Emergence Of The Americas In Global Affairs 1880-1929 - Peter Clements - Hodder 2013

Chapter 6: Latin America in the First World War: participation and impact

workers became more politicized. Strikes and other industrial action
took place as wages and living standards fell. Few gains were
realized by the workers in either country. In many regards, the
economic impact of the First World War was more significant than
the political one, both during and immediately after the war.

4. In the body of your essay, expand on the points you raised in your
introduction. For example:

Latin America initially hoped to remain neutral as Europe went to war.
However, in the case of Brazil, the Government felt it had few options
once Germany began to sink Brazilian merchant marine ships in 1916
and 1917. Brazil had not profited from the war to the same extent as
Argentina. Its primary export, coffee, was seen as a luxury and so not in
as much demand as goods viewed as essential to the war effort such as
Argentina’s beef products and wheat. The Brazilian Government did see
a silver lining, though. By being the first (and only) mainland Latin
American country to declare war on Germany in 1917, it hoped to secure
the position as the region’s most important country. Brazil was on the
winning side even if it had not contributed to the war effort in any
significant way. It would enter the League of Nations as a charter
member but soon found itself sidelined by more powerful countries.
Brazil found itself much more involved economically with the USA at
the end of the war than it had been at the beginning.

5. In the conclusion, you should tie together the ideas you have explored
and come to a judgement about the impact of the war on the countries
you have chosen.

6. Now try writing a complete answer to the question, following the advice
above.

Examination practice

Below are two exam-style questions for you to practise on this topic.

1 Compare and contrast the impact of the First World War on Canada and one Latin American country.
(For guidance on how to answer ‘compare and contrast’ questions, see pages 88–90.)
2 Why did the US involve itself in the Mexican Revolution?
(For guidance on how to answer ‘why’ questions, see pages 57–59.)

195

Timeline

USA Monroe Doctrine announced 1904 February Building of Panama Canal
Treaty of Wanghia with China 1905 began
1823 Commercial treaty with Japan 1906
1844 Purchase of Alaska 1908 December Roosevelt Corollary
1858 Burlingame Treaty with China 1909 August President Roosevelt brokered
1867 Senate refusal to annex Dominican 1912 Treaty of New Hampshire between Japan
1868 Republic 1914 and Russia
1870 McKinley Tariff Algeciras Conference
1890 US conflict with Chile 1915 Root–Takahira Agreement
1891 February Cuban rebellion against Spain 1916 March Taft’s presidency and beginnings
1895 1917 of dollar diplomacy
D ecember Support for Venezuela in its
1898 conflict with Britain 1918 October USA invaded Nicaragua
January Acquisition of Wake Island Beginnings of Filipinization
1899 completed occupation of Midway Islands 1919 April Invasion of Mexican port of Vera
Cruz
1899 March Annexation of Hawaii
1899– August Declaration of neutrality in First
1902 April Spanish–American–Cuban War World War
1900 began May Sinking of Lusitania

1902 Teller Amendment September Invasion of Haiti
1903 J uly Announcement of Open Door policy Invasion of northern Mexico to catch
in China Pancho Villa
January German resumption of
A ugust Spain ceded Guam and Puerto unrestricted submarine warfare
Rico to USA
February Discovery of the Zimmermann
D ecember Treaty of Paris ceded telegram
Philippines to USA
Acquisition of eastern Samoa April Declaration of war on Germany
War in the Philippines
June Espionage Act
Boxer Rebellion in China January Announcement of the Fourteen
Points
Platt Amendment
US arbitration in dispute between Britain April National War Labor Board
and Venezuela formed
USA took control of Dominican Republic
customs and excise May Sedition Act

November Armistice signed
Paris Peace Conference opened

196

Timeline

1920 Senate rejected US membership of 1917 April Battle of Vimy Ridge
1921 League of Nations
1921– Peace treaties passed with League of 1918 Introduction of nationwide prohibition
22 Nations clauses excluded 1919
1922 Washington Naval Agreements 1922 August Compulsory Service Act
1923 1931
US aid in Russian famine September Wartime Elections Act
1924 Senate refused to allow USA to join
World Court Military Voters Act
1925 August Bucareli Accords with Mexico
1926 December Controversial federal election
1927 September US aid to Japan after returned Borden as Prime Minister
earthquake
1928 July US troops withdrawn from Halifax explosion
Dominican Republic November Armistice signed
1929 Winnipeg general strike
August Dawes Plan Chanak crisis
August US troops withdrawn from Treaty of Westminster
Nicaragua
May US troops returned to Nicaragua Latin America
May Peace of Tipitapa
1898 Spanish–American–Cuban War
December Geneva Naval Conference 1914 Opening of Panama Canal
March Calles–Morrow Compromise 1915 Pan-American Financial Conference
1917 January New Mexican Constitution
August Kellogg–Briand Pact
Young Plan February Zimmermann telegram
discovered

Canada M ay Failure to organize Neutrality
Conference in Buenos Aires

1867 British North America Act September Unflattering correspondence
from German Ambassador in Argentina
1903 D ispute with USA about borders of discovered
Canada and Alaska
October Brazil declared war on Germany
1910 Naval Service Act 1919 January ‘Tragic Week’in Argentina

1911 Borden’s Conservative Party won federal
elections

1914 A ugust Canadian entry into First World
War

Wartime Measures Act

197

Glossary Belligerent To do with a hostile country involved in war.

Aegis Protection or shield; an umbrella organization. Benevolent neutral A country that tries to arbitrate
between disputing nations without taking sides.
Allies Name given to the countries fighting
Germany, e.g. Britain, France, Russia. ‘Big stick’ The term given to Roosevelt’s threat of US
intervention if countries, particularly in Latin America,
Alsace-Lorraine Area of France taken by Germany didn’t govern themselves effectively and act
after the 1871 Franco-Prussian War. responsibly to foreign interests, for example, over the
repayment of debts.
American Federation of Labor An organization of
craft-based labour unions formed in 1885. Black press Newspapers, magazines and periodicals
aimed at a largely black audience.
Anglo-Japanese Alliance An alliance between
Britain and Japan, dating from 1902 and due for Boer War War between Britain and the descendants
renewal in 1922. of Dutch colonists in South Africa, 1899–1901.

