Part 2 Subject knowledge and ideas for practice
Formative assessment
Observational drawings – ask the children to draw an object and its shadow. They
can annotate their drawing to show the direction of light and say how the shadow is
formed.
Re-describing stage
Children’s talk involves making sense of scientific ideas
The purpose of this stage is to help the children to visualise a shadow as an area of
darkness where an object is blocking light.
Encourage the children to talk about why their shadows are always black or dark.
Ask them to imagine what it would be like to stand inside a very dark shadow. Talk
about the darkest place they have ever experienced. How did the dark make them
feel? What could they see?
Scientific enquiry
Create a dark cave from opaque material and tables in the classroom. Put some dark,
light and luminous objects in corners of the cave. Make it big enough for at least
two children. Allow volunteers to go into the cave two at a time. When they come out
ask them what they could see. Did they notice the objects in the corner? Did they
recognise them?
By the end of the activity it is important that most of the children will have experi-
enced the sense of dark and been able to talk about it. Ask the children to write about
what it feels like to be in the dark. Talk together about why it was so dark in the cave.
What would they need to do to see things more clearly in the cave? Establish that they
need light to see. Allow them back into the cave with a torch to identify the objects.
Establish that darkness is the absence of light; we need light to see things. Talk about
how objects block out the light to form areas of darkness which are called shadows.
What would it be like sitting within a giant’s shadow?
Assessment and further learning
Talk again about the Peter Pan story and whether it is possible for ordinary people to
lose their shadows. Where do shadows go at night? Using a strong light source, draw
and look at silhouettes. Ask children to explain them and suggest how to make them
sharper and change their size. Use the children’s responses to assess their progress.
What else would they like to find out?
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Chapter 18 Light
Application stage
Children’s talk involves trying out scientific ideas
Links to design technology and drama
Create a small shadow theatre using a box or a large one using a sheet suspended
from the ceiling. Children can design and make shadow puppets to act a scene from
Peter Pan or they can create their own stories. Use a range of opaque and translucent
materials. Encourage each group to work collaboratively to design their own shadow
scenery, props and characters. During rehearsals encourage the children to use their
knowledge of shadows creatively. For example, sizes can be changed dramatically by
moving the puppet closer to the light source. Giant monsters and carnivorous plants
can be created this way. Talk to the children about the effects they want to create and
help them put their ideas into action. Finally, children need to spend time preparing
their script and rehearsing their performance.
Children rehearsing their shadow puppet show – the audience are on the other side of the
giant screen
Source: Peter Loxley
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Part 2 Subject knowledge and ideas for practice
Assessment
Ask classmates to evaluate performances, commenting positively on use of puppets,
story, sound effects and so on. Children should be taught not to make negative
comments, but instead make suggestions which might support the group’s work.
Discuss light, dark and shadows, and find out what the children think they need to
know next.
Topic: How bees see the world
Age group: Upper primary
Scientific view
We use our eyes to see the world. The world we see is full of colours and shapes.
Animals do not see the world as we do. Although we live in the same world, it looks
very different to different animals depending on the structure of their eyes. For
example, the honey bee has five eyes, two of which are used to create ultraviolet
images of the world. The other three are used for navigational purposes.
Scientific enquiry skills
In these activities children will:
z raise and try to find answers to questions;
z think creatively to explain how living things work;
z use first-hand experience and information sources to help answer the question;
z use their scientific knowledge and understanding to explain observations.
Exploration stage
Children’s talk involves trying out their own ideas
Setting the scene
Take the children to a local woodland or grassland area in spring or summer to
photograph the flora and fauna. Organise the children to quietly observe and record
the comings and goings of the insects, especially the bees. Record the flowers the
bees are attracted to and those which they ignore.
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Chapter 18 Light
Scientific enquiry
Back in the classroom the children can make a display from their photographs and
use information sources to find out more about the bees and the flowers to which
they were attracted.
Talking points: true, false or not sure?
z Some flowers seems to be more attractive to bees than others.
z Bees do not land on leaves.
z Bees can smell flowers.
z Bees prefer red.
z Bees are collecting things . . . we can say what.
Puzzle
Talk together about what the world would look like through the eyes of a bee. Does
the world look the same to a bee as it does to us?
Children’s drawings
Children can use their imagination to paint pictures of what they think a flower would
look like to a bee. Children should present their paintings and explain why the flower
would seem so appealing to bees.
Formative assessment
Explore children’s drawings and responses to the puzzle. Decide what the children
know and what they need to learn in the next stage.
Re-describing stage
Children’s talk involves making sense of scientific ideas
The purpose of this stage is to help the children solve the puzzle by thinking and talk-
ing about it from a scientific point of view.
Children’s drawings
Compare the children’s eyes with bees’ eyes. Children can look at each other’s eyes,
and draw what they see (ensure that children know that they must not shine lights in
eyes). Use the drawings to talk about the pupil as a small hole which lets light into
our eyes. What happens to the light after that? Use information sources to find out
about the structure of the human eye.
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Part 2 Subject knowledge and ideas for practice
Compare the structure of human eyes with those of bees. Children may be fascinated
to find out that bees have five eyes. Why do they need all these eyes? What purpose
do they serve? Bees, like other insects with compound eyes, are very sensitive to
rapid movement. This enables them to react quickly to the movement of predators. If
children have ever tried to catch an insect with compound eyes such as a fly or bee,
they will realise how quickly their eyes enable them to react. One of the amazing
things about bees is that they see the world in different colours to us. Our eyes detect
the colours of the spectrum from red to violet. Bees cannot detect the red end of
the spectrum but instead are able to detect ultraviolet light which is not visible to
humans. As a result of their research children can identify the ‘secret’ colours which
bees can see. They can paint pictures which compare how humans and bees would
see the same display of different coloured flowers.
An important point which needs to be emphasised in the re-description stage is
the part played by the structure of our eyes in determining how we picture the world.
It is worth explaining the structure of the human eye in some detail.
Assessment and further learning
Use the children’s drawings and explanations to assess their progress. What else
would they like to find out? Children can raise and investigate their own questions.
Application stage
Children’s talk involves trying out scientific ideas
Scientific enquiry
Make simple spectacles out of card and different coloured transparent materials.
Ask the children to note how the world seems to change when they look through the
different coloured ‘glasses’. What problems do they have in distinguishing between
different colours? Ask groups of children to choose one pair of colour glasses and
talk together about the problems they would have if the world always appeared as it
does when they look through the glasses.
Link to PSHE
Make children aware that the world does not look the same to all people. Children
can use information sources to research the nature and causes of vision problems,
including colour blindness. Discussion could focus on social problems experienced
by children who wear glasses, with an examination of the motivation behind this.
Provide positive role models and encourage the class to accept that sight problems
create difficulties which many children live with every day.
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Assessment
Use children’s reports on the causes of colour blindness to assess their progress.
They could also research and report how other animals see the world in comparison
with humans and bees.
Information and teaching resources
Books
z Hollins, M. and Whitby, V. (2001) Progression in Primary Science, London: David Fulton
Publishers, Chapter 4: Sound and light.
Primary science review articles (Association of Science
Education)
z PSR 93, (May/June 2006). This issue focuses on Light and Sound.
Useful information and interactive websites
z Use this search engine to access a range of sites for light: www.ajkids.com
z Teachers’ Lab – the science of light: www.learner.org/teacherslab/science/light/
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CHAPTER 19
SOUND
Sound figures largely in our world. Every day we experience noise, music and
voices. We use sound to communicate and entertain. Some sounds we find satis-
fying and enjoyable, others can be unpleasant and even threatening. At times we
use sounds aggressively as warning signals, at other times to portray affection and
trust. Music is one of our great cultural achievements and exemplifies how sound
can be used to enrich our lives. In this chapter we look at the physical nature of
sound and how different sounds are produced. We also explore the similarities and
differences between the way we and other animals detect sound.
Topics discussed in this chapter:
z Historical context
z The nature of sound
z Acoustics
z Ways of detecting sounds
Chapter 19 Sound
Part 1: Subject knowledge
Historical context
In the sixteenth century Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519) studied hearing; he compared
the sound of a bell to a stone creating ripples when dropped into water. This analogy
enabled him to picture how sound could travel in waves. A hundred years later, Italian
astronomer and physicist Galileo Galilei (1564–1642) noticed that vibration creates
sound and that objects can resonate. As part of his study of sound, he explained
everyday effects such as how a wet finger can make a wineglass ring. He also demon-
strated that the frequency of sound waves determined their pitch.
Enquires into the speed of sound
In the 1600s French scientist and monk Marin Mersenne, interested in musical com-
position, considered the speed of sound and studied acoustics and vibrating strings.
