All Because of a Cup of Coffee

BLACK SPARTACUS BIRTH OF
BOLLYWOOD
Hero of the Haitian Revolution
Lights, Bhangra, action!

MAKING
OF WITCH
FSpOelLls,KchLarmOsRanEd

superstitions

How one dynasty became the
rulers of the Renaissance

HISTORY’S FIRST ROME’S STOLEN TULSA RACE FIRST FEMINIST ISSUE 105
MYTHOLOGY MASSACRE MANIFESTO
TRANS ICON
The Greek legends that What caused America’s Meet the Latina poet who
forged Roman identity bloodiest race riot? took on the patriarchy



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C NTENTSISSUE105

ALL ABOUT… 12

12Key Events FEATURES

The history of the Roman Republic 26 Rise of the Medicis
The family that funded much of the Renaissance
14Inside History
A Punic War ship 36 The Birth of Bollywood
16Anatomy Origins of the world’s biggest movie industry explained
A Roman orator
42 The Life and Legacy of Coccinelle
17Historical Treasures The French star who became a trans icon and cultural pioneer
Silver tableware from Tivoli
18Hall Of Fame 48 Black Spartacus
Famous Romans Toussaint Louverture and the Haitian Revolution
Q&A
54 The First Feminist Manifesto
20Dr Gina May on Rome’s stolen myths and origin stories The Latina poet who took on the patriarchy
22Places To Explore
58 America’s Worst Race Crime
Roman Republic settlements Origins and repercussions of the Tulsa Race Massacre

42

REGULARS Subscribe

06Defining Moments 74 Di li
Photos with amazing stories
offer for new readers
Greatest Battles
on page 24
64Prussia and Austria fight for supremacy at Königgrätz

What If

70The French Revolution had spread to Britain?

Through History

74The founding of witch folklore and superstition

Reviews

78Our verdict on the latest historical books and media

History Vs Hollywood

81Does A Night To Remember sink historical fact?
82Recipe

How to make soup joumou

4

Rise of
the Medicis

How one dynasty became the
rulers of the Renaissance

EBOOK

Do
bit

Defining
Moments

6

© Getty Images 22 June 1990

CHECKPOINT CHARLIE
DISMANTLED

Seven months after the fall of the
Berlin Wall in November 1989,
Checkpoint Charlie – the most
infamous crossing-point between
West and East Berlin – was finally
dismantled. The guardhouse
was removed during a ceremony
attended by representatives from
Germany, France, Britain, the
United States and the Soviet Union,
and it is currently on display in the
Allied Museum in Berlin.

7

Defining © Getty Images
Moments

6 July 1957

ALTHEA GIBSON
WINS WIMBLEDON

American Althea Gibson was
the first Black player to win
a tennis Grand Slam when
she triumphed at the 1956
French Championships. The
following year she became
the first Black athlete to
win Wimbledon, defeating
Darlene Hard in straight sets.
Gibson is pictured here after
winning the Wimbledon title
again in 1958, the year that
she retired from tennis.

8

9

HAIL ROME!
HAIL THE REPUBLIC!

Forged in the flames of war, governed by a ruthless Senate and ultimately
destroyed by one man’s endless ambition, the Roman Republic endured
numerous crises and yet changed the world. This is the story of how it did so.

NONOSAWLE

Ordering is easy. Go online at:
Or get it from selected supermarkets & newsagents

Tracking the birth of Rome’s Senate, the building of the early
Roman colonies and the seeds of imperial rule

14 16 18 20

INSIDE A ANATOMY OF FAMOUS ROME’S STOLEN Main image source: © Getty Images
PUNIC WAR SHIP A ROMAN ORATOR ROMANS MYTHOLOGY

Written by Jessica Leggett, Kate Marsh, Callum McKelvie 11

Key Events According C.390 GAULS
to the Roman BCE SACK ROME
450 TWELVE TABLES historian Livy,
the speed and A Gallic army begins to
BCE At the insistence of the public, ten men write a organisation of the invade Roman territory.
legal code. It recognises the superiority of the patrician Gauls took Rome An outnumbered
class and is posted on bronze tablets in the Roman Forum. completely by Roman army suffers
The Twelve Tables would never formally be abolished, defeat, and the Gauls
although they are superseded by later legal codes. surprise pour into Rome and
sack the city. Celts
continue to cause
trouble for another
50 years.

© Getty Images © Alamy

LONG LIVE THE REPUBLIC LEX LICINIAE SEXTIAE 367 BCE PYRRHIC WAR

509 BCE Named after the two tribunes of the 280 BCE
plebeians who formed them, the Lex
King Lucius Tarquinius Superbus is Liciniae Sextiae are four acts introduced Rome goes to war against
overthrown by a popular uprising, to Roman law. Covering debt and elected King Pyrrhus of Epirus, and
spelling the end of the 250-year-old officials, they also decree that no one can ultimately wins. However,
Roman Kingdom. hold more than 125 hectares of land. there is a stalemate in Sicily
until Pyrrhus’ retreat.

509 BCE 450 C.390 280 BCE 264 261
BCE
BCE BCE BCE

FIR 501 BCE ROME EXPANDS PUNIC WARS BEGIN

In t 320s BCE 264 BCE
sys
wil Rome grows its borders by In a series of three wars,
Ho annexing Etruria and Campania Carthage and Rome rage
is  a in 328 BCE before spreading against each other. Rome
the further south towards the end wins all three and ultimately
of the decade. destroys Carthage completely.

264 FIRST ROMAN THE ROMAN NAVY The 261
BCE GLADIATORS Mediterranean
Before the Punic Wars, was too calm for sail BCE
The first Roman gladiators Rome’s army operated power alone. Warships
are slaves made to fight on land, with boats needed people on
to the death at the funeral reserved for maritime
of Junius Brutus Pera. It’s trade. Now the oars to move
possible that this tradition Romans put together effectively
has been inspired by a navy inspired by the
the Etruscans, who held Carthaginian ships. It © Getty Images
gladiator bouts at funerals. leads to their Punic
victory, and the Romans
© Alamy begin to dominate the
Mediterranean.

12

63 THE CATILINE CONSPIRACY Cicero is THE ROMAN
remembered REPUBLIC
BCE Catiline starts a conspiracy to topple the as Rome’s greatest
patrician class, but loses the consul election. Cicero is orator, but he was
also a great writer of
philosophy and

politics

elected and foils his enemy’s plan through espionage and

traps. Catiline is finally killed in battle, but Cicero doesn’t

fare much better and is assassinated a few years later.

CARTHAGO DELENDA EST CONQUEST OF GAUL SECOND TRIUMVIRATE 43 BCE Image sources: 3x © Alamy, © Getty Images

146 BCE 58-51 BCE Octavian, Mark Antony and Lepidus form
the Second Triumvirate. The Republic
The Third Punic War draws to a close. Julius Caesar heads to Gaul and is then split, with each man ruling a
Rome decides to completely destroy wages war against the tribes different territory, but Octavian and
Carthage and kill its inhabitants. The there. He emerges victorious, Mark Anthony’s rivalry grows.
civilisation is no more. expanding Rome’s territory.
27
146 BCE 63 BCE 63 44 Image sources: wiki/Pearson Scott Foresman,
BCE wiki/ GaiusCrastinus, © Getty Images, wiki/
BCE BCE Andreas Wahra, Diagram Lajard, © Alamy
BATTLE OF ACTIUM 31 BCE
FIRST TRIUMVIRATE CLEOPATRA MADE
QUEEN OF EGYPT 48 BCE Octavian and Mark Antony finally face off
60 BCE at the Battle of Actium. Octavian is the
The infamous ruler defeats Ptolemy victor, and his opponent heads back to
The First Triumvirate is formed. Julius XIII with the help of Julius Caesar’s Egypt and commits suicide. Octavian is
Caesar, Pompey the Great and Crassus forces and is restored to the the last man standing.
team up to further their own political Egyptian throne.
careers. Little do they know that it will
spell the end of the Republic.

44 BEWARE THE HAIL 27
BCE IDES OF MARCH AUGUSTUS
BCE
In a twist Caesar doesn’t
3x © Alamy see coming, he is brutally After holding onto power for
murdered by a group four years, the Senate bestows
of conspirators. He has the title of Augustus on
been wielding too much Octavian. Slowly but surely, he
power, and the republican begins to dismantle the Republic
patricians, led by Brutus and and ushers in the Roman Empire,
Cassius, want him removed. which lasts for over 1,000 years.
A power vacuum is created.

13

Inside History THE CORVUS ARMED FORCES

PUNIC Roman quinqueremes were The size of the ship enabled it to
WAR SHIP vulnerable to the ramming carry a large naval infantry force,
ability and speed of the with between 40 to 120 marines
Roman Republic Carthaginian ships, especially onboard at one time. As the
c.3rd century BCE as their crews were less quinquereme was developed,
experienced. To solve this, the artillery weapons such as
T he First Punic War was the first of Romans created the corvus, catapults and ballistae became
three wars fought between the Roman a bridge with an iron spike that later additions to the ship, as
Republic and the Carthaginian Empire. It could be lowered and locked well as archery towers.
broke out in 264 BCE when Carthage intervened onto an enemy ship, allowing
in a dispute between the cities of Messina and their infantry to cross over and
Syracause on the island of Sicily, a Carthaginian attack. Although successful,
province. Rome got involved on behalf of Messina the weight of the corvus made
while Carthage supported Syracause, triggering the ships unstable and so they
a bitter war for control over Sicily that lasted over were eventually abandoned.
20 years.
EMBELLISHING
While Carthage had a powerful navy that THE SHIP
dominated the waves, it was the first time that
Rome was required to build one. It was said by As the quinqueremes
Polybius, a Greek historian, that the Romans did became more developed,
not know how to build warships and so they the Romans also
looked to a Carthaginian ship – a quinquereme added more decorative
– that had washed ashore. In just a few weeks, elements. The prow of
they built a fleet of 100 quinqueremes (as well the ships could be in
as 20 triremes) based on this ship. the shape of a sacred
animal or a god, and
The Romans finally scored their first naval the sternposts and
victory at the Battle of Mylae in 260 BCE, during stemposts decorated
which they managed to destroy or capture 44 with figureheads.
Carthaginian ships. Even though other vessels
were used, the quinquereme became the main APOTROPAIC EYE
warship used by the Romans during the Punic
Wars. These ships were evolved over time and Painted on the prow of quinquereme ships was
Rome’s eventually emerged victorious, with the an apotropaic eye, a divine element that was
Punic Wars culminating in the destruction of believed to protect against envy, misfortune and
Carthage in 146 BCE. evil spirits. The Romans also thought that the
eye would help keep their ships on course.
The quinquereme helped the Romans gain
supremacy over the Mediterranean and played THE ROSTRUM
a major role in their naval battles for centuries.
However, these ships were ultimately superseded The rostrum was located at the front of the ship and would
by smaller ones after the Battle of Actium in 31 have been used to ram enemy vessels, either breaking the
BCE, a naval battle that took place at the end of hull or the oars. It could be position either on the waterline or
the Roman Republic. We have chosen to look at an underwater, and as the quinquereme was a heavy ship it had
example of an early version of the quinquereme, the potential to sink an enemy vessel on impact.
although it is worth noting that particular details
of the ship still remain unclear.