Annexation When a country takes over another, in Bond Loan to raise revenue.
this case the possible annexation of Hawaii by the USA.
Boxer Rebellion Rebellion against foreigners in
Anti-clerical Against the Church. 1900; Boxers were so-called because they belonged to
the‘Society of Righteous and Harmonious Fists’.
Anti-Imperialist League An organization of
different groups that opposed US imperial expansion. British blockade of Germany British ships
preventing goods entering and leaving German ports.
Anti-imperialists Canadians who were opposed to
close ties with Britain as the imperial power. British Secret Service British intelligence service.

Appropriation Monies allocated for a particular Canadian Corps Canadian troops in the First World
purpose. War.

Arbitration The process by which parties submit Canadian Expeditionary Force The initial Canadian
their dispute to an impartial body in order to arrive at force sent to war in 1914.
a decision.
Canadian Patriotic Fund A fund to support the
Armistice The ceasefire at the end of the war on 11 dependants of those who had volunteered to serve in
November 1918. the Armed Forces.

Associated power Power not formally allied to other Capital ships The most important, usually the
countries fighting against a common enemy, therefore largest, warships.
having independence as to military strategy and the
subsequent peace settlement. Census Population count undertaken every ten years.

Attrition Destructive, exhausting conditions. Central America The geographical region between
North and South America including countries such as
Balance of power (Europe) Relative weighting of Mexico.
power and influence between the Great Powers in
Europe; traditionally if any became more powerful, Central Powers Germany and its allies such as the
this could affect the balance of power and potentially Austro-Hungarian empire (Austria and Hungary) and
threaten conflict. the Ottoman empire (Turkey).

‘Balanced antagonisms’ Roosevelt’s term for the ‘China hands’ Name given to US diplomats and
way rivalries between countries could prevent them businessmen who had lived in China.
from extending their influence; how their
determination to protect their own interests could Chinese Exclusion Act 1882 Legislation passed by
cancel out their ability to expand them. Congress to completely exclude Chinese immigration
for a period of ten years; it was renewed every decade
Barbary pirates Pirates based on the coast of North until 1943.
Africa.
Coalition government A government made up of
different parties, in this case Conservatives and
Liberals, who would agree to serve together in the
face of the increasing demands made by the war.

198

Glossary

Colonialism The expansion of an empire by Democrat One of the major US political parties,
acquiring, ruling and exploiting countries or people. embracing wider support groups and more concerned
with social reforms.
Colonies People or territories ruled by a separate
country or power. Depression Downturn in the economy leading to
firms closing down and unemployment.
‘Colossus of the South’ A term Argentines gave
their country to describe its economic and political Dollar diplomacy The policy of increasing US
potential for growth and influence. influence abroad through financial investment, thus
making foreign states economically reliant on the US.
Combines and Fair Prices Bill 1919 A bill to prevent
the hoarding of food and other‘necessities of life’ in Dominion Semi-independent country within the
wartime. British empire.

Concentration camps Prison-type camps where Doughboy Term applied to US soldiers in the First
relatives and sympathizers of rebels were kept to deny World War.
insurgents support mechanisms.
Dustbowl conditions When over-cultivation of the
Concessions Favourable trading rights. soil leads to it becoming parched and powdery and
liable to being blown away in heavy winds.
Confederacy The name given to the Southern states
which broke away during the Civil War period. Eligible men Men meeting the criteria for conscription.

Congress Legislative branch of the US government. Elites Powerful and influential groups, notably
leading politicians, large-scale landowners, leaders of
Conscientious objectors Those who refuse to enlist the Church and armed forces.
on moral grounds such as being opposed to war.
Embargo Refusal to trade with a certain country.
Conservatives Canadian political party favouring the
maintenance of ties with Britain. Envoy Representative sent for a specific diplomatic
purpose.
Contingents Groups of troops sent to fight.
Espionage Spying activities.
Covenant of the League of Nations Document
containing the rules and organization of the League of Expeditionary force Name given to a force from a
Nations. Its acceptance was a clause in all the peace country which goes overseas to fight.
treaties so its rejection would also mean rejection of
all the peace treaties. Far East Countries in East Asia such as China and
Japan.
Crepuscular An adjective relating to twilight which in
the extract on page 191 refers to a dark or tragic hour. Federal Central as opposed to provincial governments.

‘Cuba Libre’ ‘Free Cuba’, the slogan of those seeking Federal government The government of the USA,
Cuban independence. based in Washington DC.

Dawes Plan Plan of 1923 which offered Germany Filipinization Giving Filipinos more say in
scaled-down reparations and provided it with a loan governing the Philippines.
of $250 million to help stabilize the currency.
Filipino independence movement Groups fighting
Declaration of Neutrality Declaration to Congress for independence for the Philippines from Spain.
by President Wilson on 19 August 1914 in which he
warned US citizens against taking sides in the First First Nations Aboriginal peoples in Canada.
World War.
First Sino-Japanese War War fought between Japan
Default on international debts Where a and China in 1894 and 1895 over control of Korea.
government refuses to pay back its debts to other
countries. Flying boats Aircraft that cross large stretches of water.

Demilitarized zone Area where no troops or military Food rationing Wartime controls on food.
installations are allowed.
Founding Fathers A term applied to the politicians
Demobilization The process of returning troops to who created the USA following the rebellion against
civilian life. British rule.

Fourteen Points President Wilson’s blueprint for a
post-war peace settlement.

199

Frontiers The edge of settlement and civilization; one International Labour Organization An
of the main themes of US history, particularly with organization set up under the authority of the League
reference to the 1893 thesis of Frederick Jackson of Nations to improve international working
Turner, explaining how, after one frontier was closed conditions.
through the development of settlement and
civilization, new ones were always sought. Inter-war period The period between the two world
wars; in the case of Canada, 1919–39.
German model Military organization based on that
of Germany. Irregular militias Forces drawn up from those other
than members of the regular army; volunteer fighters.
Gold pesos Pesos valued in terms of gold; they had a
higher value than paper pesos. Isolationism The policy by which the USA detached
itself from foreign affairs.
Gold Rush Migration of people to an area to find
gold and become rich after initial discoveries there; in Kaiser Title of the German emperor.
this case the Gold Rush in theYukon, Alaska.
Kemmerer Plans Plans drawn up to help stabilize
Good Neighbor policy Policy of cultivating good and develop the economies of Latin American
relations with Canada and Latin America introduced countries, offering, for example, advice on sound
by President Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1933. currency and central banks to facilitate the financial
infrastructure to pay for increased trade and industrial
Governor General The chief representative of the development.
British Government in the dominions. His precise role
was disputed until defined by the Balfour Report of Labour battalions Troops that worked in
1926 (see page 164). construction or loading or transportation of
equipment rather than serving in combat.
Great Powers The most powerful countries such as
Britain, France, Germany and Japan. Labour unions US trade unions.