Robert Boyle (1627–91), the Irish theologian, soldier and physicist whose work on air
pressure is well known, first measured the speed of sound in air in 1660. Isaac Newton
(1642–1727) looked at the way sound travels, describing the relationship between
the speed of sound and the density and compressibility of the medium in which it is
travelling. So, for example, he knew that sound travels more readily in water than
in air. Newton realised that sound can be interpreted as ‘pressure’ or thought of as
pulses which are transmitted through adjacent particles of matter.
Mathematics, music and acoustics
The eighteenth-century Dutch mathematician Daniel Bernoulli (1700–82) studied the
flow of air. He considered the relationship of music and mathematics. He found that,
for example, a violin string could vibrate at more than one frequency. Such vibration
consists of a series of natural frequencies, the higher frequencies superimposed
on the lower. Bernoulli’s understanding of the mathematical and physical nature of
sound enabled him to see that complex musical sound, such as the sound made by
a musical instrument, consists of a series or mix of simple sounds, such as those
produced by a tuning fork.
Acoustics is the science of sound, including its production, transmission and effects.
Acoustic research has led to the development of the electronic communication and
entertainment systems which enrich our lives today.
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Part 2 Subject knowledge and ideas for practice
The nature of sound
How vibrations create sounds
To exist, sounds need a vibrating source and a medium to travel through. To hear
sounds, creatures need sensitive cells arranged to detect vibrations. Sound waves
must move through a solid, a liquid or a gas. They cannot move through the vacuum
of space. Sound around us is produced when the air is disturbed by vibrations in some
way and these vibrations are detected as sound in our ears. The source of sound
vibrations can be the speaker cone of a sound system, the air in a flute, people talk-
ing by vibration of vocal cords in the larynx, the mechanical disturbance of traffic
noise, or the vibration created as a jet engine or thunder move enormous amounts
of air. A cymbal creates sound. In its ordinary position, it is silent. Once it is struck,
it moves rapidly to and fro. Air immediately next to it is compressed, causing a
slight increase in air pressure; it then moves back past its rest position, causing
a reduction in the air pressure. As this continues, a wave of alternating high and
low pressure radiates away from the cymbal in all directions. These patterns of high
and low pressure are interpreted as sounds in our ears and brain.
So it is that sounds are generated by rapid movement, or vibration. Objects vibrate
in different ways to make their own unique sounds. When a gong is struck the entire
object is made to vibrate. Sounds made by a violin are created by the vibrations of
its strings. The vibrating strings set up vibrations in the body of the violin which
amplify the sounds.
The body of the stringed instrument amplifies the
sound made by vibrating the strings
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Chapter 19 Sound
Sound travels faster in a solid than in air because the particles, which transfer the sound,
are closer together
A model to explain how sound travels
Materials are made from moving particles which can pass their energy on to others.
This is how sound moves. The closer the particles are to one other the more easily
they pass on sound vibrations. This means sounds travels better in liquids, where
particles are close together, than in air where they are further apart. The particles
of a solid such as steel have tightly packed particles, which pass on vibrations to
their neighbours very readily. Sound moves more rapidly in a solid than a liquid or gas.
Sound vibrations (waves) travel away from their source, radiating out in all directions.
Something to think about
Leonardo da Vinci imagined sound waves to be like ripples spreading out on the
surface of water. Do you think this is a useful analogy? Could it help explain about
the behaviour of sound?
Problems with the water model
The water analogy is not a perfectly accurate picture, but it does enable us to under-
stand how the sound from a source such as a bell can be heard in all parts of a room
simultaneously. The analogy breaks down when we consider the movement of the
particles of water. In water waves the particles move up and down at right angles to
the direction of travel of the wave. This is called a transverse wave and is consistent
with the way light travels. Sound is a longitudinal wave, which means that its energy
travels in the same direction in which the source vibrates.
Can sound be reflected like light?
Sound is reflected from surfaces. When sound is reflected from hard surfaces
echoes can be created. Bats have very sensitive ears and use echoes to locate their
prey. In effect they locate their prey by ‘shouting’, but their voices are at such a
high pitch that we humans cannot hear them. Their ultrasound calls bounce off the
hard exoskeleton of their prey, such as a moth, and are returned so that they hear an
echo a fraction of a second later. Bats calculate the decreasing distance between
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Part 2 Subject knowledge and ideas for practice
Ripples on water
Source: © Dorling Kindersley / DK Images
Using a slinky to model how sound travels in longitudinal waves
Source: Peter Loxley
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Chapter 19 Sound
Bats use echoes to locate their prey
Source: John Woodcock / © Dorling Kindersley / DK Images
themselves and insects by listening. Some water creatures can also locate things
or one another in this way. Bottlenose dolphins produce clicking sounds which they
use to navigate around their habitat. There is even a Madagascan shrew that explores
its terrain by echo location. We have developed technology which imitates animals’
use of sound to locate underwater objects. Ships use sonar (SOund NAvigation and
Ranging) equipment to detect and locate submerged objects or to measure distances
underwater.
Something to think about
If sound travels better in solids than it does in air, then why do we shut doors and
windows to block out unwanted sounds? It could be argued that closing doors should
enable the sound to travel more easily into the room.
Which materials absorb sound?
Some surfaces absorb rather than reflect sound. Curtains and carpets make an
appreciable difference to the acoustics of a room. Good absorbers of sound are often
a mixture of a gas (air) and a solid. For example, woollen curtains and carpets are
good absorbers; so are some manufactured materials, such as polystyrene and foam,
which are commonly used as insulators of sound. Sound vibrations dissipate when
they are continuously transferred from one medium to another.
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Part 2 Subject knowledge and ideas for practice
Acoustics
Pitch and frequency
Sound waves have the same measurable characteristics as light waves, that is, wave-
length, frequency and amplitude.
The number of vibrations produced by a source during one second is the frequency
of the sound. We use the term pitch to describe how we interpret different frequencies.
As the frequency of vibration increases, the sound we hear gets higher and higher.
High-frequency sounds have a high pitch. If vibrations have a low frequency, the
resulting sound has a low pitch. We start a column of air vibrating as we blow into
a recorder; we can change the frequency of the vibrations by changing the length of
the air column that is vibrating. Small piccolos have higher pitched sounds than large
bassoons because they make it possible to vibrate an air column at a higher frequency.
Interestingly, vibration in air columns is unaffected by the shape of the column – so
we can bend and twist tubes which would otherwise be long and unwieldy to make
such things as trumpets, cornets, trombones and horns with the same range of notes
as they would have if straight.
How can we measure the loudness of a sound?
The loudness or volume of a sound is dependent on the amplitude or size of the vibra-
tions. For human ears, the loudness of a sound cannot be measured with complete
Sound wave made by a percussion instrument showing variation
in amplitude (loudness)
Source: Robin Hunter / © Dorling Kindersley / DK Images
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Chapter 19 Sound
accuracy. Everyone perceives sound slightly differently, and perception of loudness
by individuals is affected by the duration of a sound. However, machines can measure
sound volume by measuring the amount of energy the sound wave contains. The more
energy the wave contains the greater the intensity of the sound. Sound is measured
in decibels (dB).
The measure zero decibels (0 dB) of sound is about the lower limit of human per-
ception. The dB scale is logarithmic: that is, an increase of one on the scale represents
a doubling of sound intensity. People talk at about 40 dB; car engines run at about
60 dB; a rock concert is 120 dB; a blue whale, humming at 1 metre, 183 dB; and above
130 dB, sound becomes painful to our ears. The explosion of the volcano Krakatoa in
1883 is estimated to have been 180 dB from a distance of 100 miles in air.
Hearing sounds
Are all animals’ ears the same?
The ears of mammals are specialised to detect sound and convey detailed informa-
tion about direction, pitch, loudness and quality to the brains. The external shape of
the ear may differ. Some animals can move their ears to track sounds. Others, like
elephants, use the shape of their outer ears to help cool their bodies.
Sound vibrations are converted to electrical impulses which are sent via the
auditory nerve to the brain.
Humans have well-developed brains and can use highly complex patterns of sound
to communicate ideas through language. Other highly intelligent animals which pro-
duce complex patterns of sound for communication are whales and dolphins. Many
other animals use systems of sounds to communicate.
Structure of the human ear
Source: Jacopin / Science Photo Library Ltd
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Part 2 Subject knowledge and ideas for practice
Although generally only mammals have large outer ears, fish, birds, reptiles
and amphibians have eardrums and inner ears. For example, frogs have eardrums
behind their head on both sides of their body. Sound vibrations picked up by the
eardrums are sent to the brain in a similar way to a mammal’s. However, frogs also
use another organ to detect sound: they use their lungs. Scientists have found that
frogs have an unbroken air link from the lungs to the eardrums. It seems that this
link helps the frog to locate sounds and also possibly to protect the ears from its own
loud calls. Frogs can call extremely loudly (up to about 95 decibels) – the sound
equivalent of a train whistle. It is thought that the lungs help to protect the ears by
equalising the pressure on the inside and outside of the eardrum. Since fish were the
original vertebrates, and therefore have a common ancestor with frogs, it is perhaps
not surprising to find that many types of fish also use a lung-like air bladder as an
eardrum.