14

THE MAINSAIL THE ROMAN
REPUBLIC
Unfortunately, the specific details of quinqueremes remain
unclear, although they definitely had at least one or even STRONG AND
two sails. It is likely that the mainsail was eventually STEADY
decorated with the SPQR emblem that was adopted during
the Late Republic, around the 1st century BCE. The Roman
quinqueremes were
bigger than those built
by the Carthaginians
– according to Greek
historian Polybius
they were 45m
long and 5m wide.
Although this made the
quinqueremes more
difficult to manoeuvre
it also made them more
stable, particularly in
bad weather conditions.

SIEGE VESSELS

If siege equipment
was needed, two
quinquereme ships could
be joined together so that
siege towers and large
catapults could be ferried
to the target. This was
done during the Siege
of Syracuse in 213 BCE,
which took place during
the Second Punic War.

CREW ARRANGEMENT TIGHT ON SPACE Illustration by: Adrian Mann

Quinqueremes got their name because they were operated by The ship was designed
oarsmen arranged in groups of five. It is thought that there were to have up to 300 rowers
three banks of oars, around 90 on each side, with pairs of men on onboard at once. This
the top two rows and one man on the bottom. meant that often there
was little to no room to
carry any food or even the
amount of water that the
rowers needed, up to three
litres a day per man. The
crew would have likely
eaten a diet consisting of
hard biscuits, which did
not spoil easily.

15

Anatomy DIVERSE EDUCATION

ROMAN Cicero, a great orator himself, believed that the
ORATOR ideal orator had to possess a wide range of general

Roman Republic knowledge so they could both speak wisely and
c.2nd-1st century BCE have the ability to develop great ideas. Many

EXPRESSIVE DELIVERY members of the elite would receive training in
oratory as part of their education.
Orators would employ a series of
gestures using their arms, hands and A CRUCIAL ART
fingers, as well as facial expressions,
to help illustrate their point and Oratory – the practice of public speaking
give their words greater impact. The – played an important role in the political
various gestures that orators used had arena and decision-making of the Republic.
different meanings that were usually An essential art for those who wanted to
understood by the audience.
be successful in public and political life,
SMART DRESS persuasive oratory was used for different

Orators wore the typical outfit for a Roman reasons – for example, to sway public
man – a toga. Draped over the left shoulder, opinion or spread propaganda.
it restricted the use of the left arm, leaving
orators with only their right arm to move freely MALE ARENA
and gesture. An orator’s appearance would
be scrutinised, and if they looked messy their Oratory was performed by elite men,
moral character was called into question. while women – even educated, elite
women – were not supposed to speak
MAINTAIN COMPOSURE in public. However, one of the greatest

While orators were expected to be expressive orators of the Late Republic was
and vary the pitch of their voice during Hortensia, who delivered a speech in
their speeches, their delivery also had to be front of the Second Triumvirate that
restrained. They were supposed to maintain
an upright posture, giving them an imposing led to the partial repeal of a tax on
presence, and it was considered excessive to Rome’s richest women.
move around a lot.
PUBLIC PERFORMANCE
16
In Rome, orators would stand on the
rostra, a platform that was originally
part of the Comitium and later moved

to the Roman Forum. They always
gave their speeches stood above the

audience, which symbolised their
moral and political authority as
members of the elite.

Illustration by: Kevin McGivern

Historical Treasures THE ROMAN
REPUBLIC

SILVER TIVOLI TABLEWARE

Buried for centuries, this collection is an important find
Tivoli, Mid-First Century BCE

H eld by the Metropolitan Museum silverware was buried in the area surrounding This small collection of items is suspected
of Art, this collection of silverware Tivoli, possibly as a result of the Civil Wars. to be part of a much larger one, probably
comprises two wine cups, a trulla, Most likely, the mysterious Sattia would comprising some 30 pieces and with a number
ladle, and six spoons. The cups bear the have intended to return and recover the bearing the same inscription. Items within
inscription “Sattia, Daughter of Lucius”, though silverware once it was deemed safe enough to the collection first came to light at the end of
no other information about this figure is do so, though evidently this never occurred. the 19th century, when European art collector
known. While Andrew Oliver Jr, writing in the This area was a popular site for luxury villas, Edouard Warick came into the possession of
Metropolitan Museum of Art’s Bulletin in 1965, and several centuries later, Roman Emperor 13 vessels and seven spoons. In 1905, the
noted, “The name Sattia is recorded elsewhere,” Hadrian would himself have a gorgeous collection was offered up for sale, and the
he also stated, “The owner of this set of silver countryside retreat here, which can still be following year, Mrs Chauncey J Blair gave
cannot be connected with any of her namesakes, visited today. The set itself was most likely the items to the Museum of Chicago. It would
not even the Sattia, who lived to the remarkable designed for both drinking parties and for be another 14 years before the remainder of the
age of ninety in the reign of Emperor Claudius.” dining, as it includes a trulla (the small jug set – the items shown here – would find they’re
with the long spout for pouring), as well as way into the collection of the Metropolitan
Additionally, the history of the set itself the pair of decorated wine cups. Museum of Art.
remains enigmatic. It is suspected that the

LADLE SKYPHOS
(DRINKING CUP)
The ladle is adorned
with the head of These drinking cups were
a swan or duck, most likely made by having
which functions the handles and base cast
as a hook so it can separately. A particularly
hang on the side of famous skyphos is the Warren
a bowl. This is one Cup, renowned as an early
of the many items example of homoerotic art.
within the 30-piece
set inscribed with
Sattia’s name,
and also with its
individual weight.

COCHLEARIA PITCHER
(SNAIL SPOONS)
Having no inscription
Examples of these smaller, or decoration, this
slimmer spoons with unusual pitcher would have
handles have been found at a been used to store
variety of ancient Roman sites. and pour wine, hence
They have earned the nickname its long spout. This
‘snail spoons’, as it is suspected particular one appears
that the handle was perfect unique, with no similar
for removing snails, as well as examples in Roman
seafood such as cockles, from silverware or pottery.
their shells.
17
© Getty Images

Hall of Fame

FAMOUS ROMANS

Meet ten Romans who helped shape
the Republic – even in its dying days

JULIUS CAESAR 100 BCE – 44 BCE SCIPIO AFRICANUS Lucius Junius
Brutus
The last major leader of the Roman Republic, 236 BCE – 183 BCE
Julius Caesar’s name lives on today. Born Unknown – c.509 BCE
into civil war, Caesar rose to become a When it comes to the Punic Wars, one of
celebrated general, conquering Gaul and the most well-known Roman leaders is It was scandal that saw the end of the Roman
even heading across the Channel in an undoubtedly Scipio Africanus. Famous for kings. In its wake, Lucius Junius Brutus launched
unsuccessful attempt to invade Britain. defeating the Carthaginian Hannibal at the an uprising, overthrowing
Battle of Zama, Scipio’s legacy as a general King Lucius Tarquinius
Caesar’s entrance into politics would later is certainly secure. In fact, that’s how he Superbus, expelling
see the end of the Roman Republic and the won the surname ‘Africanus’. the royals and
start of the empire, ending years of civil founding the
war. But it unfortunately culminated with Scipio had been born into a wealthy Roman Republic in
Caesar’s assassination on the Ides of March. patrician family, 509 BCE. Brutus
and his military became the first
career began at the consul of the
Battle of Cannae Republic, and the
in 216 BCE. He fatherland came
soon gained before all else.
a reputation When his sons
as a military tried to plot against
mastermind, before the nation, they were
heading to the found out and killed on
Senate in 199 BCE; Brutus’ orders.
he held the
position of The date of the
princeps founding of the
senatus Republic comes from
from the Roman scholar Varro,
then until but some believe it
his death. actually happened
four years later
© Alamy
4x © Getty Images
Spartacus c.111 BCE – 71 BCE

While little is known about Spartacus’ early life, it is known that

he was sold into slavery and became a gladiator. His training

took place in Capua, north of Naples – but his fighting in the

arena isn’t what he’s known for.

In 73 BCE, Spartacus escaped his training and fled to nearby

Mount Vesuvius. He was joined by a number

of other escaped slaves, and he turned

them into an army numbering around

100,000 men. Through guerilla warfare,

they kept outsmarting the Roman army

and headed north towards Gaul. But

their luck wouldn’t last forever.

A socialist An army led by Crassus trapped
group called the them and Spartacus was killed – 6,000
Spartacist League of the slaves who managed to escape
was named after were hunted down and crucified.

Spartacus in

Germany in 1916

18

THE ROMAN
REPUBLIC

VETURIA Cicero

UNKNOWN – UNKNOWN 106 BCE – 43 BCE

While Coriolanus has found Known as the greatest orator of the late Roman
immortal fame thanks to
Shakespeare, his mother has been Republic, Cicero’s early career went from strength
all but forgotten. From a wealthy
patrician family, Veturia encouraged to strength. Born into a wealthy family, he worked
her son in Roman politics. When
Coriolanus was exiled from the city his way up the political ranks to become consul
and decided to lay siege to it with
the Volscians, it was Veturia, along in 63 BCE. However, it was during his consulship
with Coriolanus’ wife Volumnia,
who encouraged him to stop. that he ran into trouble. A politician by the name

CORNELIA AFRICANA C.190S BCE-C.115 BCE of Catiline was accused of trying to overthrow

The daughter of famed general Scipio Africanus, Cornelia was A lot of what we the Republic. Cicero’s speeches played a part
presented as the perfect Roman woman. She was born into
a powerful family, and married into another one – family, in know about the late in putting the perpetrators behind bars, but
fact, was one of her priorities.
Republic era comes his choice to execute them eventually found 3x © Getty Images
But there was more to Cornelia than that. She was politically from Cicero’s letters Cicero exiled and assassinated. It didn’t help
active, something that was almost unheard of for a woman that he had spoken out against Mark Antony,
at the time. In fact, Cornelia was one of the most influential and writings
people of her time and didn’t slow down after the death of her
husband. She even took the teaching of her sons, the Gracchi calling him a public enemy.
brothers, on herself.
ENNIUS 239 BCE – 169 BCE SALLUST
Tiberius
and Gaius Before Virgil’s Aeneid was Ennius’ 86 BCE – 35 BCE
Gracchus fought Annales, an epic poem that told the
for the rights of the story of Rome from the days of Aeneas One of Ancient
poor, but often faced to his present day. While only 600 lines Rome’s most
violent opposition survive, Ennius’ legacy has lived on. famous writers
from the ruling While he served in the military and was and politicians,
a teacher, he is known for his writing. He Sallust came
class penned Sabinae, Ambracia and Scipio, and from relatively
created a new literary genre: satire. humble
b
© Alamy He wasn’t
b
ruling class,
b
in the cursus
honorem. His military service started
around 70 BCE, and in 52 BCE he was
elected a tribune of the plebs. However,
he was expelled from the Senate just two
years later. It wasn’t the end for Sallust,
though. He sought refuge with Julius
Caesar, and commanded one of his legions
against Pompey.