Guerrilla Fighter using techniques such as ambush, Laissez-faire An approach where the government
avoiding large-scale confrontations. deliberately avoids getting involved in economic
planning, thus allowing the free market to operate.
‘Gushers’ Prolific oil wells.
Large policy Name given to the policy promoted by
House of Representatives The lower house of expansionists who advocated that the USA break with
Congress in which the number of representatives any tradition of non-intervention in foreign affairs and
chosen is based on a state’s population. take its place among the Great Powers, e.g. Britain and
Germany.
Hun A derogatory term for Germans, derived from
the Huns, a warlike tribe renowned for their cruelty Latin America The countries to the south of the
and barbarism in the fifth century. USA.

Imperial expansion The colonization or annexation Latin American bloc Latin American countries
of less economically developed areas. moving forward together and developing common
policies because of their common interests.
Imperial federation Formal ties between the
dominions and colonies of the British empire; almost League of Nations International organization to be
like one giant federal state. set up after the war to maintain peaceful relations and
encourage countries to co-operate together to address
Imperial High Command Those controlling British common problems such as disease and slavery.
military strategy.
Legalistic Following the letter of the law.
Inaugural address A new president’s first keynote
speech, setting out the vision of the new Lenin Russian revolutionary leader.
administration.
Liberal Party The political party less inclined to
Indemnity A fine as compensation for violent acts, support Britain and more assertive of Canadian
e.g. destruction to property. independence of action; particularly sympathetic to
the aspirations of French Canadians.
Industrial Revolution An economic shift from
predominance in agriculture to manufacture of Liberty and Victory Loans Loans to raise money to
industrial goods. pay for the war effort.

200

Glossary

Manifest Destiny The belief that it was the God- New Imperialism The growth of empire in the late
given right of Americans to settle their continent and nineteenth century by European powers, particularly
then spread their ideas abroad. the exploitation of Africa and the Far East.

Manila Capital city of the Philippines. Nobel Peace Prize An annual prize established in
1901 for an individual, group or organization that has
Martial law Military rule imposed over a region, with done the most to promote peace over the previous year.
features such as suspension of civil liberties and curfews.
Nomenclature Names used to refer to something.
Materiel Equipment and supplies to be used in war.
Non-permanent seat The Council or governing body
McKinley Tariff High tariff introduced in 1890. of the League had four permanent members – Britain,
France, Italy and Japan – and four non-permanent,
Mennonite A Christian group that lives a simple life voted every three years to be members of the
in small communities without any use of modern Assembly, the parliamentary body of the League.
technology; it is opposed to war and so members
would not enlist in the First World War. Northern political elites Powerful politicians and
businessmen from Northern USA who were very
Midwest The middle regions of the USA. influential in decision making in federal government.

Military war games The practice of military exercises ‘Open Door’ US policy that foreign interests in
to prepare military forces for combat. China should respect each other’s rights to trade and
invest there.
Militias Groups of local part-time soldiers.
Opera bouffe Light or comic opera.
Minority government A government in which no
one party has overall control. Ordnance Ammunition for artillery.

Missionaries People who attempt to convert others Pacifist Opposed to war and violence.
to the religion to which they belong.
Pampas The grasslands of Argentina, the heartlands
Mobilization Gearing the country for war, including of cattle ranching and wheat production.
recruiting, equipping and transporting the military.
Pan-American Relating to all the countries on the
Monoculture Over-concentration on production of American continent.
one item, e.g. sugar in Cuba or coffee in Brazil.
Pan-American Union An organization to
Moral diplomacy The belief that contact with the encourage co-operation between American
USA could only benefit others; that the USA was countries, founded in 1910 as a result of the fourth
morally superior to other nations and its diplomacy Pan-American conference, with the US Secretary of
was governed by noble and benevolent principles. State as permanent Chairman. It had little power or
influence.
Multinational companies Companies with branches
and interests in different countries. Paper pesos Paper banknotes.

Munitions Weapons and ammunition. Peace societies Societies to promote the cause of
peace such as the Women’s Peace Society and the
NAACP African-American organization to promote World Peace Association.
civil rights, founded in 1909.
Picket lines Lines of striking workers that prevent
Napoleonic Wars Wars in the early nineteenth others from going to work.
century between Napoleonic France and many
European powers; the USA was particularly angry Plains The great land mass of midwestern USA.
about the British naval blockade which prevented
neutral countries trading with France. Porteños Inhabitants of Buenos Aires, the‘people of
the port’.
Nationalist Someone who promotes the interests of
his or her country. Powder magazine The place on a ship where
weapons and ammunition are stored.
Native North Americans The original inhabitants of
the North American continent, also called First Prairie economy Production and sale of agricultural
Nations in Canada. produce, e.g. wheat, from the vast prairies or lands of
western Canada.
Natural products Goods such as raw materials that
aren’t manufactured.

201

Primary exports Exports of raw materials and Recession A downturn in the economy.
agricultural products such as foodstuffs that have not
been manufactured. Reciprocity agreements Trade agreements of mutual
benefit.
Privy Council Council made up of members of the
British Government and charged with interpreting Referendum A vote put to the electorate on a
matters of government such as which body holds specific issue.
which responsibilities.
Regulation 17 Law passed in 1912 to limit the
Progressive Party A new post-war political party teaching of French in schools in Ontario.
made up of disaffected Liberals and farmers’ interests.
Reparations Compensation to be paid by the losing
Progressivism US movement to expand the role of side for the costs of the war.
government in dealing with social and economic
problems and tackle corruption and abuses. Republic A country without a monarch.