Do owls really have big ears?
Some owls seem to have tufty ears on top of their heads. Actually these feathers are
not associated with hearing. Like other birds, owls have ear openings or apertures
on the sides of the head. To be successful night hunters, owls need to have a highly
developed sense of hearing. Some owls have the parts of their faces around the ear
aperture-shaped like radar dishes to funnel in the sound. When a noise is detected,
an owl is able to tell its direction because of the minute time difference between
hearing the sound in the left and right ears.
The tufts of feathers on an owl’s head look like ears
Source: Cyril Laubscher / © Dorling Kindersley / DK Images
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Chapter 19 Sound
Something to think about
How would an owl know if its prey was immediately in front of it? How do we use our
ears to locate sources of sound?
Why don’t birds have bigger ears?
Why don’t owls have big ears like rabbits and foxes? Think about having a conversation
on a windy day. When wind races past the ears it creates a loud roaring noise, which
limits the ability to distinguish separate sounds. Lack of external ears significantly
cuts down wind noise, enabling birds to hear other sounds when they fly.
Some butterflies have ears on their wings
A fascinating recent discovery is that some butterflies active at night have ears located
in their wings. Previously it had been assumed that, although butterflies could detect
air vibrations through their wings, they did not have specialised organs for detecting
sound. As far as we understand, it is only butterflies that are active at night which have
ears. Moths, which are mainly active at night, have a well-developed sense of hear-
ing to enable them to detect the ultrasonic sound used by bats to locate their prey.
It is thought that night-flying butterflies have evolved sound sensors to help avoid
being eaten by bats.
Something to think about
The first chapter in the book explores the pleasure of finding out that the natural
world may not be how we first imagine it to be. Frogs hear sound through their lungs;
butterflies hear sound through their wings to avoid being eaten by bats. What other
wonderful things can children find out?
Summary
Someone speaks. The vibrations set up in their larynx move particles of air. The sound
wave is transmitted; the complexity of the vibration carries all sorts of information
about the voice. Hearing involves the ear in capturing the vibration and converting
it to neural information to be sent to the brain for processing. Sound, like light, is
a physical phenomenon, a form of energy profoundly and extensively important for
human life. With sound we can have language, music and story; we can be alerted to
danger or ask for help; we can identify one another and learn.
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Part 2 Subject knowledge and ideas for practice
Animals use sound for various purposes. They use it to locate their prey, to avoid
their predators and warn others of approaching danger. Animals make sounds to
attract a mate, defend a territory and challenge a competitor. In social groups
animals use sound to identify others, to coordinate group activities and to generally
pass on information.
Further information and teaching resources can be found at the end of the ‘Ideas
for practice’ section.
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Chapter 19 Sound
Part 2: Ideas for practice
Topic: Detecting sound
Age group: Lower primary
Scientific view
Sound travels from its source in all directions. We hear sound when it enters our
ears. Having two ears enables us to distinguish between different sounds and also
helps us decide where the sounds are coming from and how far away they are. Many
animals’ ears are sensitive to higher and lower frequencies than ours. They notice
and locate sounds we cannot hear. Animals use sound to communicate with each
other, to locate their prey and to avoid predators.
Scientific enquiry skills
In these activities children will:
z raise and try to find answers to questions;
z explore using their senses and make and record observation;
z make simple comparisons and identify simple associations;
z compare what happened and try to explain it, drawing on their knowledge and
understanding.
Exploratory stage
Children’s talk involves trying out their own ideas
Setting the scene
Read a story involving sound, for example ‘The King’s Keys’, and use this as a basis
for games involving sound.
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Part 2 Subject knowledge and ideas for practice
Story of the King’s keys
The King had locked away all his gold in a room with a thick door and a very strong
lock. There was only one special key which could unlock the room. Every afternoon
the King had a nap on his favourite throne. He ordered the whole palace to go to
sleep too, so that it was very, very quiet. To keep the special key safe while he was
asleep, he always put it in a gold box underneath the throne.
One day a thief who wanted to steal the gold tiptoed into the King’s room. He saw
the King asleep. Without even breathing, the thief crept silently up to the throne.
He knew where the key was kept. Gently his fingers closed round it . . . he lifted it
up . . . and as he did so, a loud ‘Ding dong! Ding dong! Ding dong!’ rang through the
room. The thief froze in horror. He hadn’t realised that attached to the key was a
small but very loud silver bell!
With his eyes closed, the King smiled to himself. As he had expected, it was his
own son Prince Echo trying to steal the key. Of course Prince Echo wasn’t a real
thief. This was a game they played together. The King had promised that on the day
his son was clever enough to steal the key he would make him King! Sometimes he
used gold bells, sometimes silver, and sometimes bronze; the little bells always
warned him before the thief could escape.
Scientific enquiry through play
Play the King’s keys game with the children, if possible in a large space such as
the school hall. Place the ‘throne’ in the middle of the space and choose a child
who doesn’t mind being blindfolded to be the King. The King sits on the throne and
places the keys to the treasure on the floor underneath. The rest of the children form
a large circle surrounding the throne. One at a time, the children try to sneak up
and steal the keys without the King knowing. The thief is caught if the King is able to
point in the direction of the approaching child. Any child who is able to steal the keys
becomes the King. The game can be played in smaller groups so that more children
can have the opportunity to be the King.
After playing the game, talk together about how the children could tell when a thief
was trying to steal the keys. How did they know the thief was getting closer? How
did they know which direction the thief was coming from? How did they know when
the thief was behind them? Talk about how they use their ears to detect sounds.
Talking points: true, false or not sure?
z We need two ears to tell where sound is coming from.
z It is hard to listen carefully.
z Some sounds are easier to listen to than others.
z You can’t hear underwater.
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Chapter 19 Sound
Puzzle
Why do we have two ears? Why are they on the sides of our head?
Formative assessment
Provide time for the children to respond collaboratively to the puzzle. Using the feed-
back from talking points and subsequent discussion, decide what the children know
and what they need to learn in the next stage.
Re-describing stage
Children’s talk involves making sense of scientific ideas
The purpose of this stage is to make children aware that ears locate sounds and
distinguish different sounds. Start by talking about the children’s responses to the
puzzle.
Scientific enquiry
To explore the advantages of having two ears play a different version of the King’s
keys game. Again the King sits blindfolded on his throne with the other children sur-
rounding him in a big circle. This time each child has an instrument with which to
make a sound. Children are chosen randomly to make a sound with their instruments
and the King has to point to where he thinks the sound is coming from and to describe
the instrument.
The game continues until all the children have had the opportunity to contribute
a sound. Observe how the King identifies the direction of the sound. How does he
move his head? Record the number of correct responses made by the King. The King
now puts a foam earplug in one of his ears and the game is repeated. Repeat the
experiment with a number of different Kings. Compare the accuracy of the responses
for two ears and one ear. Talk together about the advantages of having two ears
compared with only one.
Develop the game with two children in different parts of the circle making sounds
with their instruments at the same time. Are two ears better than one when it comes
to distinguishing between the two sounds?
Assessment and further learning
Children can draw pictures to show how they use two ears to locate sounds. Assess
their understanding by asking them to explain their drawings. What else would they
like to find out about sound, ears and hearing in humans and animals? Children can
raise and investigate their own questions.
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Part 2 Subject knowledge and ideas for practice
Application stage
Children’s talk involves trying out scientific ideas
Make a collection of pictures of animal ears for display. Include some unusual ones
like those of the long-eared bat. Children compare the shape and size of a range of
different animals’ ears. Children can use information sources to compare the ears
of different animals. Note that the outer ear size may be unrelated to the size or
hearing capacity of the inner ear.
Talking points: true, false or not sure?
z Rabbits are hard to sneak up on because they have big ears.
z Birds can’t hear sounds because they do not have any ears.
z Dogs don’t like fireworks because they are too loud for them.
z Cats are good hunters because they move their ears to find their prey.
z Some animals use ears for temperature control.
3-D modelling
Ask the children how they think they could improve their hearing. Would they hear better
with bigger or different shaped ears? Children can apply their emerging understanding
of sound to respond to these questions. They can make simple ear models to test out
their ideas. Models can be designed so they fit over the children’s ears for testing.
Long-eared bat
Source: Frank Greenaway / © Dorling Kindersley / DK Images
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Chapter 19 Sound
Redesigning nature
Children can design and make simple models of an imaginary animal which can hear
and locate very quiet sounds such as the movement of an ant or worm.
Assessment
Use the children’s feedback from the activities and talking points to gauge their
understanding of the topic.