Cincinnatus Many
of George
c.519 BCE – c.430 BCE Washington’s
contemporaries
When Cincinnatus was appointed dictator in 458 BCE, it was at compared him to
a time of crisis. An army was surrounded by the Aequi people on Cincinnatus as he fought
Mount Algidus – Cincinnatus supposedly defeated the enemy in for independence
a day. He went on to bring Rome out of the crisis before resigning from the British
from his position and returning to his farm outside of the city.

Cincinnatus’ legacy has endured, and his story was used to
represent ideal republic simplicity in the early days of the United
States of America. His humble background was a juxtaposition to
the luxury and decadence of the British Empire and George III.

© Alamy

19

Q&A with…

ROME’S STOLEN MYTHOLOGY

Dr Gina May explains the origins, purpose
and importance of Roman legends

How much of Roman mythology was the Roman gods are the same as those Dr Gina May is an sparked revolts resulting in new political
influenced by the Greeks? told earlier by the Greeks. The Romans Associate Lecturer in beginnings and the foundation of the
Many of the Roman gods were the same also created myths of their own. Classics at the Open Roman Republic. Ovid’s Metamorphoses
as the Greek, for example Aphrodite the University and a Senior contains 250 stories split into 15 books
Greek goddess of love became Venus to Was there anyone specific that Fellow of the Higher and uses myths, some of which are new
the Romans. This pattern is replicated contributed to Roman myth-making? Education Academy. and invented, to explain how everything
across the pantheon of gods but it is too Particular writers/mythographers Her research interests came into being or gained its name from
simple to say that the Romans just took contributed to the corpus of Roman include comparative the very beginnings of creation up to the
the Greek gods, changed their names, myth such as Virgil, Livy and Ovid. One deification of Julius Caesar.
and made them their own. Ancient of the many myths told by Virgil about mythology, Greek
cultures from across the world had their Aeneas’ journey from Troy to Latinum and Roman tragedy What was the purpose of myths in
own names for gods of the sun, the includes the creation of a mythological and comedy, ancient Roman culture?
sky, the growth of crops, dawn, night, reason for Rome’s later battles with sexuality and witchcraft. One of the most important roles that
birth, death, etc. They had gods for a Carthage. In Book 6 of the Aeneid Virgil As an independent myth played in Roman culture was to
whole host of other things as a way of tells of Carthaginian Queen Dido’s love academic she writes explain where Romans came from and
explaining everything from emotions for Aeneas and how she commits suicide and teaches her own how the city came to be called Rome. We
to why there was dew on the ground after he leaves her in search of his courses on topics are told that Aeneas, one of the princes
in the mornings. It seems reasonable destiny, the founding of Latinum. Livy such as Latin, Ancient of Troy, escaped the burning city and
therefore that the Romans, whose Trojan contributes to the myths surrounding Greek and hieroglyphs, followed his fate to found Latinum. His
ancestors had settled with the people of the foundation of Rome, as well as journey is told in Virgil’s Aeneid, which
Latinum, would have had a set of gods, giving examples of heroic chastity in archaeology, was commissioned by Augustus, and
some of whom did the same thing as his myths of women like Verginia and numismatics and demonstrates a clear genealogical line
the Greek gods. After all, in Homer’s Lucretia. Both women are sexually, academic practice. between himself and Venus, the mother
Iliad, the Trojans and the Greeks do not assaulted with Verginia being killed by of Aeneas. Later came Livy’s quasi-
have different gods even though they’re her father to protect her chastity and LEFT Federico historical foundation myths of Romulus
different cultures at war. This may well Lucretia killing herself after being raped. Barocci’s 1598 and Remus ,who were born to Rhea Silvia,
be why many of the myths surrounding Both were important because they depiction of Aeneas’ a vestal virgin, after being raped by Mars
flight from Troy the god of war. After being left to drown
Headshot source: Tim Bentley on the banks of the River Tiber, the
babies were found and suckled by a she-
wolf before being taken in by a shepherd.
Grown up, they fought over what to call
the new city. Romulus was victorious
and called the city Rome. Livy’s History
of Rome also recounts the Romans’
abduction of women from neighbouring
tribes, among them the Sabine women.
All of those taken were young and
unmarried and were shared out between
the men. By the time the men of their
families came back to rescue the women,
they had fallen in love with their captors
and begged their relatives to join with
Rome instead of going into battle. Other
quasi-historical myths came into being as

20

THE ROMAN
REPUBLIC

DR MAY’S LATEST
FTOHREGSAOHNTOTCREITENCNOWTUOWRSMOEE,RNLDIN
BEGINS ON JUNE 4TH. FOR
DETAILS VISIT MORE

WWW.GINAMAY.CO.UK

2x © Alamy

a way of showing a wide range of things it was he who built the city, created the ABOVE An 18th not know how exactly old Rhea Silvia
from why wars were fought to how Senate, the three tribes and brought law century painting was when she was forced to become a
women should behave. and taxation to the city. It was also he depicting the death vestal virgin by her uncle but they were
who tried to increase the population of Verginia typically chosen between the ages of six
What do these myths tell us about of Rome by bringing in women from and 10. He planned to ensure that she
Roman values? neighbouring cities. Later, as the Roman didn’t have any sons who might avenge
The foundation myths show how Empire spread, more and more cities the death of her father. When she did
important it was to the Romans to were brought under the control of Rome become pregnant, he didn’t believe her
be able to demonstrate their city’s and many chose to become enculturated claim that the father was Mars, and
provenance. Livy declares his intention with all things Roman. The Sabines and ordered her twin babies, Romulus and
of creating a history of Rome to show other tribes in the myth stood as a good Remus, to be thrown into the river.
Verginia and Lucretia were both held up
“The foundation myths show how as paragons of heroic virtue, showing
important it was to the Romans to Roman women how they too should
demonstrate the city’s provenance” consider their chastity as more important
than their lives. Ovid’s 700 line poem
how it had shaped its people and to act example of cities that had done so by Metamorphoses covers everything from
as moral instruction. It includes events choice rather than by force. primordial chaos to Caesar but also
from Aeneas’s escape from Troy up to the multiple descriptions of sexual assault
age of Augustus. Being able to trace their How are these Roman myths seen against both men and women. But we
history back to Troy meant that Rome in  modernity? cannot look at these, or any other myth,
could claim to be an ancient culture Mythological stories about Rome’s with modern eyes. They were not created
whose earliest ancestor was the son of beginnings together with Ovid’s myths by or for us so as difficult as that may
a goddess. The myths surrounding the of creation were amusing anecdotes, sometimes be, we can’t lose sight of what
founding of Rome itself and how it grew popular at Roman dinner parties. They they really are: products of an ancient
were equally important to the Romans. may not stand up to scrutiny by modern society seeking to cement its place in the
Romulus was the first king of Rome and standards, but they don’t need to. We do world and poets who sought to cement
theirs. We may not like what we see, but
we cannot and should not look away.

21

Places to Explore

ROMAN REPUBLIC SETTLEMENTS

Get a taste of Ancient Rome outside of Italy

1 CONIMBRIGA 14 3
PORTUGAL 5 2

Conimbriga was one of the largest cities in Roman 2 ANTIOCH The remains of several
Portugal, with a population nearing 10,000, and was TURKEY Roman roads can be
first inhabited between the 9th century BCE and the
8th or 7th centuries BCE. It was due to the conquering seen at Antioch
of Decimus Junius Brutus that Conimbriga came under
the control of the Romans in 139 BCE. Taking the loose Founded in 300 BCE
settlement that existed prior to their arrival, the Romans by Seleucus I Nicator,
organised Conimbriga’s layout. Walls were built, as well as Antioch was annexed
two watchtowers whose purpose was to defend the town, in 64 BCE when it was
along with shops, spas, grand homes, aqueducts and public made the capital of
buildings known as basilica. the Roman province of
Syria. It would quickly
Although many of the ruins date from the become one of the
latter days of the Roman Empire, the remains most important cities in
of Conimbriga are astonishingly well preserved, the entire Roman Empire,
most not being unearthed until the 2000s, alongside Alexandria and,
which accounts for their incredible condition. of course, Rome itself.
Open Monday to Sunday from 10am to 6pm. Closed Easter
Sunday, 1 May, 24 July and 25 December. Tickets €4.50 At the peak of its
status as one of the
A view of the ancient bastions of the empire,
ruins of Conimbriga the city was home to

in Portugal le Emperor Augustus altered the city enlarging the
theatre and adding numerous roads. He also built a variety of temples dedicated to
22 the Roman gods, and saw that the city became a hive of art and culture.

Later, the city would be important to the foundations of Christianity, as St Paul
is noted to have preached his first sermons here, and also founded a church. Today,
numerous Roman ruins can still be seen at Antioch, including several ancient
Roman roads.

Open Tuesday to Sunday from 10am to 7pm in the summer and 8am to 5pm in the
winter. Entrance fee is 10TL (Turkish Lira)

THE ROMAN
REPUBLIC

3 EPHESUS The ruins of the Library
TURKEY of Celsus in Ephesus

Today, the ruins of Ephesus are located near the first city of the Roman province of Asia, The ruins of the
the village of Selcuk, a city renowned for its and was an impressive and important cultural archeological park of the
arts and culture in the ancient world. In 356 BCE centre. It became a famous port city, and had Roman villas at Carthage
the Temple of Artemis was burnt down, and the a large business district through which to deal
Ephesians replaced it with a temple that was so with the numerous goods arriving into Ephesus 5 ROMAN CARTHAGE
grand that it would become one of the seven from around the empire. TUNISIA
wonders of the Ancient world.
In later centuries, the city was vital For centuries, Carthage was the
Although the city had to some extent been in the spread of Christianity, but by 262 centre  of Punic civilisation, and the
under the control of the Romans since 189 CE it was all but destroyed by the Goths. city is thought to have been founded
BCE (giving the city to the King Pergamum; Today, numerous ruins still remain visible, towards the end of the 9th century BCE.
later Atalus III would give both it and all his particularly those built under the reign of However, at the end of the Punic Wars,
possessions to the Roman Empire) it was Augustus, such as the amphitheatre, the Carthage was destroyed. After besieging
a troubled rule. In 88 BCE, the Ephesians Library of Celsus and the fabulous aqueducts. the town for three years,  the  Romans
rose against their Roman rulers, although they took the city, enslaving the population
would soon fall under Rome’s control once Open 8am to 6:30pm in summer and 8:30am to and gaining total dominance over the
again. Under Emperor Augustus, it became 6pm in winter. Entrance fee 40TL (Turkish Lira) Mediterranean. The senator and orator
Cato the Elder famously declared that
4 TARRACO “Carthage must be burned”, initiating
CATALONIA the total destruction of the city. A mere
20 years later, a colony was  founded
Tarraco, today known as Tarragona, was taken over by the Romans in 218 BCE as part of the Second on  the site, and Julius Caesar would
later send a large number of landless
Punic War. Initially, the city started life as a military stronghold. Following this, Julius Caesar declared citizens there. The city would survive
until 705, when Tunis would take its
it a colony, and began its transformation into one of the jewels of the Empire’s crown. Emperor status as the capital.