Prohibition A constitutional amendment that placed Republican One of the main US political parties,
a ban on the manufacture, transportation and sale of particularly associated with big business and wealthier
alcoholic beverages. It became law throughout the groups who tended, during the period covered by this
USA in 1919 and lasted until 1933. book, to favour minimal government activity and
lower taxes.
Protection Tariffs to defend domestic production
against imported goods. Reserved occupations Types of employment deemed
essential for the war effort.
Protectionists Those who supported import and
export duties to protect domestic industries from Revisionist Challenging accepted views.
foreign competition.
Revolutionary Wars The wars between countries,
Protectorate The term given to a country‘protected’ such as Britain, against the French, 1793–1815.
by or heavily under the influence of another.
Riot Act A call for demonstrators to disperse before
Provinces Different political regions, for example, being forced to by the authorities.
Quebec and Ontario in Canada.
Rockefeller Foundation Philanthropic organization
Public floating debt Short-term loans to the founded in 1913 by John D. Rockefeller to do good
government attracting lower rates of interest than works throughout the world.
longer-term ones.
Royal Navy The British navy.
Public work schemes Government-financed
schemes, for example, road building. Rural industrialization The main policy of the
post-war Quebec government led by Louis-Alexandre
Puppet emperor A ruler who was controlled by Taschereau. The idea was industrial development in
others; in this case Maximilian owed his position and the form of natural resources projects such as the
authority to France. development of hydro-electric power and mineral
extraction, again in small communities.
Quakers Like the Mennonites, the Quakers are a
Christian denomination opposed to war, but unlike Russian Revolution The communist revolution in
the Mennonites they might volunteer to serve on the Russia of 1917.
battlefield in non-combatant roles, for example, as
stretcher bearers or ambulance drivers. Safe seat A parliamentary seat a political party
expects to win.
Québécois Inhabitants of Quebec.
Scorched earth A military strategy to destroy
Radical Party An Argentine political party everything when forces retreat/withdraw, so the
committed to openness and fair dealing, and opposed opposing army finds a wasteland lacking in food and
to corruption. shelter, and impossible to exploit.

Ratification Approval of a measure by voting. Scramble for Africa The race by European powers to
colonize Africa.
Real wages Wages valued in terms of what they will
actually buy. Secession Where a section of a country seeks to break
away, possibly to become an independent nation.

Secret diplomacy Secret agreements between countries.

202

Glossary

Secretary of State US official responsible for the Tariffs Import and export duties.
administration of foreign policy.
Teller Amendment Amendment to the April 1898
Seditious To do with material attacking the resolution from Congress threatening war with Spain
government. if it did not withdraw from Cuba. Introduced by Henry
Teller, Democrat Senator for Colorado, it asserted that
Segregation Separation of people of different racial the USA would not annex Cuba but would leave
groups in terms of use of facilities, areas where they Cubans to decide their own future.
live and opportunities.
Theory of evolution Theory that describes how
Self-determination The belief that peoples should organisms change over time.
be free to govern themselves and choose their own
form of government. Third Republic French system of government,
1870–1940, featuring a strong legislative arm and
Senate Upper house of the US Congress with two weak presidency.
senators from each state.
Tommy Name given to British soldiers in the First
Senate Foreign Relations Committee Senate World War.
committee responsible for the oversight of foreign affairs.
Trade credits The purchase of goods to be paid for
Shock troops Troops used for special, often later.
particularly dangerous, missions or‘suicide missions’.
Treason Attempting to undermine or go against the
Social Darwinism Application of the theory of government.
evolution to human development, suggesting that
some ethnic and racial groups are more highly Treaty of Westminster Statute establishing legislative
developed than others. independence for British dominions such as Canada.

Socialist Someone who believes that wealth should Trench warfare The defensive network used on the
be shared out more equally and society should have Western Front and elsewhere in which millions died.
more equality of opportunity.
Turner’s thesis F.J. Turner’s thesis, dating from
Spanish–American War The name originally given 1893, about the unique character of the USA and how
to the Spanish–American–Cuban War of 1898, it had been largely determined by the US frontier and
discussed in Chapter 2. the challenges of westward expansion.

Speaker of the House of Representatives The U-boat German submarine.
person controlling the debates in the US House of
Representatives. Union The United States of America; the federal
government supported by 25 states (five border slave
Sphere of influence Countries or regions under the states and 20 free states).
influence of another, e.g. USA and Latin America.
Unionist Party Coalition party of Conservatives and
State Department The US branch of government some Liberals formed as a result of the 1917 federal
responsible for the implementation of foreign policy. election.

State of the Union address Annual statement by the Union-Nationale A separatist movement in Quebec
President on how well the US is doing, what seeking greater autonomy or even independence from
challenges it faces and so on. the federal government.

Strike breaking Trying to defeat a strike, for Unrestricted submarine warfare Attacking any ship
example, by using other workers to do the jobs of en route to an enemy port.
those on strike.
US Civil War War between the Federal Government
Subsoil deposits The resources under the ground; and forces of the Southern states who broke away to
Article 27 of the 1917 Constitution asserted that all form the Confederacy, from 1861 to 1865.
deposits under the surface of the soil (including minerals)
belonged to the state and so were subject to tax. US diplomatic notes Notes used for correspondence
between US and foreign governments.
Supreme Court Judge One of nine Justices who
make up the Supreme Court, the main judicial Veterans’ pensions Pensions received by former
authority in the USA. servicemen.

203

Vigilante groups Groups that take the law into their Wilsonianism Name given to Wilson’s policies based
own hands. on Christian ideas and moral diplomacy.

War bonds Loans to pay for the war, to be redeemed ‘Wipe the eye’ A phrase referring to an attack on
after victory. someone or, in the example on page 144, a country,
i.e. the USA.
War College US college to train future military leaders
in aspects of national security and military strategy. World Court Also known as the Permanent Court
of International Justice, this was set up under the
War indemnity Compensation or reparations from a auspices of the League of Nations in 1920 to help
defeated nation to the victors following war. countries settle disputes peacefully by passing
judgements.
Warlords Local and provincial militia commanders.
‘Yellow Press’ Term given to sensationalist
War profiteering Making excess profits during journalism in the 1890s. It became known as
wartime, for example, by charging artificially high the Yellow Press after a cartoon character called
prices. the Yellow Kid, from Pulitzer’s New York World
(who later appeared in Hearst’s New York
Western Front The battlefields in France and Journal).
Belgium.
Young Plan Plan of 1929 offering to further scale
Western hemisphere The continents of North and down German reparations.
South America.

White House The home of the US president.

