and psychomotor theories. Psychomotor theory is assumed relevant to explain psychomotor ability and domain. Furthermore, psychomotor domain is highly relevant to vocational education and training because it involves hands-on skills and tasks. Research design used in this study was the needs analysis based on experts’ opinions. Seven vocational experts were selected based on