Augustus made Terraco the capital of Hispania Tarraconensis, a Roman province, and he supposedly Much of the ruins of Roman
Carthage  remain, including a
used the Castle of Pilate as his palace. Pliny the Elder also famously praised Tarraco’s fine wines. large temple dedicated to Juno,
Jupiter and Minerva, and a large
Tarraco’s layout is particularly interesting, the city itself being designed around the area’s amphitheatre whose design was
modelled on the Colosseum. One
A view of the Roman natural landscape and resulting in a series of interesting point of  note is that a
amphitheatre at Tarraco terraces descending from official state buildings late 19th century French  Cathedral
at the top with the residential areas towards was built here, dedicated to Louis
IX, who died in Tunisia in 1270.
the bottom. The series of walls around the city
Multiple sites are open to visitors. Travel
perhaps belies its origins as a military stronghold, to Carthage from Tunis takes 20 minutes
by taxi costing 5-10DT (Tunisian dinar)
providing perfect defence against any attackers
23
that might choose to assail it. In the surrounding

landscape there are also the ruins of Roman

quarries from many construction projects.

Open Tuesday to Friday from 9am to 8:30pm, All images © Alamy
Saturday from 9:30am to 8:30pm, Sunday from
9:30am to 2:30pm. Entrance is free

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How one dynasty became the
rulers of the Renaissance

Written by Elizabeth Norton

26

© Getty Images

© Alamy

he Medici family of who was born in 1360. He spent his early ABOVE The Medici accepted deposits from clients, on which
Florence were the adulthood as a banker in Rome, managing family shaped the interest was paid.
wealthiest in Europe, deposits made by the Catholic Church. In history of Florence,
rising from humble roots 1397 he had established himself enough to depicted here in the Money lending, often to high-ranking
to become grand dukes, move back to Florence, where he registered 16th century churchmen and princes, was more risky,
queens and even popes. Their rise was as a new bank with the Banker’s Guild. This but lucrative. Giovanni was an excellent
fascinating as it was meteoric, but there is usually considered to be the founding of ABOVE-INSET A networker, identifying and befriending
were many bumps in the road. the famous Medici Bank. bronze casting of the those likely to become prominent in the
They are synonymous with Florence, personification of church. This was the case with Baldassare
with the earliest recorded members of Giovanni’s bank grew steadily. By the Florence leaning on Cosse, who secured a cardinalcy in 1402
the family already resident there. In the end of the century there were branches in a Medici shield after paying the pope 10,000 florins
medieval period Florence was a mercantile Florence, Rome and Naples, with a fourth loaned to him from the Medici Bank.
centre, becoming a leading centre of branch, in Venice, opened a few years later. As a former pirate, he was an unlikely
banking and credit by the early 13th The Medici Bank, which was founded “to
Illustration by: Joe Cummings century. Florentine bankers lent money to deal in exchange and in merchandise with “The Medici family are
kings and princes across Europe and, by at the help of God and good fortune”, was synonymous with Florence,
least 1300, members of the Medici family a merchant bank, heavily involved in the with the earliest recorded
had entered the banking trade. Initially purchase and sale of luxury goods, as well
small scale, their wealth increased over the as in money lending. Branch managers members of the family
course of the 14th century. across Europe would be instructed to already resident there”
The first significant member of the purchase luxury goods, such as tapestries
family was Giovanni di Bicci de Medici, or horses, which could be sold in Italy
or elsewhere for a profit. They also

27

2x © Alamychurchman. However, Giovanni’s bet deC’oMsiemdoici adorn the walls of the monasteries of San Giovanni di Bicci de’ Medici
2x © Getty Imageson Cosse paid off in 1409 when he wasDomenico di Fiesole and San Marco. Hestarted the family on its
elected as pope, taking the name John Later known as Cosimo was a learned man, possessing a library
XXIII. Even John’s removal as pontiff the Elder, he was of over 70 books, something that was rise to power, founding the
in 1415 failed to dent the fortunes of his the founder of one remarkable for the time. Medici Bank in 1397
bankers. When Giovanni died in 1429 he
was one of Florence’s most prominent of the main lineages of Although interested in the arts, it was a considerable triumph in persuading
citizens, with his bank reporting profits the Medici family. He was politics that increasingly took up most of Pope Eugenius IV to move the Council
of more than 186,000 florins in the 15 educated in high finance Cosimo’s time. Florence was a republic, of Ferrara to Florence, incentivizing the
years between 1420 and 1435, His son, and managed the money with its government, or Signoria, formed pope with promises of substantial loans.
Cosimo di Giovanni de Medici, was even by drawing lots from the names of its most This council, which saw the arrival of
more ambitious, opening branches across of the pope, becoming prominent citizens every two months. the pope, the patriarch of Constantinople
Europe, including as far afield as London. rich through a monopoly Even before his father’s death, Cosimo had and the Byzantine emperor in Florence,
begun to use his considerable financial was the most important church event in
Cosimo was a shrewd businessman, on alum, a vital clout to gain influence within Florence. recent years, with its aim to bring about a
keeping a close eye on his branches from component to Florentine This was resented by many of the more union between the Catholic and Orthodox
Florence. He was not, however, involved established families, with Cosimo arrested, churches. Although it failed to achieve
in the day-to-day business of his bank as textiles at the time. tried for treason and exiled in October this aim, it was a huge financial success
his father had been, instead focusing on 1433. He had already anticipated this,
politics and the arts. He was enormously BELOW Medici having transferred much of his wealth out
wealthy, building a new home in Florence, family members of Florence before his arrest. Biding his
the Palazzo Medici. This palace, although are often found time in Venice, Cosimo remained abreast
reasonably modest in size so as not to represented in of Florentine affairs, returning home
attract too much attention, was grandly famous works, with a private army of 3,000 soldiers the
furnished. Donatello, who was patronized such as here where following year. From then on he personally
by Cosimo, created his bronze statue Cosimo, Giovanni selected the names included in the draw
of David to stand in the courtyard of and Piero Medici for the Signoria, placing the control of the
Cosimo’s palace, as well as other works. appear in the government firmly in his hands.
The artist, Filippo Lippi also painted some Procession Of
of his greatest works within the building’s The Magi As the ruler of Florence in all but name,
rough-hewn stone walls. Cosimo continued to use his wealth
and influence to build his own prestige
Cosimo intended his construction and that of his city. In 1439 he secured
projects to be his legacy, once telling a
friend that “before 50 years have passed, “Cosimo was a shrewd businessman,
we shall be expelled, but my buildings keeping a close eye on his branches
will remain”. As well as his own homes, he
also adorned Florence with the artworks from Florence”
he commissioned, including patronizing
Fra Angelico, whose colourful murals still

LEFT Cosimo de’ Medici
used his wealth and

connections to take over
the government
of Florence,
becoming ruler
in all but
name

28

Rise of the Medicis

Abridged Medici Family Tree
A quick guide to how the powerful lineage connects together

Related Giovanni di Bicci
Illegitimate
Married 1360 – 1429

Cosimo de’ Medici Lorenzo the Elder

1389 – 1464 1395 – 1440

ToLruncarbeuzioani GPoietrtoos“iol” Giovanni Carlo Pierfrancesco the Elder

1427 – 1482 1416 – 1469 1421 – 1463 1428 – 1492 1430 – 1476

COlrasriincie L0oDrJeQnLzşoFiRl Giuliano CSaftoerrzinaa GPioopvoalnannioil Lorenzo

1453 – 1488 1449 – 1492 1453 – 1478 1463 – 1509 1467 – 1498 1463 – 1503

Clement VI

1478 – 1534

PFiaertuooil Leo x GNdieuumcloiaaundrois Lucrezia

1472 – 1503 1475 – 1521 1479 – 1516 1470 – 1553

Lorenzo CIaprpdoilnitaole SMalavriaiati BGaniDodavelalNneenri e Pieirl fGriaonvcaneseco
d’Urbino
1511 – 1535 1499 – 1543 1498 – 1526 1487 – 1525
1492 – 1519

CaMtehdeirciine Alessandro Edli eToonleodroa Cosimo I Lorenzaccio

1519 – 1589 1510 – 1537 1522 – 1562 1519 – 1574 1514 – 1548

Francesco I Fernando I Isabella Pietro Coat of arms source: wiki/ F l a n k e r (CC BY-SA 3.0)

1541 – 1587 1549 – 1609 1542 – 1576 1554 – 1604

JoHhaabnsnbaurvgon CBaipapnecllao ChLroirsrtainineede GaErlzeioandoi Troaldeido

1547 – 1578 1548 – 1587 1565 – 1637 1553 – 1576

29

Image source: wiki/Uffizi What did the
Medicis do for us?
ABOVE Known Image source: wiki/Sistine Chapel
as Lorenzo the Famous works of art and architecture
2x © Getty Images from Florence’s ‘first family’
nzo
de’ Medici spent Image source: wiki/La Capella dei Magi The Birth Of Venus
lavishly on culture
and the arts, but It’s been suspected that Sandro Botticelli’s
he neglected his famous depiction of Venus was originally
business affairs commissioned by the Medici family
RIGHT Cosimo between 1485 and 1486. However, since
de’ Medici was a the painting was kept secret due to its
great patron of the not being a strictly Christian work of art
arts, employing and was not mentioned until the 1550s,
Donatello, whose it’s hard to pin down its exact lineage.
bronze statue of What we do know is that Botticelli was
David stood in a favourite of the family and a frequent
the courtyard guest in their home.
of the Medici
Palace The Last Judgement

30 Michelangelo was another
favourite artist of the Medici
family and while they were
not responsible for his work
on the ceiling of the Sistine
Chapel, it was a Medici pope in
Clement VII who had him work
on the altar wall of the Chapel
in 1536. Clement had actually
been a childhood friend of
Michelangelo’s, further showing
the degree to which the art
world and the Florentine family
were deeply connected.

David

This bronze statue by Donatello was most likely commissioned
by his friend Cosimo de’ Medici, and his representation of David
predates the more famous marble work by Michelangelo by at
least 50 years. It was the first bronze male nude and the first
free-standing statue since antiquity. At the time of its making
David was seen as a symbol for Florence itself, a scrappy upstart
city without a duke, defending itself against mightier enemies.