204

Further reading

Canada Latin America

Berton, P., Vimy, McClelland & Stewart, Toronto, Albert, B. with the assistance of Henderson, P.,
1986 South America and The First World War: The Impact of
Moving, detailed study of the Battle of Vimy Ridge and the War on Brazil, Argentina, Peru and Chile,
its importance. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1988
One of the few books in English dedicated to the
Bumsted, J.M., A History of the Canadian Peoples, 4th impact of the First World War on Latin America;
edition, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2011 specialist but accessible.
A single-volume edition of a standard history of
Canada, thorough on the impact of the First World Bethel, L. (ed.) The Cambridge History of Latin
War. America, Vols. IV and V, Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge, 1987
Cook, T., Clio’s Warriors, University of British These volumes deal authoritatively with continent-
Columbia Press,Vancouver, 2006 wide issues (Vol. IV) and specific countries (Vol. V).
An analysis of how the official war histories came to
be written. Bradford Burns, E., A History of Brazil, 3rd edition,
Columbia University Press, NewYork, 1993
Finlay, J.L. and Sprague, D.N., The Structure of Very readable and comprehensive text.
Canadian History, Prentice-Hall, Ontario, 1979
Useful for a longitudinal approach to Canadian history. Bulmer-Thomas,V., The Economic History of Latin
America Since Independence, Cambridge University
McNaught, K., The Penguin History of Canada, Press, Cambridge, 1994
Penguin, London, 1978 Thorough and accessible economic analysis, well
Useful analysis of the significance of war within the explained.
wider Canadian context.
Callcott, W.H., The Western Hemisphere, University
Vance, J.F., Death So Noble: Memory and Meaning of Texas Press, Austin, TX, 1968
and the First World War, University of British Thorough on the impact of the First World War on
Columbia Press,Vancouver, 1997 the countries of Latin America.
Brilliant analysis of how Canadian people remembered
and reflected on the war. Dozer, D.M., Latin America: An Interpretive History,
McGraw-Hill, NewYork, 1962
Websites Contains detailed analysis of the impact of the First
World War on the countries of Latin America.
www.warmuseum.ca/home
Indispensable to any detailed study of the effects of Fausto, B., A Concise History of Brazil, Cambridge
the war on Canada. Concise Histories, New York, 1990
Translated from the Portuguese, this is probably the
www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/index-e.html and best short introduction covering the impact of the
www.archives.canada.ca First World War on Brazil.
Links to the Canadian National Archives.
Karnow, Stanley, In Our Image: America’s Empire in
Film the Philippines, 1st edition, Random House, New
York, 1989
Passchendaele (2008) A thorough examination of the Philippines as a US
A very moving film about Canada’s involvement in the colony.
First World War on both the home and battle fronts.

205

Kirkwood, B., The History of Mexico, USA
Palgrave Macmillan, New York and Basingstoke,
2000 Brands, H.W., The United States in the World: A
A concise history, useful on Mexico’s relations with History of American Foreign Relations, Vol. 2,
the USA. Houghton Mifflin, Boston and New York, 1994
An always interesting and often provocative account.
Martin, C.E. and Wasserman, M., Latin America and
its People, 3rd edition, Prentice Hall, New York, 2012 Carter, P.A., The Twenties in America, Routledge and
A thorough and accessible account. Paul, London, 1968
An evaluative account with useful historiographical
Meade, T.A., A Brief History of Brazil, Facts on File, discussions.
NewYork, 2003
Particularly useful for the impact of the First World Evans, H., The American Century, Jonathan Cape,
War on industrial unrest in Brazil. London, 1998
Introductory thematic analyses, then examines events
Meyer, M.C. and Beezley, W.H. (eds), The Oxford and personalities separately.
History of Mexico, Oxford University Press, New
York, 2000 Ferguson, N., Colossus, Penguin, London, 2003
Insightful essays on various aspects of Mexican Study of the nature of US imperialism; the early
history; particularly useful here is the essay on historical background chapters are particularly useful.
‘Mexico and the Outside World’ by F.E. Schuler.
Fleming, T., The Illusion of Victory: America in World
Perez, Louis A. Jr., The War of 1898: The United States War 1, Basic Books, NewYork, 2003
and Cuba in History and Historiography, University A controversial account that argues that the USA
of North Carolina Press, Durham, 1998 should have remained neutral in the conflict.
A thought-provoking examination of the reasons why
the US intervened in the Cuban–Spanish war. Garraty, J.A., The American Nation, Vol. 2,
HarperCollins, NewYork, 1991
Williamson, E., The Penguin History of Latin America, Contains useful and authoritative chapters on foreign
Penguin, London, 1992 policy.
Considers the continent as a whole, then examines
individual countries. Healy, D., James G. Blaine and Latin America,
University of Missouri Press, Missouri, 2001
Websites This book examines seven issues that collectively
explain Blaine’s views, focusing particularly on how far
www.casahistoria.net/uslatam.htm he regarded Latin America as being important to US
Links to other web pages on the relations between interests.
Latin America and the USA.
Herring, G.C., From Colony to Superpower: US
www.worldwar1.com/sfla.htm Foreign Relations Since 1776, Oxford University
Site containing a very useful article by Ron Genini; Press, NewYork, 2008
particularly good as a starting point for further study. An authoritative, up-to-date analysis.

www.historyofcuba.com/history/havana/ Hoganson, K.L., Fighting for American Manhood:
Sugar1b.htm How Gender Politics Provoked the Spanish-American
Very useful for the relations between Cuba and the and Philippine-American Wars, Yale University Press,
USA, and the Cuban sugar industry. Yale, 1998
An interesting gendered perspective.