Topic: How vibrations create sound
Age group: Upper primary
Scientific view
Sound is caused by objects when they vibrate. When objects vibrate they cause the air
around them to vibrate. These vibrations travel through the air and if they enter our
ears we hear them as sound. The sound we hear depends on the nature of the vibra-
tions. For example, more rapid or faster vibrations create a higher pitch and bigger
vibrations create louder sounds.
Scientific enquiry skills
In these activities children will:
z raise and try to find answers to questions;
z use simple equipment and materials appropriately;
z make systematic observations including the use of ICT for data-logging;
z use charts and drawings to record and communicate data;
z use their scientific knowledge and understanding to explain observations.
Exploratory stage
Children’s talk involves trying out their own ideas
Setting the scene
Have available a range of musical instruments. Ask for volunteers to form a band. Give
each member a different instrument (a range of wind, stringed and percussion) and
ask them to play along with a recorded tune together. Now ask the children in the
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Part 2 Subject knowledge and ideas for practice
audience to close their eyes while each member of the group plays their instrument
independently. The game is to identify the instrument just by listening to it. Talk together
about how the sounds made by each of the instruments could be changed. How can
sounds be made lower or higher pitch, quieter or louder, more or less tuneful? Is it
possible to make a drum sound like a guitar? Encourage children to provide reasons
for their views.
Scientific enquiry
Focus on how each of the instruments makes its sound. Use a drum with rice placed
on the skin to demonstrate how it vibrates. Suspend a table tennis ball from a length
of cotton; strike a tuning fork and bring it close enough to tap the ball so that children
can see vibration as movement.
In groups children can explore a range of instruments and record their ideas as set
out below.
Instrument How do you make What vibrates? How can you How do you alter
the sound? change the the pitch?
loudness of
the sound?
Encourage the children to interpret and make sense of the scientific terms for
themselves. They can talk together about the meanings of the terms vibrations,
loudness and pitch. Check the children’s understanding and encourage playing with
instruments (percussion or home-made) to help make sense of scientific vocabulary.
Children’s drawings
Ask children to choose one instrument and draw an annotated picture of how it
makes its sound and how they are able to hear it. Children can talk together about
how instruments are able to change the pitch and loudness of the sounds they
produce. Encourage children to use comparative terms such as high and low pitch
and loud and quiet sounds. Encourage children to use new vocabulary to describe how
instruments work.
Puzzle
If we could see a sound travelling through the air, what would it look like? How would
a loud sound compare with quiet sound? How would a low-pitched sound compare
346
Chapter 19 Sound
with one with a high pitch? Allow the children time to explore answers to these ques-
tions and to present their ideas through drawings and models.
Formative assessment
Explore children’s responses to the puzzle and, together with the feedback from
subsequent activities, decide what the children know and what they need to learn in
the next stage.
Re-describing stage
Children’s talk involves making sense of scientific ideas
The purpose of this stage is to provide a model that children can use to help them
develop a mental picture of how sound travels through the air.
Modelling
Compare children’s ideas with some alternative pictures (models) of sound. Ask them
which they think makes most sense to them and whether they could be improved.
Here are four different ways of modelling how sound travels in air:
1. Children standing in a line can model the air. Have a pile of pieces of card with the
word ‘sound’ written on each. Children stand next to each other, close enough so
that they can touch hands. One child represents the instrument and so gives out
the sound. One at a time, the child passes a sound (card) to the child who is first
in line. This sound is then passed from child to child down the line until it reaches
the listener at the end.
2. Use a slinky coil to show how a vibrating source can cause pulse patterns to be
passed along the coil. Talk about the springiness of air and how it behaves like a
slinky.
3. Ask children to stand behind each other with their arms outstretched and their
hands on the shoulders of the person in front. The child (acting as the instrument)
at the back end of the line gives the child in front a gentle push which is then
passed on down the line from child to child. The model can be developed with
gentle vibrations being passed down the line. If the vibrations are made continuous
then the observing children will be able to see the patterns of vibrations repeated
along the line.
4. Use a line of dominoes to represent the air. When knocked over, one domino
knocks over the next and so on, causing a pulse (of sound) to travel down the line.
Make it clear to the children that the models are analogies which behave in similar
ways to sound. Talk together about the strengths and limitations of each model.
Explore how the models can be used to demonstrate changes in loudness and pitch.
Use electronic simulations of sound to help children develop mental models of how
347
Part 2 Subject knowledge and ideas for practice
sound travels in air. There are a range of simulations for sound available on the Web
and other electronic sources. It is worth downloading as many as possible to add to
your library of electronic resources.
Assessment and further learning
To assess progress ask the children to look again at their own pictures which they
created earlier and think about how they could be revised in light of what they have
learnt. What else would they like to find out? Children can raise and investigate their
own questions.
Application stage
Children’s talk involves trying out scientific ideas
Links to music and design technology
Tell the children they are going to be songwriters and performers. They have to design
and make their own instruments. Allow children to choose and name their own groups.
Each group needs to design and make three types of instrument: stringed, wind and
percussion. Provide resources such as boxes, elastic bands, ponytail bands, string,
lolly sticks, thin tubes, bottles, hollow canes, disposable cups, rice, peas, fabric,
spoons, etc.
Design criteria should focus on the range of volume and pitch the instruments can
make. Children can use electronic data-loggers to measure the volume. Ask groups
Children playing their own musical instruments
Source: Peter Loxley
348
Chapter 19 Sound
to provide annotated drawings of their instruments, explaining how they create sound
and how the pitch and volume of the sound can be changed. Children can perform a
favourite song or they can write their own to a popular tune. Ask groups to evaluate
each other’s instruments using the design criteria. What are the strengths of each
instrument? How can designs be improved?
Assessment
Ask each group to create a presentation for the class in which they provide a descrip-
tion of their instrument, show how it works, and say what they would like to try next
to improve it in terms of range of notes, volume or how easy it is to play.
Information and teaching resources
Books
z Peacock, G., Sharp, J., Johnsey, R. and Wright, D. (2009) Primary Science: Know-
ledge and Understanding, Exeter: Learning Matters, Chapter 12: Sound.
Primary science review articles (Association of Science
Education)
z PSR 103 (June 2008), ‘The sound of music’ (Wobbly Corner).
z PSR 93, (May/June 2006), this issue focuses on light and sound.
Useful information and interactive websites
z Use this search engine to access a range of sites for sound: www.ajkids.com
z A useful simulation showing how sound travels in air: http://phet.colorado.edu/
simulations/sims.php?sim=Sound
349
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353
Glossary
adaptation The process by which creatures carbohydrate Chemical used for food: consist-
adapt to their habitat. Those with the most suit- ing of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen atoms com-
able characteristics survive to breed, creating bined, e.g. glucose. Sugars or starch (potatoes,
creatures fitted to their habitats. rice or bread, for example) contain carbohydrates.
Glucose is used as a fuel in respiration to release
asteroid Rocky or metallic material left over from energy to the body.
the formation of the solar system. Most asteroids
orbit the sun between the orbits of Mars and carnivore Animal with a diet consisting mainly
Jupiter. Some cross the Earth’s path and have of meat obtained by predation or scavenging.
collided with the Earth.
cartilage Connective tissue: providing structure
atom The basic unit of matter. The smallest and support as in the nose or the ears; or cushion-
particle of an element that still displays the ing joints as between the discs of the spinal
properties of that element. column.
autotroph (primary producer) An organism that cell division Mechanism by which the contents
produces organic compounds from simple of the cell, including the nucleus and DNA,
molecules, using energy from light or chemical divide equally. Organisms grow or repair tissue
reactions, e.g. green plants and some bacteria; by cell division.
also known as a primary producer.
cellulose The material in the cell wall of green
bacteria Single-celled micro-organisms. Bacteria plants which gives them structure. Some rumin-
exist everywhere on Earth, including inside living ants have micro-organisms in the gut to digest
organisms. In soil they recycle nutrients. In the cellulose; not digestible by humans but useful
human body some are a vital part of digestion as dietary fibre to move food through the gut.
but others cause disease, e.g. cholera.
chlorophyll Green pigment found in plants and
Big Bang Model of the events at the beginning algae and contained in the chloroplasts. It absorbs
of the universe. The Big Bang considers that the light energy during process of photosynthesis.
universe began from an extremely hot and dense
singularity 13.7 billion years ago, and that the classification Biologists group or classify dif-
universe continues to expand. ferent species of organisms by means of shared
physical characteristics.
bile Yellowish substance secreted by the liver
and stored in the gall bladder. Bile aids the colloid Chemical mixture where the particles of
digestion of fats. a substance are suspended evenly within another
but not dissolved: for example, fog, clouds, smoke,
biodiversity The variety of life forms within any whipped cream, milk and blood.
given ecosystem, often used as a measure of the
health of biological systems. comet Ball of ice and dust that orbits the Sun.