Procession of the Magi

Commissioned by the father of the Medici
family line himself, Cosimo, from Benozzo
Gozzoli, this work is stretched across three
walls of the main room of the Palazzo Medici-
Riccardi. Each represents one of the Three
Kings going to visit Christ and took about
150 days to produce. Within the works are
depictions of members of the Medici family
and the artist himself, with Cosimo shown
astride a donkey – which is something he did
in reality as a sign of his humility.

Rise of the Medicis

2x © Alamy Sandro Botticelli was one
of many Italian artists who
benefited from the patronage
of Lorenzo de’ Medici

for the Medicis, with the Roman branch dLeo’ rMeendzioci the branches of his bank. Lorenzo also of Francesco de Pazzi, who frantically
of their bank making double its usual Earning the title took much more from the bank to fund his stabbed Giuliano, while two priests
profit in that year. More importantly for Lorenzo the Magnificent, extravagant lifestyle than he put in, while attacked Lorenzo. Although badly
Cosimo it dramatically increased Florence’s he propped up his branches with public wounded, Lorenzo survived the attack,
reputation on the international stage, and the son of Cosimo funds from Florence. As branches of the but his brother was less fortunate. The
that of the Medici family. ruled Florence for Medici Bank began to close across Europe, pope very firmly sided with the Pazzi,
over 20 years. His even the Rome branch was facing financial excommunicating Lorenzo when he
Cosimo was still the effective ruler rule has been referred ruin in the 1490s. Lorenzo, however, just took revenge on the leading conspirators
of Florence at his death in 1464, with to as a ‘benevolent kept spending.
the Signoria bestowing the posthumous tyranny’ where he “Cosimo
title ‘Father of the Nation’ upon him. held complete control, Lorenzo was determined to increase the continued to
Upon his death, control of the Medici but spent lavishly on influence and status of the Medici on an use his wealth
Bank passed to his son, Piero, who also the arts, festivals and international stage, writing to Pope Sixtus and influence
became the de facto ruler of Florence. tournaments to please IV in 1472 of “the long-standing desire to to build his own
He was considerably more cautious and have a cardinal in our family”. Cardinals prestige and that
less financially gifted than his father and the masses. were princes of the church, with Lorenzo
grandfather. The family fortunes dipped anxious to finally achieve aristocratic of his city”
significantly under Piero, who held assets status for his family. At first, matters
worth only half as much as his father in seemed hopeful, but when Lorenzo and placing Florence under an interdict.
1469. He did not, in any event, long survive refused a loan to the pope of 40,000 Lorenzo and the Medici were relieved
his father, dying at the end of that year ducats, the Medici were removed as papal when Sixtus died in August 1484.
and leaving the Medici Bank in the control bankers. To his dismay, his rivals, the Pazzi
of his 20-year-old son, Lorenzo. family, were appointed in their place. The new pope, Innocent VIII, proved
a friend to the Medici, betrothing his son
Lorenzo, who was nicknamed ‘The To make matters worse, the pope to Lorenzo’s daughter in exchange for a
Magnificent’, had been raised to consider continued to support the Pazzi family, substantial dowry. More significantly, he
himself an aristocrat. In order to compete giving his tacit approval when they also agreed to make Lorenzo’s second
with the princes of Europe, he was and some of the pope’s own nephews son, the 14-year-old Giovanni de Medici,
prepared to spend on a lavish scale, conspired to rid Florence of the Medici.
with his patronage of artists, such as On the morning of 26 April 1478 Lorenzo
Michelangelo, particularly important. and his brother Giuliano were at mass
He was educated and cultured, but no in Florence’s Duomo. As the Host was
businessman, failing to keep watch over raised, they were surprised by the arrival

31

3x © Getty Images Pope Leo X a cardinal on 9 March 1489. Lorenzo
paid a heavy fee for this honour, but it
Born Giovanni de’ Medici was a significant moment for the family.
to Lorenzo, the future Giovanni was the highest-ranking Medici
pope was raised to join there had been so far.
the church, receiving
an extensive religious Lorenzo’s triumph in securing a
education. After his cardinal’s hat for his son further increased
election in Rome he his ambitions. Unlike his father and
made the city a cultural grandfather, who had always presented
centre, but overspent themselves as ‘first among equals’ in
much like his father Florence, his own style of government
had done and was made his pre-eminent position much
slow to respond to more obvious. Only Lorenzo was exempt
the  Reformation. from a law banning weapons in the city,
while he maintained a substantial private
ABOVE Thanks to his bodyguard, for example.
father’s influence at
the Vatican, Lorenzo’s Like his father, Lorenzo suffered from
second son, Giovanni, considerable ill health, dying on 8 April
became a cardinal 1492 at the age of only 43. Although some
aged 13. He later in Florence lamented his death, a large
became Pope Leo X proportion of the citizens celebrated,
hoping that it would mark an end to
LEFT Lorenzo being Medici dominance.
celebrated by the
people after he made It was certainly a difficult year for
peace with Naples the Medici in 1492, with Lorenzo’s
20-year-old son, Piero, who was both
incompetent and unlucky, struggling
to maintain the family’s position. In
spite of increasing unpopularity, Piero
insisted on maintaining a pro-Naples
policy, something which placed him at
odds with Charles VIII of France, who
himself claimed the Italian kingdom. He
mishandled his approach to Charles, at first
refusing to give his troops safe conduct
through Florentine territory and then
being forced to negotiate, surrendering
Pisa to the French king. Within days, he
had been deposed as ruler of Florence,
with the citizens rising under cries of “The
People! Liberty!” The Signoria then exiled
Piero, his brother, Cardinal Giovanni, and
other members of the family.

In the Medici’s absence, Florence
came under the authority of the
theocratic government of the radical
preacher Girolamo Savonarola, whose
austere government saw the burning of
artworks and books in the city. In spite of
Savonarola’s growing unpopularity, Piero
de’ Medici was unable to secure popular
support when he arrived outside the city
with an army of 2,000 troops in 1497,
being once again forced to withdraw. Even
Savonarola’s own fall from power, which
saw him hanged and then burned at the
stake in 1498, did not see any clamour for
the Medici family’s return. Piero continued
to plot, from exile, but bad luck overcame
him once more. On 27 December 1503 he
fell into a river and drowned.

By 1503, the Medici had been exiled
from Florence for nearly a decade, while
their bank, which had founded their

32

wealth, was in ruins. It must have seemed Cdaet’ hMeerdiincei Rise of the Medicis
as though they had reached their lowest
ebb, with Piero’s sons still being young Queen consort to Henry The first member
children with little prospect of ruling. The II of France, Catherine of the family to
family did, however, have a trump card in would become regent wear a crown,
Cardinal Giuliano, who had maintained of France from 1560 Catherine de’
his position in the church. Through his
relationship with Pope Julius II, he was to 1574. She was Medici’s marriage
able to engineer a return to prominence massively influential to Henri II of
for the family, with the Pope himself in the Wars of Religion France was
writing to the city in July 1512 to insist and is often blamed for arranged by
on the return of the Medici – and its the St. Bartholomew’s
abandonment of its French allegiance. Day Massacre in 1572, her uncle, Pope
Although the city at first demurred, when although her culpability Clement VII
Cardinal Giovanni and his younger brother is disputed. Three of her
Guiliano arrived at the gates of the city on sons would go on to be 33
14 September, accompanied by an army,
they were forced to admit them. Entering kings of France.
Florence in triumph, the Medici once again
took control of the city’s governance.

Although the return of the Medici was
not universally celebrated, there was little
that the citizens could do, with Cardinal
Giovanni becoming Pope Leo X the

“With imperial
support, the

Medici took an
army to besiege

their city”

following year, something that crowned 2x © Alamy
the family’s remarkable achievement. Pope
Leo, too, continued to view Florence as
his home, making a ceremonial entry in
1515, where he was welcomed by firework
displays, gun salutes and triumphal arches.

As was so often the case, however, the
family’s triumph was short-lived. The
Medici secured a second pope when, in
1523, Leo’s cousin Giulio de Medici was
elected as Pope Clement VII. However, this
brought them into conflict with the Holy
Roman Emperor, Charles V, who sacked
Rome in 1527 and placed Clement under
house arrest. When news of this reached
Florence, the citizens rose, shouting
anti-Medici slogans and burning effigies
of the Medici pope in bonfires. Once again,
the Medici were forced into exile.

Clement was finally able to return to
Rome in October 1528, where he attempted
to shore up Medici power in the church
with the appointment of his 18-year-old
kinsman, Ippolito de Medici, as a cardinal.
He also came to terms with the Emperor
Charles V, promising to crown him as
Holy Roman Emperor and to betroth
another kinsman, Alessandro de Medici,
to Charles’s illegitimate daughter.

2x © Getty Images With imperial support, the Medici
2x © Alamytook an army to besiege their city.
Cosimo I Florence, which had reinstated republican
government, refused to yield for nearly a view to defending himself against
Later known as Cosimo a year, with hunger so desperate that mice his own citizens. He was also still only
the Great, he was taken were sold in the marketplace as food. nominally the head of the family, with
under the wing of the When plague broke out, the citizens had Pope Clement arranging the prestigious
Holy Roman Emperor had enough, rising to demand the return marriage of his 14-year-old niece,
Charles V, which offered of the Medici to end their hunger. Catherine de Medici, to the second son of
a great deal of protection Francis I of France in 1533. Catherine de
Once again, the Medici had returned Medici would become the first Medici to
against hostility from to Florence, although they found the sit on a throne when, in 1547, she became
France and Rome. city devastated by the lengthy siege. In queen of France. She would later be
1531 their rule was formalised, with the followed, over 50 years later, by a second
Elected duke of Florence, Emperor Charles V issuing a decree to Medici queen of France.
he went on to conquer declare Alessandro de Medici as Governor
much of Tuscany before of the Republic of Florence and Head of Alessandro was deeply unpopular in
being made grand duke the Government in Perpetuity. Although Florence and unlamented following his
of the region. this title, which was not the dukedom assassination in 1537. With his death,
Alessandro had desired, maintained a his dukedom was inherited by a distant
pretence of republicanism, in reality it cousin, Cosimo I, who was a descendant
appointed Alessandro as the city’s prince.