206

Further reading

Immerman, R.H., Empire for Liberty, Princeton Articles
University Press, Princeton, NJ, 2010
A study of foreign policy from the biographical Brewer, P., ‘ The Journey to War: Woodrow Wilson
perspective of key individuals, particularly useful here and American Pacifism’, History Today, 57,
for its study of Henry Cabot Lodge. September 2007
Examines how the USA became involved in the First
Johnson, P., History of the American People, Phoenix, World War.
London, 1998
Right-wing and celebratory in style, but always a good Ellis, M.,‘America’s Black Press 1914–1918’, History
read. Today, 41, September 1991
A very interesting view of the home front from the
Judis, J.B., The Folly of Empire, Scribner, New York, perspective of African-Americans.
2004
A controversial analysis arguing that the USA pursued Faulkner, R. S.,‘A Fraternity of Arms: America and
an imperialist path against its own interests. France during the Great War’, Military Review,Vol 84
No 2, March/April 2004
Kaufman, J.P., A Concise History of US Foreign Policy, Examines the relationships between the USA and France
2nd edition, Rowman and Littlefield Publishers during the period of the war.
Inc., Lanham, MD, 2010
A useful and brief account. Offer, J. L.,‘McKinley and the Spanish–American
War’, Presidential Studies Quarterly, V  ol 34, No 1,
Kennedy, R., The Will to Believe: Woodrow Wilson, March 2004
World War I, and America’s Strategy for Peace and Examines the role of President McKinley in the Spanish–
Security, Kent University State Press, Ohio, 2008 American–Cuban War.
A thorough, specialist interpretation.
Ray, C.,‘Woodrow Wilson as Commander-in-Chief’,
McDougall, W.A., Promised Land, Crusader State: History Today, 43, April 93
America’s Encounter with the World Since 1776, An evaluation of Wilson’s role as Commander-in-
Houghton Mifflin, Boston and New York, 1997 Chief.
Brilliant Pulitzer-Prize-winning analysis, particularly
useful here for its examination of the attitudes of Rodriguez, L., ‘“El Desastre”: Spain in Defeat,
progressives to foreign policy. 1898’, History Today, 48, December 1998
The Spanish–American–Cuban War from the Spanish
Palmer, N., The Twenties in America, Edinburgh perspective.
University Press, Edinburgh, 2006
A concise account of foreign policy, emphasizing the Websites
achievements.
www.loc.gov/rr/hispanic/1898/ojeda.html
Traxel, D., 1898: The Birth of the American Century, ‘The Spanish–American War of 1898: a Spanish View’
Vintage Books, NewYork, 1998 by Jaime de Ojeda.
A detailed study of the significance of one year.
www.spanamwar.com
Zinn, Howard, A People’s History of the United States, A detailed site devoted to the Spanish–American–
HarperCollins, NewYork, 2009 Cuban War.
Zinn’s chapters of US imperialism and the war in
the Philippines contain excellent contemporary http://shprs.clas.asu.edu/american_
extracts. imperialism
Many good links to US imperialism.

207

Internal assessment

The internal assessment is a historical investigation on 4 In what ways did Latin American intellectuals
a historical topic. Below is a list of possible topics on respond to US interventions in the region,
the emergence of the Americas in global affairs from 1904–30?
1880–1929 that could warrant further investigation.
They have been organized by chapter theme. Chapter 4: The United States and the
First World War: from neutrality to
Chapter 1: United States’ expansionist involvement
foreign policies
1 What impact did anti-German propaganda play
1 In what ways did Captain Alfred T. Mahan’s in the 1917 US decision to declare war on
books impact the development of the Japanese Germany?
and German navies in the late nineteenth and
early twentieth centuries? 2 To what extent were German submarine attacks
on US shipping responsible for the US entry into
2 How were American sugar interests able to the First World War?
overthrow the Hawaiian monarchy?
3 How were Americans of German descent treated
3 Why was Emperor Maximilian I’s rule in Mexico in the US during the First World War?
doomed?
4 How successful were Augusto Sandino’s efforts
4 How did the Baltimore incident in 1891 reflect against US interventions in Nicaragua?
the limits of Chile’s importance as a Pacific naval
power? Chapter 5: Canada and the First World
War: participation and impact
Chapter 2: The Spanish–American–
Cuban War, 1898 1 In what ways and with what effects did French-
speaking Canadians resist conscription during
1 To what extent were US newspaper reports of the First World War?
American atrocities in the Philippines accurate?
2 What impact did the Halifax explosion have on
2 How important was the sinking of the USS Canada’s war effort?
Maine in the US decision to declare war on
Spain in 1898? 3 To what extent did Canadian actions at Vimy
Ridge influence Canadian nationalism?
3 Why was the Anti-Imperialist League unable to
stop the US from seizing and keeping Spanish 4 Why was the Canadian government’s decision to
colonies? conscript its young males taken so late in the
First World War?
4 To what extent did José Martí contribute to
Cuba’s independence from Spain? Chapter 6: Latin America in the First
World War: participation and impact
Chapter 3: United States’ foreign
policies, 1901–17 1 Why did Brazil leave the League of Nations in
1928?
1 To what extent did the Boxer Rebellion mark the
beginning of the end of the Qing Dynasty in 2 To what extent did the Argentine economy
China? benefit from the First World War?

2 In what ways was the Panamanian revolt against 3 How did Latin American countries respond to
Colombia fabricated in Washington, DC? German submarine attacks on their shipping?

3 How successful were President Wilson’s efforts 4 Why did Brazil declare war on the German
to bring stability to the Caribbean region? empire in 1917?