As it approaches the Sun the ice vaporises and
biofuel Fuel for cooking, powering vehicles and streams away from the comet, carrying dust
heating that comes from often specifically grown with it to form a tail that may be visible from
crops, e.g. wood, palm oil, corn, sugar cane. Earth: for example, Hale-Bopp in 1997.
biomass Living or recently dead biological matter combustion Combustion happens when a fuel
that can be used for fuel. (e.g. wood or oil) combines with oxygen through
Glossary
burning to give off heat. When organic substances, when the Moon moves in front of the Sun, the
such as wood, burn they release carbon dioxide. shadow of the Moon crosses the Earth’s surface
and we observe a solar eclipse. A lunar eclipse
compound Chemical substance consisting of occurs when the Moon passes behind the Earth
two or more chemical elements that cannot be so that the Earth blocks the Sun’s rays from
separated by simple means. A compound often striking the Moon.
has very different properties from its constitu-
ents: for example, common salt is made from a ecosystem Describes the interactions between
poisonous gas (chlorine) and a highly reactive animals, plants, micro-organisms and their
metal (sodium). environment. Ecosystems can be as large as a
tropical rainforest or as small as a pond.
connective tissue Collagen-based substance
that holds organs in place and forms ligaments electrical circuit A closed loop through which
and tendons. current electricity flows.
constellation A collection of astronomical bodies, electrical current Flow of electrical charge carried
usually stars, that appear to form a pattern in by mobile electrons in wires.
the sky.
electrical resistance A measure of the opposi-
decibel (dB) Unit used to express the intensity of tion to flow of electrons in a wire, depending on
sound: for example, 0 dB = threshold of human which metal the wire is made from. Resistance
hearing, 60–70 dB = spoken conversation and increases with increasing length and decreas-
110–115 dB = a rock concert. ing width.
decomposers Micro-organisms that consume electrical voltage Measure of the energy carried by
dead or decaying organisms from which they the electrical charge. It is supplied by the battery
get energy and nutrients for growth. Primary and used by the components (for example, the
decomposers are bacteria and fungi. bulb) in a circuit.
density A physical property of matter; the electromagnetic radiation Energy-carrying wave
relationship between the mass of an object (in that does not need a medium to travel through:
kilograms) and its volume (in cubic metres). includes radio waves, light waves, X-rays,
Dense metals such as lead and gold are heavy infrared radiation.
for their size whilst polystyrene has low density
and is light for size. electron A subatomic particle. Electrons have
negligible mass, orbit the atomic nucleus, and
detritivore Organisms that derive nutrients from carry a negative electrical charge.
decomposing organic matter, e.g. worms and
woodlice. They form an important part of food element A chemical substance made up of
webs in ecosystems. one type of atom: for example, iron, oxygen,
carbon.
diffusion Process by which particles mingle as
a result of their constant motion and resulting embryo An organism in the early stages of
collisions: for example, perfume diffuses through- development, from implantation to birth. In
out the air in a room. humans the embryo is known as a foetus after
eight weeks.
DNA Deoxyribonucleic acid, DNA, is the heredit-
ary material in humans and most other organisms. emulsion A mixture of two or more liquids that
Contained in every cell of the body, DNA stores are immiscible (will not blend): for example, oil
the genetic code that defines an individual. and water.
eclipse An eclipse occurs when one astronomical energy An attribute of objects or systems that
object moves in front of another. For example, enables work to be done. Energy can be trans-
formed from one form to another (for example,
355
Glossary
chemical energy in food to heat energy in the matter and reproduce via spores: for example,
body) but cannot be destroyed. yeasts, moulds and mushrooms.
enzyme Enzymes are proteins that increase the galaxy A massive system of stars. The remains
rate of reactions that take place in organisms, of dead stars and interstellar gas held together
remaining unchanged themselves. by a strong gravitational field often with a dis-
tinct shape. Our Sun and solar system are part
evolution Changes that take place in a species of the spiral-shaped Milk Way galaxy.
over a long period of time in response to the
environment. Genetic changes in a community gastric juice Strongly acidic liquid secreted by the
can result in the development of a new species. stomach lining to break down food in the stomach.
excretion The process of eliminating waste pro- genetic code Patterns along the DNA molecule
ducts from an organism: for example, carbon which define a distinct individual.
dioxide (the by-product of respiration) is excreted
by the human lungs. geothermal energy Heat from within the Earth,
generated in the Earth’s core and released via
exoskeleton An external skeleton supporting and hot springs or geysers. Geothermal heat pumps
protecting an animal’s body. Crabs and insects can be used to extract geothermal energy to heat
have exoskeletons. buildings.
exuvia Remains of an exoskeleton after the global warming The increase in the average tem-
organism (generally an insect, spider or crus- perature of the Earth attributed to the release
tacean) has moulted. of carbon dioxide through human activity (for
example, burning of fossil fuels).
fertilisation Fusion of cells, the sperm and the
ovum, in sexual reproduction of animals and glucose A simple sugar (produced in photo-
flowering plants. synthesis) used by living cells as a source of
energy.
food chain Feeding relationships between spe-
cies in an ecosystem. Food chains are drawn gravity A force of attraction between one mass
to show the direction of energy flow, from the and another. A property of all matter. Gravity
sun to producers and then consumers, then gives weight to objects and keeps the Earth and
decomposers. planets in orbit round the Sun.
food web Different food chains in an ecosystem greenhouse gas Gas in the atmosphere (for
link up with each other to form food webs. Food example, water vapour, carbon dioxide and
webs describe the complexity of the feeding rela- methane) that absorbs and holds thermal (heat)
tionships in an ecosystem. energy.
force A force is a push, pull or twist that can habitat The place where an organism lives is
cause an object to change its speed, its direc- called its habitat. Habitats have specific condi-
tion of movement or its shape. tions of temperature, water, geography, etc.,
which suit the organisms that inhabit them.
fossil fuel Non-renewable fuels such as coal,
oil and natural gas formed from organisms haemoglobin Protein in red blood cells which
alive around 300 million years ago; found in holds oxygen for transport round the body.
deposits beneath the earth.
herbivore Feeds only on autotrophs (primary
fungi A kingdom of living things; organisms more producers) such as plants and algae.
closely related to animals than plants. Largely
invisible apart from their fruiting bodies: for hormone Chemical messengers that act as a
example, toadstools. Fungi feed on organic signal in multicellular organisms: for example,
serotonin regulates mood, appetite and sleep.
356
Glossary
inheritance Process by which certain features elements only exist as combinations of two or
are transmitted from parent to offspring via the more atoms (for example, oxygen).
genetic code.
mollusc Invertebrates with body divided into
invertebrate An animal without a vertebral three parts: a head, a central area containing
column (backbone). This includes 98% of all the major organs and a foot for movement.
animal species: that is, all except fish, reptiles, They include gastropods (snails and slugs),
amphibians, birds and mammals. cephalopods (squid and cuttlefish) and bivalves
(mussels and oysters).
kinetic (movement) energy Energy an object
possesses by virtue of its motion, for example a natural selection The process by which favour-
moving car, football or planet. able, inheritable characteristics become common
in successive generations.
light year A measure of distance – the distance
light travels in a vacuum in one year – about nebula An interstellar cloud of dust and gas
ten trillion kilometres. The nearest known star where materials clump together to form larger
to the Sun is Proxima Centauri, about 4.22 light masses and eventually new stars.
years away.
neutron Subatomic particle contained in the
longitudinal wave Waves that oscillate (vibrate) nucleus of the atom that has no electrical charge
in the same direction in which they travel: for and a mass slightly larger than the proton.
example, sound waves, seismic waves produced
by earthquakes. non-renewable energy Energy generated from
finite resources such as fossil fuels (for example,
lux Measure of the intensity of light: for example, coal, oil, gas). See also renewable energy.