It was still not enough for Alessandro,
who in 1532 secured the title of Duke
of the Republic’ from his kinsman,
Pope Clement VII. In spite of this,
Alessandro was far from secure, building
a fortress, the Fortezza de Basso, with

34

Rise of the Medicis

LEFT The Medici of Giovanni di Bicci de Medici, founder “With the creation of the
family sponsored the of the Medici Bank. Grand Duchy of Tuscany, all
Platonic Academy pretence that Florence remained
in Florence, a group Cosimo I, who was only 17-years-old,
that reintroduced surprisingly received widespread support a republic was abandoned”
Plato’s work to from the ordinary people of Florence,
Western Europe who had largely become used to Medici public image, taking care to patronise the created his brother, Ferdinando, a cardinal
rule. He was secretive and suspicious by arts as his predecessors had done. This in his place.
LEFT-INSET nature, as well as being a capable ruler, included his construction of the vast Uffizi
Lorenzo died aged immediately taking on the reigns of Palace, which was intended to serve as an It was this close relationship with
43 and a grandiose government in the city. administrative office block, while he also Rome that led to the family’s greatest
tomb had been founded the scholarly Academia Fiorentina achievement, when Pope Pius V created
planned, but was The Florence that Cosimo I inherited in 1542. He also spent lavishly on the Cosimo Grand Duke of Tuscany in 1569.
never actually built was a city that was almost bankrupt Palazzo Pitti, which became his main The appointment was made ostensibly
FAR-LEFT Cosimo and beset by factions and conspiracy. residence outside of the city. Given the fate because “the duke has always been a
I unexpectedly Concerned at his duchy’s continuing of his predecessor, he was understandably defender of the holy Catholic Church
inherited Florence dependence on the Holy Roman anxious about assassination, having a and a great supporter of justice”, but in
following the murder Emperor, he was determined to secure its covered walkway, known as the Vasari reality it was in recognition of the fact that
of Duke Alessandro independence, finally negotiating in 1543 Corridor, constructed to run from the Cosimo was now as much a sovereign as
in 1537. Under his to pay the emperor 200,000 florins in Palazzo Vecchio, his city residence, the other princes of Europe.
rule the family exchange for the return of the fortresses through the Uffizi, over the Ponte Vecchio
reached the pinnacle at Pisa and Livorno and the withdrawal bridge and on to the Palazzo Pitti. Safe With the creation of the Grand Duchy
of its success, of imperial troops from Florence. He inside his walkway, he could move of Tuscany, all pretence that Florence
becoming grand continued to have close diplomatic links to through the city unseen. remained a republic was abandoned.
dukes of Tuscany the Imperial royal family for the remainder Cosimo I’s coronation as grand duke, by
of his life, while also providing support Just like his predecessors, Cosimo I the pope himself in the Sistine Chapel on
for his cousin, Catherine de’ Medici, who was particularly interested in Vatican 5 March 1570, was the height of the Medici
was regent of France after the death of her politics, with his son, Giovanni, becoming family’s power and ambition. They had
husband, King Henry II. a cardinal in 1560. When Giovanni passed reached the assent of their bumpy rise.
away only two years later, the pope From then onwards there was nowhere
Cosimo I was a man of relatively plain else for them to go but downwards.
tastes, preferring to live simply behind
the walls of his palaces. However, he
very carefully constructed a magnificent

Machiavelli And The Medici

They were connected by deep personal and political ties

Niccolo Machiavelli has a well-earned reputation as a political Giuliano and later to Lorenzo, Duke of Urbino, and tackled how
thinker and strategist, but throughout his life it would seem young rulers should conduct themselves and wield power.
that the Medici family often held the upper hand over him. He later looked for Medici patronage in writing the Florentine
In fact his numerous interactions with them, directly or Histories, appealing to then Cardinal Giulio de’ Medici (later
indirectly, could be said to have shaped much of his political Pope Clement VII).
writing and theory.
In his works he began to explore the strengths and
Machiavelli actually grew up being friends with Giuliano di weaknesses of building a government around the virtues and
Lorenzo, son of Lorenzo il Magnifico, but when the French administrative skills of a single person as well as the inherent
invasion of Florence saw the Medici family exiled, he took up weaknesses that had existed in Florentine politics that had
a job with the new republican government under the Great allowed then Medicis to rise to power. By the time he wrote
Council. This seems to have been a political project, with a truly Histories, it appears he had very much turned against
independent Florence, that Machiavelli truly believed in. When the Medici control of Florence, although he still
the Medicis led a force to take back Florence on behalf of Pope praised individual leaders. This experience
Julius II, it was Machiavelli who was charged with organising the changed his view of the role of ‘the prince’ as
defence of the city. a single ruler who could change the system
to someone who was ultimately created
His attempts failed, however, and in 1512 the Medicis and influenced by the system instead.
were back in control of Florence and while he petitioned
for a position in their new regime (ever the pragmatist), he The experience of Machiavelli with
was ultimately imprisoned, tortured and then exiled for his the Medicis reflects the relationship
suspected participation in the Boscoli conspiracy against the between Florence and the family;
family. He appealed to his old friend Giuliano for release, but friend and foe at different
to no avail. times, impossible to ignore
or avoid, dangerous to
Still, his most famous works in the years that followed were associate with.
deeply tied to the Medici. The Prince was first dedicated to

Image source: wiki/Nickniko (CC BY-SA 4.0)

35

36

BBOILRLTHYWOFOODanUbdnigcsogeWecvrrsietteterntifbsnyilCgoamlluftmhtiMhnecKedeslvuwiteosotrrrieylds’s © Alamy

A t the dawn of the 21st century, India
was producing nearly 1,000 films
a year, in a variety of languages
and for a global fanbase. The term
Bollywood no doubt conjures images
of colourful musical numbers, lavish escapist action
sequences and glamorous stars. Yet Bollywood has
a long tradition and history within India, much of
which has been defined by the country’s own changes
and conflicts. This gives Bollywood productions a
distinct and unique flavour, far removed from the more
typical American and British releases that usually
fill the screens at multiplexes. The term Bollywood
refers primarily to the Mumbai film industry, which
caters to a Hindi speaking audience yet, to Western
audiences, the term has been used to refer to Indian
cinema as a whole. Stretching back to the dawn of the
20th century and the era of silent film, Bollywood’s
story is as striking and engaging as those of the films
it produces. While it would be impossible to cover the
entire history of the industry, the tropes and trends, the
highs and lows, form a distinct narrative that reflects
the changing tastes of Indian audiences.
The first full-length Bollywood production was
created in 1913 when India was still under British rule.
The film, Raja Harishchandra, was written, directed,
produced and even distributed by Dadasaheb Phalke,
now considered to be the father of Indian cinema.
Based on Hindu mythology, the film was originally
given a trial showing for leading citizens before being
put on a much wider release. The success of Raja
Harishchandra opened the doors for a new wave of
Indian silent films and Phalke himself would follow
it with Mohini Bhasmasur, perhaps just as important
for featuring a female lead when acting was deemed a
taboo profession for women. Phalke was also the first
Indian filmmaker to export his films and took three
productions to London for a trade show, where they
won foreign acclaim. The director would create other

37

RIGHT masterpieces such as 1917’s Lanka Dahan,
A sequence from which was such a huge hit that cinemas
Raja Harishchandra were forced to begin screening the film
(1913), the first full- at 7am in order to meet demand. Several
length Bollywood other companies were formed and they
production capitalised on Phalke’s success, producing
a slew of similarly themed mythological
epics. So why was early Indian cinema Rai’s attempts to convince British film into the early talkie films as “in a country
obsessed with films on the topic of Hindu studios fell through. He would follow this accustomed to folk and classical music
myths and legends? As the Encyclopedia with a number of other co-productions (with huge diversities across state and
of Hindi Cinema explains: “Political- with UFA, the studio behind the language), the audiences now got to hear
nationalist topics would have been taboo aforementioned German classics. their simpler, hum-worthy variants in
under British rule. Even contemporary the movies. Hence film songs became
subjects might have been resented in One of the most renowned traits of instantly popular”. He then goes on to
those orthodox times, that too in a new Bollywood productions is the sensational state that, in a world where a film with
medium which was considered cheap, song and dance numbers featured in sound was not an immediate guaranteed
vulgar and socially unacceptable.” the majority of films, even movies such as success, “the savvier filmmakers decided
1962’s Bees Saal Baad – ostensibly a moody that songs were the way to box office
Despite their popularity, many of these gothic mystery thriller. This trait began acceptability”. The decision to incorporate
silent films were still relatively low-budget in the early 1930s as Indian filmmakers songs proved hugely successful, and some
and amateurish productions, particularly began to experiment with the new of the first recording studios in India grew
when compared to German films from the technology of sound. As Rajay Vijayakar out of the desire of audience members to
same era such as The Cabinet of Dr Caligari explains in his paper The Role of a Song repeatedly listen to actors sing songs from
and Metropolis. These early Bollywood in a Hindi Film, songs were incorporated
films were not without merit and are
historically important, but were arguably
lacking the visual refinement and elegance
that defined these European works. The
man who would be credited with bringing
technical sophistication to Indian cinema
was Himanshu Rai. Born into a wealthy
Bengal family in 1892 in Cuttack, Rai
sought the advice of European filmmakers
in an attempt to improve the quality of
Indian productions. Subsequently, Rai
would be the man behind one India’s
first big budget productions: Prem Sanyas
(The Light of Asia) in 1925. Featuring an
entirely Indian cast, including Rai himself
in the role of Gautama Buddha, the film

was co-produced with Emelka
Studios in Munich,
Germany, after

Dilip Kumar Amitabh Bachchan

Considered to be one of the Perhaps India’s greatest action star,
greatest Indian actors of all Amitabh Bachchan has starred in a
time, Dilip Kumar has starred wealth of cult hits and popular films.
in a variety of films throughout Personifying the ‘angry young man’
his long and varied career. He hero of the mid to late 1970s, Bachchan
became known as ‘the King would take a break from acting to enter
of Tragedy’, before opting to
play more light-hearted heroic politics, being elected to the
types in films such as 1955’s Azaad. Indian parliament in 1984.
After taking a hiatus from acting in He returned to the film
the late 1970s he returned during industry in 1990, winning
the 1980s and continued a National Film award
for Agneepath, in
working until 1998 which he played
when he retired. a crime boss.
Must-see films: Must-see films:
Mughal-e-Azam (1960), Deewar (1975),
Madhumati (1958) Don (1978)