208

Index

A submarine warfare 96, 97 Canadian Patriotic Fund 157
US entry into the war 99, 100 Caribbean 61–6, 171
African‑Americans 109, 112–14, 115 and international agreements 130
Aguinaldo, Emilio 46, 49, 50, 53 and the League of Nations 184 and the Spanish–American–
Alaska 11, 14, 17, 141–2 Royal Navy 175 Cuban War 46–8
Algeciras Conference (1906) 72 and the USA 20, 28, 72, 87
American Civil War 10, 40 and the American Civil War Carnegie, Andrew 51–2
Carranza,Venustiano 82, 83, 185–6,
and Britain 14–15 14–15
and sea power 21 British Guiana 15 188
Argentina 83, 124, 127 Bryan, William Jennings 52, 53, 80 Castro, José Cipriano 66
and the First World War 170, 171, Céspedes, Carlos Manuel de 35, 37
and the First World War 92, 96, 97, Chaco War 171
174–9, 189 104 Chanak Crisis (1922) 164
economic effects 177–8 Chile 27–8, 83, 124
politics 174, 178–9 C
and trade 173, 176–7 and the First World War 171, 172
Canada 13, 139–69 China 71, 78, 80, 134
B agriculture 155–6, 161
and Alaska 141–2 Boxer Rebellion 73–4
Balfour Declaration (1926) 142, 164 armed forces Sino‑Japanese War 16
Black press 112–14 conscription 148–51, 156, 161 US Open Door policy 72–3, 74–5,
Boer War 141 demobilization 160–1
Bolivia 27, 171, 172 the navy 142–3, 144 76
Borden, Robert 142–3, 144 soldiers 146–52, 165 US trade with 15–16
and Britain 139–43, 144–5, 163–4, Christians
and the First World War 146, 147, 165–6 and military service in Canada
148, 167 political status 140
election (1911) 144–5 158
conscription 150, 151–2, 156 First Nations 149 missionaries 23, 73
and the League of Nations 163 and the First World War 139, in the Philippines 51, 55
Brazil 83, 124 146–69 Civil liberties
and the First World War 170, agriculture and food production in Canada 154–8
155–6, 160, 161 in the USA 109–12
179–84, 189, 190 and Canadian national identity Clark, James Beauchamp `Champ’
industrial development 183–4, 146, 148, 152–3, 165–6
civil liberties 157–8 143–4
190 economy 153–6, 161 Cleveland, Grover 9, 26, 28
industrial unrest 182–3 Halifax disaster 155 Colombia 68–9, 80, 126, 171
and the League of Nations 184 industry 153, 154, 162 colonialism see imperialism
US exports to 173 munitions problems 154–5 Coolidge, Calvin 122, 130, 131
Britain political and military autonomy Costa Rica 81
Anglo‑Japanese Alliance 129–30, 146–8 Cuba
post‑war impact 159–64
163 social developments 156–7 rebellion (1895) 34–5, 36, 61–2
and Canada 139–43, 144–5, 163–4 foreign policy (1896‑1911) 140–3 and the Spanish–American–
and the League of Nations 163
and Canadian national identity post‑war foreign relations 163–4 Cuban War (1898) 61
165–6 and the USA 123, 139, 140 causes of the war 34–42
investment in 123 course of the war 46–7
and China 72 reciprocity agreement 143–4 Paris Peace Conference 48, 49
and the First World War 93, 94 see also French Canadians sugar industry 61–2, 64–5
US intervention and trade 61–5,
and Canada 146–8
and the Imperial War Cabinet 173

148 D
and Latin America 171, 172,
Darwin, Charles 22
175, 186–7 Dawes Plan 130–1, 132
naval blockade 95–6, 97, 99 Dewey, George 45–6
post‑war peace settlement 117,

118

209

Dollar diplomacy 78, 79, 124 and Canada 149, 158 Industrial development
Dominican Republic 17–18, 66–7, 81, and Latin America 170, 172 Brazil 183–4, 190
and Mexico 185–6, 188 Canada 153, 154, 162
128 post‑war peace settlement rural industrialization 162
Du Bois, W.E.B. 113, 114 Latin America 190–1
116–17, 118, 119 United States 10, 13–14, 20
E submarine warfare 96–7, 99,
International Labour Organization
Economies and the First World War 101, 102, 105, 180 163
Argentina 177–8 US entry into the war 100,
Brazil 183–4 Irigoyen, Hipólito 174, 175, 179
Canada 153–6 101–3, 104
Mexico 186–8 post‑war reparations 130–1 J
USA 107–8 and Samoa 25
and the Spanish–American– Japan
Ecuador 171 Anglo‑Japanese Alliance 129–30,
El Salvador 127, 171 Cuban War 41 163
Examination questions US relations with 71, 72, 76 and the League of Nations 184
Good Neighbor policy 127–8, 129 Sino‑Japanese War 16
`analyse’ 167–9 Guam 16–17, 46, 48, 49, 130 and the USA 15–16, 71, 75–6
`assess’ 192–5 Guiana 28 and the Washington Naval
`compare and contrast’ 88–90 Agreements 129–30
`evaluate’ 30–2 H
`to what extent’ 136–8 K
`why’ 57–9 Haiti 66, 81
Harding, Warren 122, 130, 134 Kellogg–Briand Pact 131–2
F Harrison, Benjamin 10, 12, 26, 27, 28 Kemmerer Plans 125
Hawaii 14, 16, 23, 25–6, 28, 43, 86 King, Mackenzie 162, 164, 166
First World War see Britain; Canada; Hay, John 48, 50, 73, 76 Kipling, Rudyard 49
Latin America; United States Honduras 15 Korea 76
Hoover, Herbert 108, 125, 134
Florida 35 Huerta,Victoriano 82–3 L
France
I Latin America
and international agreements 130, and the First World War 170–95
131 Imperialism effects of the war 170–3
Canada and the British empire historians on 189–92
and the League of Nations 184 144 and industrial development
and Mexico 15 and the USA 190–1
Napoleonic Wars 14 annexation of the Philippines and trade 171–3, 174, 176–7,
and the post‑war peace settlement 49–56 189–90
Anti‑Imperialist League 51–2, unity and the Latin American
117, 118 53 bloc 191–2
and the USA 11, 72 growth of US imperial interests independence movement 15
French Canadians 167–9 24–9 and Pan–Americanism 27, 170, 171
and Britain 144–5, 166 historians on motives for and the USA 123, 191
and conscription 150–1, 165 85–8 imperial expansion 27–8, 70
and separatism 140, 162 large policy 33 post‑First World War 123–9
French Revolutionary wars 21 and Latin America 27–8, 70 the progressive era 61–71, 80–4
new Imperialism 16 and trade 20
G opposition to colonialism see also individual countries, e.g.
17–18 Argentina
Galeano, Eduardo 128 Pacific region 16–17, 24–6, 28
Gender preclusive 23, 28, 50 Laurier, Wilfrid 140–1, 143, 145, 150,
in the progressive era 85–8 151, 166
and the Spanish–American– reasons for imperial expansion
Cuban War 43–4 19–24 League of Nations 116, 118, 119, 163
and the Spanish–American– and Latin America 171, 181, 184, 191
Germany 22, 23, 66 Cuban War (1898) 28–9 and the USA 120–1, 122, 123
and China 72
and the First World War 93–4, 95,
105, 135
and Argentina 174, 175–6
and Brazil 179, 180, 181–2, 183