1 lux = full Moon overhead and 10,000–25,000 lux
= full daylight. nuclear energy Energy released by splitting
(fission) or merging together (fusion) of the nuclei
metamorphosis Change. Complete metamor- of atoms. On Earth nuclear energy is produced
phosis is the process some animals go through by splitting the atoms of uranium or plutonium.
when they change from the immature to the adult The Sun produces vast amounts of energy by
form, for example, tadpole to frog, caterpillar to nuclear fusion, using hydrogen as a fuel.
butterfly.
omnivore Creatures that eat both plants and
meteor Small particle of debris (from sand animals: generally, opportunistic feeders not
grain to pebble) that falls into the Earth’s atmo- especially adapted to eat meat or plants exclu-
sphere. Often called a ‘shooting star’ because it sively (for example, bears, pigs, humans).
glows as it burns up in the atmosphere. If it falls
to the ground it is called a meteorite. ossification Process by which bones are formed
from connective tissue such as cartilage. Blood
micro-organism Often single-celled organisms, brings minerals such as calcium and deposits it
too small to be seen by the human eye: include to form hard bones.
bacteria, fungi, algae, plankton and amoeba.
oxidation Chemical reaction between oxygen
mixture Two or more substances mixed together molecules and other substances (for example,
but not combined chemically (for example, solu- rusting); also, the loss of at least one electron
tions, suspensions and colloids). Mixtures can when two or more substances interact.
usually be separated by simple mechanical means
such as filtering (for example, flour in water). peristalsis A rhythmic contraction of muscles that
move substances through the digestive system.
molecule Group of at least two atoms held
together by strong chemical bonds. Some phloem Living tissue in plants that transports
the products of photosynthesis (sugars) to all
357
Glossary
parts of the plant. In trees phloem is a green proton Positive subatomic particle in the atomic
layer between the bark and the woody xylem. nucleus with an electrical charge and mass.
photoelectric (voltaic) effect When electrons radiant energy The energy of electromagnetic
are emitted from a material exposed to light. waves from radio waves to gamma rays and
Utilised in solar (photovoltaic) cells to convert including solar heat and light.
sunlight directly into electricity.
reflection A wave travelling in a straight line
photosphere The Sun is a ball of gas and does ‘bounces’ back as it strikes a new medium. For
not have a well-defined surface. The photosphere smooth surfaces the angle at which the wave
is defined as the diameter at which the Sun strikes will be the same as the angle at which it
appears to be opaque. Beyond this is the corona is reflected: for example, reflection in mirrors
which becomes visible during a solar eclipse. or echoes in sound.
photosynthesis Process by which plants con- relativity Theory of Albert Einstein published
vert water and carbon dioxide into organic com- from 1905 to 1907 on the nature of gravitation,
pounds (especially sugars), using energy from space and time. Presented amongst others the
sunlight. idea that energy and mass are equivalent and
interchangeable.
phytoplankton Autotrophic plankton (drifting
organisms in the oceans) containing chlorophyll renewable energy Energy generated from
and so capable of photosynthesising. natural, sustainable sources (for example, sun-
light, wind, rain, tides or geothermal heat). See
pitch Frequency of vibration of a sound. Meas- also non-renewable energy.
ured in Hertz (Hz) as vibrations per second. The
adult ear can hear from 20 to 16,000 Hz. reproduction Biological process by which new
individual organisms are produced. Funda-
pollinator Animal which transfers pollen from mental to all life; may be sexual (requires two
the male anther to the female stigma of a flower individuals one of each sex) or asexual (by cell
so that fertilisation can take place (for example, division).
bees, bats).
respiration Cellular respiration; a process that
potential (stored) energy Energy stored within a takes place in all living cells where sugars are
system which has the potential to be converted chemically combined with oxygen (oxidised) to
into other forms of energy: for example, energy release energy for growth, movement, repro-
stored in the bonds between atoms or in a com- duction and repair. Carbon dioxide and water
pressed spring. are waste products.
primary consumer Organisms that obtain energy ruminant Mammal that is able to digest plant-
from plants (primary producers). See also based foods (in particular cellulose). Food is
secondary consumer and tertiary consumer. initially softened in a first stomach (the rumen)
and then re-chewed as cud (for example, sheep,
primary producer An organism that produces cattle).
organic compounds from simple molecules
using energy from light or chemical reactions: secondary consumer Organisms that obtain
for example, green plants and some bacteria; energy from other consumers, usually a
also known as autotrophs. carnivore.
protein Chains of amino acids (found in meat, solar energy See radiant energy.
fish, eggs, dairy products, legumes, pulses and
seeds) make up proteins, essential for the growth solvent A liquid or a gas that dissolves a solid,
of cells and tissue repair. liquid or gas solute; most commonly water.
358
Glossary
species Basic unit of biological classification – systems and transformed from one form to
a group of organisms capable of interbreeding. another but cannot be created or destroyed.
spectrum Of light; visible frequencies of elec- tilt of the Earth The Earth is tilted on its axis
tromagnetic radiation ranging from red through and is at an angle of about 23.5 degrees to the
to violet. A spectrum is produced when a vertical. This results in the seasons.
beam of light is split into its constituent fre-
quencies (colours). A rainbow displays the transverse wave Wave that oscillates at
visible spectrum. 90 degrees to the direction of travel: for example,
electromagnetic waves – light.
starch A carbohydrate made of long chains of
glucose molecules. It is a major source of food ultrasound Frequencies above the range of
(energy) for humans. Plants store glucose – the human hearing (about 20,000 Hz). Used in
product of photosynthesis – as insoluble starch. medical imaging. Many animals are capable of
hearing well above this limit (such as bats, dogs
static electricity Electric charge resulting from and dolphins).
electrons building up on the surface of an
object as a result of friction (when materials are upthrust Force exerted on a floating object by
pulled apart or rubbed together). the water it displaces.
supernova Stellar explosion of great intensity. vertebrate Animal with a backbone or spinal
Occurs either when an ageing star collapses in column: includes bony fish, sharks, amphibians,
on itself and then heats and explodes or when reptiles, mammals and birds.
a small, very hot star overheats and under-
goes runaway nuclear fusion. Supernovas seed virus Sub-microscopic particle that contains
galaxies with material and can trigger the forma- DNA but no nucleus. It needs to infect a host
tion of new stars. cell to replicate itself (unlike bacteria); cause
of infections such as sore throats, Ebola and
tertiary consumer Organisms that obtain energy HIV/AIDS.
from secondary consumers. They are known as
‘top predators’ to indicate their position in the wave motion Distortion in a material or medium
food chain. when the individual parts vibrate but the wave-
form itself moves through the material: for
thermodynamics The study of the conversion example, a wave passing across a pond. Wave
of energy from one form to another. The total length is the distance between successive wave
amount of energy in the universe remains peaks; amplitude is the height of the wave; fre-
constant: energy can be exchanged between quency is the speed of vibration.
weight The force of gravity acting on a mass.
359
Index
absorption asteroid belt 107–8 Bruner, J.S. 39
of light 314–15 atom 126, 354 burning 257
of sound 335
charges on 270 topic 264–7
acoustics 331, 336–7 looks like 254 butterflies, hearing 339
adaptation 194–6, 354 in molecules 255
plum pudding model 251–2 Calvin, Melvin 151
in animals 197–9 solar system model 232, 251–2, Calvin Cycle 151
in flowering plants 196–7 camels 197–8
adrenaline 219 253 Camerarius, R.J. 34
aerobic respiration 219 atomic mass 254, 255 carbohydrates 173, 215, 221, 354
air resistance 294–6 Augustine 88 carbon 256