© Getty Images

Birth of Bollywood

o“Of Bneololyfwthoeodmposrot dreunctoiwonnsedisttrhaeitisr
se

2x © Alamy with sensational material on child marriages
Inde and child brides. No wonder it was
their favourite films. While many elements ABOVE An English into celebrated by Imperialists and condemned
of Bollywood film production have poster for 1957’s and by Nationalists”. Filmmaker Mehboob
changed, the inclusion of song and dance Mother India of pu Khan saw a chance to remake his earlier
remains. Over the years this tradition Hind work, Aurat, as a distinctly patriotic and
of film songs, which began with actors resu nationalist production that purposefully
singing them ‘live’ and often with very few migr used the book’s title in a satirical manner.
dancers or supporting acts, has grown in resu The film also set out to promote the
sophistication. Now the songs are often 1947 empowerment of women within India in
released ahead of films and are an integral cine a way that directly contradicted the claims
part of the viewing experience. popu in Mayo’s book. The film Mother India
year Jugnu, a musical romance about tells the story of Radha, a poor mother
In the 1940s further changes were to class who faces a variety of obstacles as she
come, but not just to the film industry. of de struggles to raise her sons. Despite the
India itself was about to undergo The various trials and tribulations, Radha never
arguably the single most important event acto loses her integrity. Gayatri Chatterjee,
in its own recent history. In 1947 the and the author of a BFI Film Classics book
British, after 300 years of colonial rule, with analysing Mother India, stated of the film’s
relea Neel Kamal. Kapoor would later enduring popularity: “From 1958, for
beco more than 40 years, every day between
work nine in the morning and midnight, one
as Andaz defining them as one of the could stand still, close one’s eyes and
country’s biggest acting duos. say to oneself, ‘Mother India is playing
somewhere in India.’”
One of the most important films
following partition was Mother India It was in the 1960s and 1970s that
from 1957, which since its debut has many of the traits that now define modern
become a national classic, re-released Bollywood cinema truly began. While
numerous times. Taking its name from there were more artistically minded
the controversial 1927 polemical book productions, it was genre cinema and
by US historian Katherine Mayo, which all-around entertainment that became
argued against Indian self-rule, the film the order of the day. One of the directors
was a fierce rebuke of the arguments who made a name during this period
stated within Mayo’s work. The book has
been described by the actress and author
Sushmita Mukherjee as having “contained

Madhubala KMuemenaari

Famed for her beauty, Madhubala Known as ‘the Tragedy
was perhaps the most popular
actress of the 1950s and early Queen’, Kumari was

1960s. Starring in a variety of popular for her roles in
films, from romantic tragedies
to thrillers and comedies, she a string of tearjerkers

quickly became a cinematic and lived a life almost
icon. A frequent co-star of Dilip
Kumar, the two were involved as distressing as those of

romantically for a short time. the characters she played.
Afflicted with a congenital
heart condition, Madhubala e

passed away shortly after fore
her 36th birthday.
Must-see films: Chalti Ka Pakeezah ost
Naam Gaadi (1958),
Mahal (1949) was

nd

great success.

Must-see films:

Pakeezah (1972),

Sahib Bibi Aur Ghulam 62)

3x © Alamy

S‘noChonouotefrel“arBwoPyyfoeo,lrtWrwlhhtyehehawsypiactoseloholrf-tdtnhhtihsmeac’eismneissbeegome1rse9cetaao7a”r5mtl’ssye

was Vijay Anand, whose neo-noir and RIGHT A song
Hitchcockian thrillers such as Teesri e
Manzil (The Third Floor) from 1966 and
Jewel Thief from 1967 became huge hits from the 1978
at the box office. Bees Saal Baad from action film Don
1962 was a gothic thriller, based on the
Sir Arthur Conan Doyle novel The Hound INSET RIGHT
of the Baskervilles, which became the s
highest-grossing film of that year. It was
so successful that the director, Biren Nag, Sholay, one of the
would follow it with Kohraa, a Bollywood he
take on Rebecca using mostly the same
cast and crew. There were also huge ‘Curry Westerns’
Bollywood blockbusters such as 1960’s
Mughal-e-Azam, a historical drama that has BELOW oor
been described by filmmaker Anil Zankar most popular me
as “one of the great Indian film epics, a d’s
phenomenon”. Waqt (1965) was a romantic
drama film that starred some of Indian s
cinema’s biggest names, including Balraj
Sahni, Raaj Kumar and Sharmila Tagore by a local landlord to rid him of a group
among numerous others. The film told the of dacoits (a term for a group of armed
story of two siblings who were separated bandits). The breakout character of the film
at birth and then found themselves was Gabbar Singh, the villain of the piece,
throughout the course of the film, a trope portrayed memorably by Amjad Khan and
that would become a hallmark of many made to resemble Gian Maria Volontè, who
Bollywood productions. The film was the played the villain in the aforementioned
first example of the distinctive cinematic Leone films. So popular were Singh’s
style of its director, Yash Chopra, which unique mannerisms and delivery that he
was defined by picturesque locations and a became a Bollywood icon – even having
large dose of glitz and glamour. a 2012 film named after him. Such was
the success of Sholay that author William
Perhaps one of the most surprising van der Heide, when discussing the ‘Curry
genres that originated during this period is Western’, stated that since its release
the unfortunately named ‘Curry Western’. “mercenaries and vigilantes have remained
First appearing in the late 1960s, these the dominant protagonists of Indian
films were a response to the Italian low- popular cinema”.
budget (and equally ill-named) ‘Spaghetti
Westerns’. These films, such as Sergio It was also during the 1970s that a new
Leone’s ‘Dollars’ trilogy starring Clint and still-popular Bollywood genre was
Eastwood (comprising 1964’s A Fistful of created, that of the Masala film. Describing
Dollars, 1965’s For a Few Dollars More and the origins of the style, author Martha
1966’s The Good, the Bad and the Ugly), P Nochimson states: “Masala is a pre-
and 1966’s Django, became incredibly mixed blend of spices that Indians use
popular upon release in India. Seeking to to flavour foods. Critics faced with the
capitalise on the success of these imported amazing patchwork of action, comedy, and
productions with homegrown affairs, tragedy in the action films of the 1970s
Indian producers scrambled to create their compared them to that well-known Indian
own unique twist on the most typical of combination of spices.” Although it has
American film genres. Perhaps the most been suggested that the form existed in
noteworthy of these early ‘Curry Westerns’ Tamil cinema since the early 1950s, most
is 1975’s Sholay, which has become one of critics attribute it to producer, director
the all-time greats of Bollywood cinema. and writer Nasir Hussain. His 1973 work,
In the film, a pair of prisoners are hired Yaadon Ki Baaraat, is still considered to
be the definitive Masala film. Utilising

Birth of Bollywood

Mother India, from From Bollywood
1957, became a to Tollywood
Bollywood classic
Some of the many brands of
the popular long-lost brothers trope made intermission halfway through the film, Indian cinema explained 5x © Alamy
fashionable by Waqt, Yaadon Ki Baaraat allowing audience members to take a
follows three brothers who seek both break and stretch their legs, has remained Bollywood (Hindi)
each other and the man who killed their a common trait. While the length of
parents. Another director, Manmohan these films might seem eye-watering for Taking its name from the city in which its movies are
Desai would take the template established those of us with slightly shorter attention produced, Bombay (now Mumbai), Bollywood produces
in Yaadon Ki Baaraat and make a number spans, there are numerous reasons for films in the Hindi language and is the largest segment
of successful blockbusters such as Amar, Bollywood’s longer runtimes. Mostly it’s of the Indian film industry. It accounts for nearly half of
Akbar and Anthony (1977), Parvarish (1977), because a large amount of the movie is film production today.
Naseeb (1981) and Coolie (1983). Amar, taken up by the song and dance numbers.
Akbar and Anthony in particular was one For example, a two hour 30 minute Pollywood (Punjabi)
of the highest-grossing films of the decade Bollywood production might have 45
and starred many of Bollywood’s biggest minutes of song numbers, resulting in The name used for films produced in Punjabi,
names. When asked about his approach to an overall runtime of one hour and 45 Pollywood stretches across India and Pakistan and can
making films, Desai spoke openly of his minutes – no longer than the average trace its roots back as far as 1935. It’s grown into an
desire to give audiences escapism. “I want Western production. even bigger portion of the industry in recent years, with
people to forget their misery,” he said. increasing budgets and star power.
“I want to take them into a dream world Following what is considered a relative
where there is no poverty, where there are high point in the 1970s, the Bollywood Chhollywood (Chhattisgarhi)
no beggars, where fate is kind and god is productions of the 1980s and 1990s
busy looking after his flock.” were more divisive, with a 2020 Indian Based out of the Chhattisgarh region in Central India,
Express article stating that: “Most critics the film industry began here around 1965 but didn’t
It now seems appropriate to mention generally brush off the 1980s as a ‘Low take off for some time. The local industry has grown
one of the other defining traits of Point’ in Hindi cinema.” Yet these decades in strength since the Chhattisgarh state was created
Bollywood cinema. To those perhaps still have their interesting productions, in November 2000.
more familiar with Western movies, where including a big-budget 1980 Soviet
the average film rarely goes over the co-production based on Alibaba and the Tollywood (Bengali or Telugu)
120-minute mark, the runtimes of some Forty Thieves that proved to be a success
Bollywood productions might seem a in both countries. Meanwhile, Mahakaal The term Tollywood can refer to films in Bengali or
little on the long side. For example, crime from 1994 has become an established cult Telugu. The Telugu industry can trace its roots back
drama Deewar from 1975 has a runtime of horror film, even receiving a DVD release to the silent-film era, while Bengali cinema got started
two hours and 58 minutes; Amar, Akbar in the United States due to its similarities not long after and enjoyed its golden era in the 1950s
and Anthony runs at three hours and five to Wes Craven’s 1986 film A Nightmare on and 1960s.
minutes; and 1965’s classic Waqt is three Elm Street. Other film genres, such as the
hours and 26 minutes. For many years an aforementioned Masala movies, continued Jollywood (Assamese)
to grow in popularity and became staples
of the Bollywood industry, created some of Credited with producing one of the most
its most iconic moments. groundbreaking films of Indian cinema, Assamese-
language films can claim the 1935 movie Joymoti as
Today the Bollywood industry continues among its biggest releases. Like much of the
to entertain, with a huge number of films industry, it found a second wind in the 1950s.
produced across a variety of genres. For
any individual looking to dive into the Sandalwood (Kannada)
magical world of Bollywood cinema,
there are a huge number of movies to With its first silent film released in
choose from. So what are you waiting 1931, movies in the Kannada
for? Plan your snack breaks around the language go back a long
intermissions, get your dance moves ready way into Indian cinema
for all the catchy songs, and settle in for a history, although its
wild ride. first colour film was
not released until 1964.
Still, it’s credited with some
of India’s most celebrated
cinematic works.