210

Index

Lloyd George, David 147, 148, 164 O Root–Takahira Agreements 76
Locarno Conference 129 Russia 11, 17, 102, 116
Lodge, Henry Cabot 21, 33, 117, 118, Obregón, Alvaro 126 Russian Revolution 178
Oil production 14
122, 133 S
and the League of Nations 120, Mexico 186–7, 188
Olney, Richard 73 Sagasta, Práxedes Mateo 45
121 Samoa 16–17, 23, 24–5, 28
P Sandino, Augusto César 127, 128
M Schenk, Charles 112
Pan‑Americanism 27, 170, 171 Scott, Emmett Jay 113, 114
McKinley, William 38, 40, 42, 43, Panama Canal 67–70, 80, 125, 141, 172 Seward, William H. 17
44–5, 46, 53 Paraguay 171 Social Darwinism 22–3, 28
Paris Peace Conferences Spain
and American imperialism 85
and the annexation of the (1898–99) 48, 49 Algeciras Conference (1906) 72
(1919) 117–18, 119 and the Cuban rebellion (1895)
Philippines 50–1, 55–6 Peru 27, 124, 171, 172
and US policy in China 75 Pessoa, Epitácio 184 34-5, 36, 43
Madero, Francisco 82 Philippines 23, 76–7, 81 and the Paris Peace Conference
Mahan, Captain Alfred Thayer annexation of 49–56, 85
48, 49
21–2 effects of 53–4 and the Philippines 46, 50, 52
Manifest Destiny historians on 55–6 reasons for involvement in Cuba
opponents of 51–3
and Canada 140 and progressive era imperialism 45
and US imperialism 22, 28, 33 Spanish–American–Cuban War
Martí, José 34, 37, 43, 44 85, 86, 87
Meighen, Arthur 163 supporters of 50–1 (1898) 10, 16, 24, 33–59, 61
Mexico Filipinization policy 77 in the Caribbean 46–8
civil war 81–4, 185 Filipino independence movement causes 33–42
and the First World War 170, 171,
46, 49, 50, 53 historians on 42–5
172, 175, 185–8, 189 and the Spanish–American–Cuban propaganda and theYellow
economic impact of 186–8
impact on foreign policy 188 War (1898) 33, 34, 45–6 Press 37–8, 43, 54
French involvement in 27 war of independence 49 the USS Maine sinking 38–9,
US exports to 173 Platt Amendment 64
and the USA 11, 13, 124, 126, 127, Preclusive imperialism 23, 28, 50 40, 44, 45
Prohibition 157 declaration of war 40–1
188 Puerto Rico 47–8, 49, 61, 65, 81, 85 and Hawaii 26
Wilson and moral diplomacy in in the Pacific 45–6
Q and the Paris Peace Conference
81–4
and the Zimmermann telegram Quesada, Gonzalo de 37 48, 49
and the Philippines 33, 34, 45–6,
102, 185 R
Midway Island 16 48
Monroe Doctrine 14, 15, 23, Racism 18 annexation of 49–56
Rockefeller Foundation 123 and US imperial expansion 28–9,
27, 131 Roosevelt Corollary (1904) 60, 66–7,
and Latin America 28, 66, 127, 87
80, 88, 127
191 Roosevelt, Franklin D. 127, 128, 131 T
and Mexico 188 Roosevelt, Theodore 21, 60, 88, 99
Moral diplomacy 80–5, 92, 105, 106 Taft, William Howard 60, 76, 78, 81,
and Alaska 142 124
N and the Caribbean/Latin America
Teller Amendment 40–1, 48, 49, 61
Napoleonic Wars 14, 95 61–71, 127 Trade
National identity and the Far East 72–7
the Great Powers and Asia 71–7 and the First World War 94–5
Canadians and the First World and the `Great White Fleet’ 76 and Latin America 171–3, 174,
War 146, 148, 152–3, 165–6 and the Spanish–American– 176–7, 189–90

and Latin America 191–2 Cuban War 45, 46, 50, 52 protectionism 20
Native North Americans 11, 21 and the USA 13–14, 16, 123
Nicaragua 78, 79, 81, 127,
and Canada 143–4, 145
134, 191 and Cuba 35–6, 64–5

211

and the Far East 15–16 Post-war peace settlement W
and Hawaii 25–6 116–21
imperialism and the need for Wake Island 16–17
propaganda and civil liberties Washington, George 19
markets 86 109–12 Washington Naval Agreements
reciprocity agreements 13, 20,
and trade with Latin America 129–30, 132, 163
27, 64–5, 143–4 172–3 Weyler,Valeriano 34–5
tariffs 13, 16, 20, 25–6, 27 Wilhelm II, German Kaiser
Trujillo, Rafael 128 US entry into the war 99–107
Turkey 164 war production and finance 41, 101
Turner’s thesis 11, 19 Wilson, Woodrow 51, 60, 61
107–8
U workers 109 and dollar diplomacy 79
foreign policies and the First World War
United States expansionist 9–32
and Argentina 175 progressive era/presidents 60–90 and African–Americans 112
army 21 industrial development 10, 13–14, 20 ideas for a post-war
Chinese Exclusion Act (1882) 16 international agreements 129–32
conquest of internal frontiers isolationism 10, 14, 104–5, 121 settlement 99–100, 105–6,
11–12, 19 historians on 122–3, 133–4 116–19
and Cuba 61–5 and the League of Nations 120–1, neutrality policy 91–8, 105
the Cuban rebellion (1895) US entry into the war 101–3,
34–5, 36 122, 123 104, 105–6
US business interests 38 naval expansion and sea power Fourteen Points 100, 116–17, 119,
US economic involvement in 135
62–4 21–2 and the League of Nations 116,
US–Cuban relations 35–6 population growth 13 118, 119, 120–1
see also Spanish–American– presidential election (1900) 52–3 and Mexico 187
Cuban War railroads 11, 13, 108 and moral diplomacy 80–5, 92,
economic and cultural influence Republicans 26, 40, 117, 121 105, 106
122–3 Roosevelt Corollary (1904) 60, and the presidential election
economic depression (1893) 20, 43 (1916) 98
economic development 12–14 66–7, 80, 88, 127 Women and the First World War 109
First World War 61, 88, 91–123 see also imperialism; Monroe in Canada 156, 157
African–Americans 109,
112–14, 115 Doctrine Y
the Knox–Porter resolution 121 Uruguay 124
and Mexico 185–6 Yellow press 37–8, 43, 54
neutrality policy 91–8, 105 V Young Plan 130–1, 132

Venezuela 66, 72, 140 Z
and the First World War 171
and US imperialism 28 Zimmermann telegram 102, 185

Villa, Francisco (Pancho) 83–4, 185
Virgin Islands 81

212