as force 294 autotroph 154, 354 carbon cycle 136
topic 303–8 Avicenna 212 carbon dioxide 130, 151, 152
alchemy 232
Alexander, R. 40 bacteria 157, 171, 354 growing amounts of 199–201
amino acids 171, 174, 218 Baer, William 158 cardiovascular system 218–20
Ampere, Andre Marie 270, 275 balanced diet, benefits of 221–2
amps (of electrical current) 274–5 balanced forces 294–5 oxygen transport 218
anaerobic respiration 220 Barnes, Charles 151 respiration 219–20
analogies in learning science 73 Barnes, D. 38 Carle, E. 49, 58, 223
Anaximenes of Miletus 85 Barrie, J.M. 323 carnivore 155, 214, 354
animals 175–6 Bazalgette, Joseph 221 cartilage 214, 354
adaptation in 197–9 HMS Beagle 189–90 Carver, R. 21
behaviour of 175–6 beaks in animals (topic) 202–6 cell division 213, 354
body colours and patterns (topic) bees, sensing light 315–16 cellulose 216, 221, 354
Ceres 107
206–10 topic 326–9 Cerini, B. 5
food of 214–15 Beggs, J. 5 Chadwick, James 252
growth 213–14 Bell, B. 63 chemical energy 127
mammals 175 Bernoulli, Daniel 331 chemical reactions 258–60
nutrition 214–18 Big Bang 103–4, 354 volcanoe effect 259
seeing in the dark 316 bile 212, 354 children
size of, limits 214 bio-diesel 136 attitudes to science 4–5
teeth and beaks (topic) 202–6 bio-ethanol 136 ideas and dialogic teaching
variation in 192 biodiversity 178–9, 354
appendix 216 biofuel 135–7, 354 39–42
application stage of science 16, 20–1 biomass 129, 354 ideas and understanding 29
planning for 75–7 birds, hearing 339 language and words 32–3
argon 253 Black, P. 63, 67, 68 questioning and learning 46–7
Aristarchus 88 blood 212 chlorine 254
Aristotle 86, 150, 232, 290, 310 body patterns in animals (topic) chlorophyll 151, 354
Armitage, D. 281 cholera 220–1
Armitage, R. 281 206–10 Christianity and scientific knowledge
art contexts for scientific enquiry 58 Bohr, Niels 232 88 –91
Asoko, H. 7, 23, 47, 70, 73, 287 bones 213–214 chromosomes 213
assessment Bonnet, Charles 150 Clarke, S. 63
formative 63–7 Borges, A.T. 26 classification 178–9, 354
summative 68–9 Boyle, Robert 331 enquiry 55
asteroid 107, 354 Brady, J. 109 of living things 178–9
Brahe, Tycho 91 colloid 354
Index
colours diversity emulsion 355
language of 320 among vertebrates (topic) 183–7 energy 6, 125–7, 355
nature of 318–19 and classification 178–9
maintaining life 178–9 and burning 257
colours in animals (topic) 206–10 variation in species 176–7 cannot be destroyed 128–9
combustion 257, 354 defined 126–7
comet 107, 354 DNA 194, 355 obtained by animals 154–5
drama contexts for scientific enquiry technology of 125
origins of 108–9 transfer of 128–9
compounds 252–4, 355 58
conductors (of electrical current) Dyer, A.G. 197 in food chains 155–7
types of 127–9
278 ear, structure of 337 energy sources 129–37
connective tissue 214, 355 Earth 105, 106 non-renewable 129
conservation of mass 238, 259 renewable 130
constellation 104, 355 as giant magnet 279 environmental variation 176–7
Copernicus, Nicholas 91, 100 seasons on 112 enzyme 221, 356
coral reefs 200 spin of 109–10 Eris 106–7
Coulomb, Charles-Augustin de 275 viewed from Moon 110 evaporation 237–8
coulombs (of electrical current) earthworms 159 evolution 178, 189–201, 356
echolocation 335 excretion 356
275 eclipse 355 exercise, benefits of (topic) 226–9
Cowie, B. 63 lunar 113–14 exoskeleton 214, 356
Crick, Francis H.C. 194 solar 112–13 exploratory stage of science 15,
cross-curricular contexts for ecosystem 355 17–19
Edmonstone, John 189 planning for 71–3
scientific enquiry 57–8 Einstein, Albert 45 exploratory talk 38–9
curved mirrors 313 elastic (spring) energy 127 exuvia 356
electrical circuits 272–6 eye
Da Vinci, Leonardo 331 series and parallel 275–6 how it works 317–19
Dalton, John 232, 251 seeing colours 318–19
Dante Alighieri 90 topic 285–8
darkness topic 281–4 fair-test enqiury 54
electrical current 272–5 Falk, J. 57
seeing in 316 and light 273–4 Faraday, Michael 280
in stories 320–1 matching batteries to bulbs fats in human nutrition 218, 221
as unknown 320 feeding relationships 154–7
Darwin, Charles 9, 34, 165, 167, 276 –7 fertilisation 213, 356
189–95 visualising 272–3 Feynman, Richard 3, 6–7, 8,
Darwin, Erasmus 189 in wires 274–5
Darwin, Robert 189 electrical energy 127 9–10, 48
Dawes, L. 43 electrical resistance 277–8, 355 Fitzroy, Captain Robert 189
Dawkins, R. 50 electrical voltage 276–7, 355 floating (in water) 296–7
de Boo, M. 23, 51, 73, 287 electricity food 173–4
decibel (dB) 337, 338, 355 and magnetism 278–80 food chains 154–7, 356
decomposers 135, 157–9, 355
topic 165–8 creating 280 energy transfer in 155–7
Democritus 232 static 270–2 topic 161–4
density 355 electromagnetic effect 279 food web 156, 356
Descartes, Rene 212 electromagnetic radiation 311, 355 force 290, 356
deserts, survival in 197–9 electronic models in learning balanced and unbalanced 294–6
detritivore 157, 355 science 74 and motion 290–2
dialogic teaching 39–42 electrons 232, 355 formative assessment 63–7
diamond 256 in electrical current 274–5 aspects of 64–6
Dickens, Charles 221 in elements 251–2, 255 self- and peer assessment 67
Dierking, L. 57 elements 252–4, 355 fossil fuel 126, 129, 356
diffusion 355 in periodic table 254–5 problems with 130
discovery in science 46–7 reactivity of 253–4
dissolving in solutions 239 embryo 355
361
Index heat energy 127 planning for 69–71
helium 253 talk for 36–44
Franklin, Benjamin 270 Henslow, Rev. John 189
Franklin, Rosalind 194 herbivore 154, 356 importance of 37–8
frequency of sound waves 336 Holden, ?. 80 Leibnitz, Gottfried 125
friction 290, 297–8 hormone 219, 356 lens (of eye) 317
Hubble, Edwin 104 light
topic 300–3 Hubble telescope 102–3
fungi 157, 178, 356 human digestion 215–17 absorption of 314–15
bees sensing 315–16
Galapagos Islands 191–2 nutrients from 217–18 language of 320–1
galaxy 101, 103, 356 human dissection 212 nature of 311–15
Galen, Claudius 212 Human Genome Project 194 Newton and Huygens on 310
Galilei, Galileo 100, 331 Huxley, Thomas H. 37 seeing in the dark 316
Huygens, Christiaan 310 sensing 315–21
and scientific knowledge 91–4 hydro-electricity 133 and shadows 312–13
gametes 175 hydrogen 253 speed of 102
gases 233–4 in stories 320–1
ice (topic) 241–5 in a vacuum 312
compressed 235–7 icebergs, melting of (topic) 245–9 Young on 310
model of 236 identification enquiry 55 light energy 127
gastric juice 215, 356 ileum 216 in photosynthesis 151–2
genes 194 Industrial Revolution 220 light year 102, 312, 357
genetic code 175, 176, 194, 356 inheritance 195–6, 357 lightning 271–2
genetic variation 176 Lijnse, P. 69
geocentric theory of universe laws of 194 Lind, James 220
86 – 8 insulators (of electrical current) liquids 233–4
geothermal energy 134–5, 356 model of 236
Gilbert, J.K. 26 278 solids change into 235
global warming 130, 200, 356 interdependence 8, 149–59 living things
topic 143–7 animals 175–6
glucose 151–2, 173, 174, 218, 356 and feeding relationships behaviour of 171–2
Goldsworthy, A. 52, 54, 58 154–7 characteristics shared 171–4
Gould, John 192 classification of 178–9
Grant, Robert 189 invertebrate 178, 214, 357 and food 173–4
Grant, Rosemary and Peter 195 mammals 175
graphite 256 Johnson-Laird, P. 27 and non-living things (topic)
gravitational energy 127 joule (in electrical current) 277
gravity 106, 356 Joule, James 125 180– 3
as force 291–2 Jupiter 102, 106, 107 plants 174
as natural force 293–4 longitudinal wave 333, 357
and weight 292–4 Kelvin, Lord 125 Loxley, P.M. 14, 15
Greca, I.M. 26 Keogh, B. 42 luminosity 313
greenhouse gas 130, 135, 356 Kepler, Joannes 93 lunar eclipse 113–14
Gregory, A. 84, 88 kinetic energy 127, 357 lux 317, 357
Lyell, Charles 191
habitat 176, 199, 356 Lamark, ?. 195
changing 199–201 Large Hadron Collider 252 McGough, Roger 57
Lavoisier, Antoine 125, 212 maggots 158
haemoglobin 218, 356 Layton, D. 76 magnetic fields 279
Halley, Edmond 109 Leach, J. 64 magnetic materials 278
Harrison, C. 63 learning science magnetism and electricity 278–80
Harvey, William 212 mammals 175
health and well-being 211–22 analogies in 73 Mars 105, 106, 107
framework for 14–17 mass 293
balanced diet 221–2
exercise (topic) 226–9 example 17–21 conservation of 238, 259
factors influencing 220–1 foundations 14–15
healthy eating (topic) 223–5 outline 15–17
hearing sound 337–9 outside the classroom 58–60
362
materials Neptune 106 Index
changes in 250–60 neutron 232, 252, 357
elements in 252–3 Newton, Sir Isaac 80, 94, 290, 310, phytoplankton 200–1, 358
formation of 255–8 Piaget, J. 37
energy in 256 331 pigment colours 318
magnetic 278 newtons (of force) 292–3 pitch 331, 336, 358
new, making (topic) 261–4 nitrogen 252 plane mirrors 313
properties of 233–4 noble gases 253 planets 104–6
reversible and physical changes non-living things (topic) 180–3 plants 174
238 –40 non-renewable energy 357
which absorb sound 335 adaptation in 196–7
sources 129 Plato 232
matter 126 nuclear energy 137, 357 Pluto 106–7
particle model of 234–8 nutrients from human digestion pollen 174
pollinator 196, 358
Maxwell, James Clark 310 217–18 pollution (topic) 264–7
melting 237–8 Poole, M. 93
Oersted, Hans Christian 270, 279 potential energy 127, 358
of icebergs (topic) 245–9 Ogborn, J. 7 Priestley, Joseph 150
Mendel, Gregor 194 omnivore 155, 214, 357 primary colours 318
Mendeleev, Dmitri 254–5 Oort cloud 108 primary consumer 154, 156, 358
mental models organic chemicals 173, 174 primary producer 154, 358
organisms, behaviour of 171–2 proteins 174, 358
talk and 28–31 Osborne, J. 5
and understanding 26–8 ossification 214, 357 in human nutrition 215, 221
Mercer, N. 36, 39, 40 owls, hearing 338–9 proton 232, 358
Mercury 105, 106 oxidation 258, 357 pupil (of eye) 317
Mersenne, Marin 331 oxygen 150, 152, 201, 255
metamorphosis 175, 357 quarks 252
meteor 107, 357 in air 252
micro-organism 220, 357 and chemical changes 258 radiant energy 311, 358
Milky Way 101–2 in human circulation 212, 218 absorption of 314–15
Miller, Stanley 171
minerals in human nutrition 217 parallel electrical circuits 275–6 rainbows 318–19
mirrors 313–14 topic 285–8 Rankine, William 125
mixture 233, 238, 252–4, 357 re-describing stage of science 16,
modelling 55–6 particle model of matter 234–8
molecule 126, 255, 357 Pasteur, Louis 171 19–20
mollusc 214, 357 pattern-seeking enqiury 54–5 planning for 73–5
monoculture 137 peer assessment 67 reflection 358
Moon 106, 111 Penzias, Arno 104 of light 313–14
craters (topic) 115–18 periodic table 254–5 of sound 333–5
phases 111–12 peristalsis 215, 216, 357 relativity 358
phases (topic) 118–22 phenomena, exploring 53 renewable energy 358
waning and waxing of 111–12 phlegm 212 sources 130
Moreira, M.A. 26 phloem 152, 357 reproduction 175, 358
motion and force 290–2 photoelectric (voltaic) effect 131, resistance, electrical 277–8, 355
Murphy, C. 5 respiration 153, 212, 219–20, 258,
Muslim world and scientific 358 358
knowledge 89 photosphere 100, 358 retina (of eye) 317
mystic formulae 6–7 photosynthesis 126, 201, 314–15, reversible changes of matter
238–40, 256
natural selection 357 358 Rogers, E.M. 80
Darwin’s theory of 189–94 and animal life 214–15 role modelling 73
and interdependence 150–3 role play contexts for scientific
Naylor, S. 42 photovoltaic cells 131 enquiry 58
nebula 104, 357 physical changes of matter Rosen, M. 42
neon 253 238 – 40 roughage 221
physical models in learning science Rumford, Count Benjamin T. 125
73
363
Index Simon, S. 5 talk
sinking (in water) 296–7 for learning 36–44
ruminant 215, 358 snails 217 effective, promoting 42–4
rusting 258 Snowflakes 244 exploratory 38–9
Rutherford, Ernest 232, 251–2 sodium 253, 254 and mental models 28–31
solar absorption panels 314 in new ways 32–3
saliva 215 solar eclipse 112–13
saturated solutions 240 solar energy 101, 358 technological enqiury 56–7
Saturn 102, 106 teeth in animals (topic) 202–6
science advantages of 131 tertiary consumer 154, 156, 359
solar flares 101 thermodynamics 359
children’s attitudes to 4–5 solar system 104–5 Thomson, J.J. 232, 251
concepts 7–8 solids 233–4 tidal energy 133–4
and discovery 46–7 tilt of the earth 112, 359
learning see learning science change into liquids 235 topics
new age of 94–5 model of 235
pleasure in 8–9 Solomon, J. 32 air resistance 303–8
science teaching solute 238 animals
class management issues 77 solutions 238–9
effectives 6–8 dissolving in 239 body colours and patterns
and storytelling 9–11 and heat 239–40 206 –10
scientific enquiry saturated 240
contexts for 57–60 solvent 238, 358 teeth and beaks 202–6
and narrative 49–50 SONAR 335 bees, sensing light 326–9
outcomes of 48–9 sound burning 264–7
types of 52–7 detection of (topic) 341–5 decomposers 165–8
hearing 337–9 diversity among vertebrates
classification and identification loudness of 336–7
55 nature of 332–5 183–7
electrical circuits 281–4
exploring phenomena 53 absorption of 335 exercise, benefits of 226–9
fair-test enqiury 54 reflection of 333–5 food chains 161–4
modelling 55–6 travelling 332–3 friction 300–3
pattern-seeking enqiury 54–5 vibrations 332 global warming 143–7
technological enqiury 56–7 speed of 331 healthy eating 223–5
scientific knowledge sound energy 127 ice 241–5
and Christianity 88–91 sound waves 331 icebergs, melting of 245–9
early theories 85–8 species 176–7, 359 living things 180–3
and Galileo 91–4 evolution of 193 materials, new, making 261–4
and Muslim world 89 spectrum 359 Moon
nature of 80–5 of light 311
new age of 94–5 starch 152–3, 173, 174, 359 craters 115–18
and religious knowledge 83–4 stars 100–3 phases 118–22
uniqueness of 81–3 static electricity 270–2, 359 non-living things 180–3
scientific skills 50–2 and lightning 271–2 parallel electrical circuits 285–8
scientists 84–5 stomata 151 pollution 264–7
Scott, P. 31, 64 storytelling 9–11 series electrical circuits 285–8
scurvy 220 and concepts 34 shadows 322–6
seasons on Earth 112 summative assessment 68–9 sound
secondary consumer 154, 156, 358 Sun 100–1 creating 345–9
seed dispersal 174 energy from 125, 126 detection of 341–5
selective breeding 193 supernova 104, 359 teeth in animals 202–6
self-assessment 67 survival of the fittest 194–5 vibrations 345–9
series electrical circuits 275–6 suspensions 238–9 water 241–5
topic 285–8 Sutherland, R. 74 wind energy 139–42
shadows 312–13 Sutton, C. 10, 14, 16, 33, 34 translucency 313–4
topic 322–6 transparency 313–4
silver 253 transverse wave 333, 359
Treagust, D.F. 73
364
Index
ultrasound 339, 359 vibrations 332 topic 241–5
ultraviolet light 315 creating sound (topic) 345–9 water energy 133–4
unbalanced forces 296 Watson, James 194
understanding science 26–8 virus 359 wave energy 134
universe, creation of 103–4 visible light 315 wave motion 134, 359
upthrust 296–7, 359 vitamin C 217, 220 wavelength 313
Uranus 106 vitamins 217 weight 359
volcanoe effect 259
Van Helmont, Jan Baptista 150 Volta, Alessandro 270 and gravity 292–4
variation 176–7 voltage 276–7, 355 Wenham, E.J. 80
voltaic (photoelectric) effect 131, 358 Wertsch, J.V. 32
in animals 192 Vygotsky, Lev 37 Wilson, Robert 104
in species 194 wind energy 132–3
Venus 105, 106, 279 Wallace, Alfred Russell 194
vertebrates 178, 214, 359 waning and waxing of Moon 111 topic 139–42
diversity among (topic) water
Xenophanes 83
183–7 changing structure of 237
Vesalius, Andreas 212 as compound 252 Young, Thomas 125, 310
365
Teaching Primary Science
Promoting Enjoyment and Developing Understanding
Loxley Dawes Nicholls Dore
Teaching Primary Science: Promoting Enjoyment and Developing Understanding
is an exciting new textbook to support, inform and inspire anyone training to teach
Science at primary level.
A new kind of text, this book links subject knowledge and pedagogy together rather
than treating them as separate entities. The authors encourage critical reflection and
offer practical support to give you the confidence to present scientific concepts in
contexts that will inspire children to look at the world in new and intriguing ways.
Key features of the text:
• Theme-based science Subject Knowledge covering varied topics from the diversity
of life to force and motion to the Earth and beyond.
• Ideas for Practice explore specific concepts within the subject knowledge provid-
ing further information while offering innovative and engaging ways of bringing
science to life in the classroom using different contexts such as art, drama, poetry
and creative writing.
• A Three-stage Framework for Teaching Science that focuses on exploration,
re-describing and application of specific concepts with practical ideas for making
them come alive.
• Something to Think About scenarios are designed to help you think creatively
about key ideas to help you extend and develop your understanding.
• Examples present classroom situations, dialogues and stories that allow you to
reflect upon best methods for teaching science.
• Photos and drawings illustrate the scientific concepts explored and show how they
are implemented in the classroom.
Teaching Primary Science: Promoting Enjoyment and Developing Understanding
is an essential resource that will change the way you think about
and teach Primary Science.
Peter Loxley, Lyn Dawes, Linda Nicholls and Babs Dore
are all senior lecturers at the University of Northampton.
Cover photograph: Dragonfly courtesy of www.pearson-books.com
Dorling Kindersley/getty Images
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