RIGHT Statue of director
Yash Chopra, whose
films were renowned for
their glamorous style

41

THE LIFE AND OF
LEGACY

COCCINELLE

From humble beginnings in 1930s Paris,
Coccinelle’s star quality led her to become

a key figure of transgender history

EXPERT BIO Image by Holly Hunter The effects of the Great Written by Elliot Evans
Depression struck Paris
ELLIOT EVANS in 1931, bringing an end within the city’s thriving scene of
to the economic and transformistes. These transformistes
Elliot Evans is the author artistic boom that had were generally understood by the public
of Queer Permeability: The characterised Paris during the interwar as female impersonators, with some
Body In French Thought from years, often known as ‘les années folles’. performers identifying as transvestites or
Wittig To Preciado (2020). That same year, a rare ray of light in an seeing themselves something along the
They teach on the Master’s otherwise gloomy period shone through: lines of what we might now recognise
the child who would grow up to become as drag queens. Many, though, such as
programme in Sexuality Jacqueline Charlotte Dufresnoy, better Dufresnoy, clearly felt an affinity with
and Gender Studies at the known by her stage name Coccinelle femaleness that extended far beyond
University of Birmingham (Ladybird), was born. their stage personae, and a community
(UK) and are co-organiser of of trans women was to form around and
the interdisciplinary seminar Raised in the Temple district of Paris, through this lively cabaret scene in Paris’s
nearby to what is now the thriving gay Pigalle district.
series Critical Sexology. nightlife of the Marais, at the age of
four Dufresnoy reported her sense that Coccinelle’s stage show drew on the
42 something was wrong with the gender she iconic film stars of her day, particularly
had been assigned at birth. She was not the style and presence of her idols
born to an affluent family, and her first job Brigitte Bardot and Marilyn Monroe.
was working in a hairdressing salon, which Her fascination with these figures far
her father feared would turn the person he exceeded her performances on stage
knew as his son into a homosexual. Her – indeed, Coccinelle’s life off-stage was
next job, however, would see her working also marked by theatricality, charisma
in the vibrant cabarets of Paris. and a cultivated glamour that she clearly
enjoyed. Coccinelle worked firstly at the
It was as a teenager that Dufresnoy cabaret venue Chez Madame Arthur, which
adopted the name Coccinelle after opened its doors on the Rue des Martyrs
attending a fancy-dress party in a red dress in the late 1940s, and then at the famous
adorned with black spots. This would Le Carrousel de Paris, which had opened
become her stage name as a performer in 1947. At that time, Le Carrousel featured
acts by other trans women, including the

43 © Getty Images

© Alamy

British actress and model April Ashley and ABOVE Coccinelle such centres of medical expertise. Dr surgeries, since legislation existed at the
the Algerian-born performer Bambi (Marie- with the sports Magnus Hirschfeld’s pioneering Institut time banning ‘castration’. As a result, the
Pierre Pruvot). Some of the friendships journalist François für Sexualwissenschaft (Institute of first sex reassignment procedure in France
initiated within this scene would last a Bonnet, whom she Sexology, or Sexual Science) in Berlin, (at least officially) would not take place
lifetime, such as that between Coccinelle married in 1962 which provided treatment for Lili Elbe until the late 1970s.
and Bambi – with Coccinelle reportedly (whose story was made famous by the
telephoning her ‘Bambichette’ every 2015 film The Danish Girl) and Dora Dr Burou, however, pioneered surgical
Sunday during the last years of her life. Richter, was all but destroyed after Hitler techniques for trans women by working
came to power in 1933, its archives and in Morocco, benefitting from a relative
This Parisian cabaret scene was library publicly burned. The Institute freedom from restrictive legislation
a renowned haven for transfeminine only re-emerged – this time in Frankfurt and a tightly controlled, nationalised
individuals; a place where their gender – in 1973. In the US, the Stanford Gender healthcare system (such as that which
expression was not simply tolerated but Dysphoria Program in Palo Alto, California, existed in France). Morocco presented
admired and valued, even rewarded associated with the pioneering doctor of neither of these problems, largely because
financially. The community surrounding transgender healthcare, Harry Benjamin, it had been a French Protectorate until
it also provided a network of care and would not be founded until 1968. Some 1956 when it won independence from
communication, as well as a means of medical assistance for trans individuals its European colonisers. Other patients
sharing tips regarding possible support and was available in Europe: in Sweden, and who travelled to North Africa to visit
medical interventions. It was from a fellow in Denmark’s Copenhagen University Dr Burou included the British historian
trans women who Coccinelle met while Hospital, which provided surgical and travel writer Jan Morris, author
on tour in Nice that she learned of the interventions for the American trans of Conundrum (1974), and the British
possibilities available to her. woman Christine Jorgensen in the early model and actress (and Coccinelle’s
1950s, after she had obtained special legal fellow performer on the stages of Paris)
Following up on this lead, Coccinelle permission from the Danish Minister April Ashley. Dufresnoy made her trip
eventually became a patient of Dr Georges of Justice. In France, however, many to Casablanca for surgery shortly after
Burou, the French gynaecologist, whom surgeons feared prosecution if they dared Moroccan independence in 1958, and on
many trans women visited at his Clinique to carry out innovative gender affirming her return to France took the legal name
du Parc in Casablanca, Morocco. Around Jacqueline Charlotte Dufresnoy.
this time, there were only very few

44

The Life and Legacy of Coccinelle

TIMELINE Key legal and social “Coccinelle’s unabashed visibility
OF TRANS developments in the as a trans woman is striking”
HISTORY fight for trans rights
in the 20th century It was not long afterwards, in 1962, that the legal precedent set by Coccinelle led
1910 Coccinelle married her first husband, the (at least in the short term) to a negative
1930 French journalist François Bonnet. Quite response from the French state, which had
TERMS incredibly, the marriage was supported by not up to this point had to deal publicly
‘TRANSVESTITE’ LILI ELBE the Roman Catholic Church in France, in a with transsexuality. It began to tighten
AND ‘TRANSEXUAL’ UNDERGOES HER ceremony at the Saint Jean de Montmartre the legal loopholes and ‘blindspots’ of
COINED GERMANY FIRST GENDER church in Paris, on the condition that the French juridical system with regards
REASSIGNMENT Coccinelle was re-baptised a second time, to trans rights. Hormones, for instance,
Sexologist Dr Magnus Hirschfield OPERATION GERMANY now as a woman, as ‘Jacqueline’. had previously been unregulated and
coins the terms ‘transvestite’ readily available to buy in pharmacies, but
and ‘transexual’. Hirschfield does Lili Elbe undergoes the world’s Coccinelle’s marriage to Bonnet this would soon no longer be the case.
much pioneering work (including first documented case of effectively established a legal precedent in Some even argue – quite unfairly – that
the first ‘documented’ gender gender reassignment surgery, in France, whereby trans people had the right Coccinelle’s ‘star quality’ and the way she
reassignment operation) before 1930. Unfortunately, following to marry: hers was the first union between embraced her visibility contributed to this
his organisation is shut down by complications during the fifth a transgender individual and another to be ‘crackdown’ by the French state on many
the Nazis in 1933. operation, just a year later in officially recognised by the French state. trans practices that had previously gone
1931 she passes away following The marriage itself was very much a public under the radar.
1966 a cardiac arrest. affair, and it became a preoccupation of
the media both within and outside of Similarly, after the public furore
COMPTON’S 1969 France. Coccinelle’s unabashed visibility surrounding her first marriage to Bonnet,
CAFETERIA RIOT USA as a trans woman and her refusal to live trans individuals who had undergone
FIRST in either secrecy or shame is striking gender reassignment surgeries like
A group of trans women stand up INTERNATIONAL even by today’s standards. She refused Coccinelle’s were no longer able to
against police harassment at an SYMPOSIUM ON to accept any limitations arising from obtain new identity papers from French
all-night cafeteria in San Francisco GENDER IDENTITY UK her transition, and was without a doubt authorities as she herself had done. Even
– sparking a riot. This predates a pioneer in this regard. Unfortunately, much later, in 1982, the senator Henri
Stonewall and two years later the The First International Caillavet proposed laws allowing trans
National Transexual Counseling Symposium on Gender Identity RIGHT Coccinelle at individuals in France access to gender
Unit is created as a result. is held, with a range of papers the Olympia in 1963, reassignment surgery and a change
discussing developing treatments rehearsing for a show in official identity papers that legally
1970 and social understanding. The recognised their sex, but these proposals
National Archives now holds © Getty Images were dismissed, despite the relatively
FIRST CORBETT a wealth of correspondence new, socialist government led by François
VS CORBETT UK relating to this event. Mitterand being ostensibly gay friendly
and progressive. This did not change
Arthur Corbett seeks to end his 1974 until 1992, and only after the European
marriage to trans woman and
model April Ashley. He argues JAN MORRIS Court of Human Rights condemned the
that the marriage was never PUBLISHES French State’s sustained refusal over
valid due to April being trans. CONUNDRUM UK nearly two decades to award new
The judge rules in his favour, identity documents to a trans
meaning trans people are unable Welsh historian and journalist woman who had undergone
to marry until 2013. Jan Morris’s Conundrum is an sex reassignment surgery. And
account of her transitioning, one while Coccinelle struggled to gain
1976 of the first autobiographies to do access to surgical interventions
so. The book delves deep into like those carried out by Dr
RENNE RICHARDS Morris’s journey of self discovery. Burou, having to travel outside of
France to do so, contemporary trans
USA 1990 rights in France have focused on
Tennis pro Renne Richards is the right not to have to undergo
banned from competitions GENDER TRUST UK surgery as a legal requirement to
after being outed as a trans change sex. This was, in effect,
woman. She goes on to win Largest UK charity designed the case until 2016, with trans
the subsequent legal battle, to support people with issues people in France being required
which allows her to continue of gender identity founded. to undergo medical intervention
to play in the US. As of May 2021, the Gender amounting to sterilisation, and
Trust is still operational and then having to present this
1991 helping individuals. evidence in front of a court, in
order to change the sex recorded
FTM 1993
INTERNATIONAL INC on their legal documentation.
FIRST US LAW Despite the lasting legacy and the
USA AGAINST
James Green takes over a Female DISCRIMINATION publicity surrounding Coccinelle’s first
to Male Trans newsletter, creating TOWARD TRANS
FTM International Inc. The group INDIVIDUALS USA
provides information on areas
such as trans legal rights as well Minnesota passes the first US
as networking. law that prohibits discrimination
towards trans individuals as well
as establishing legal protections
for them.

45

TRAILBLAZING TRANS WOMEN marriage, the union itself was dissolved
within only a couple of years. She soon
Four inspirational individuals whose stories and lives changed the world married again, this time with a fellow
performer, the dancer Mario Florentin
ROBERTA COWELL CHRISTINE JORGENSEN Heÿns, from Paraguay. Her second
husband clearly adored Coccinelle – sadly,
The first male to female British person to undergo It was in 1950 that US Citizen George William though, he passed away in 1977.
gender reassignment surgery, at the age of 18, Jorgensen Jr travelled to Denmark to begin her
Roberta Cowell forged a career as a racing driver, transition from male to female. Two years later, A third marriage, this time to the trans
winning the Land’s End Trial. During World War when the story became public, Jorgensen had to rights activist Thierry Wilson, followed
II Cowell served as a fighter pilot and was shot deal with a mainly transphobic press who treated in 1996 when Coccinelle was in her mid-
down over Germany. Following the war she met her story with disdain. Initially Jorgensen disliked sixties and Wilson in his mid-twenties.
Michael Dillon, the first female to male to undergo the publicity, but soon turned it to her advantage, Wilson and Coccinelle met in the late
gender reassignment surgery. Dillon performed developing a nightclub act and telling her story for 1980s, and were together for 20 years until
an operation on Cowell and a year later, in 1954, a fee. Despite the attitudes at the time, Jorgensen’s her death in 2006. Since Wilson is also
her story broke. Cowell continued her career as story began American discussions around trans a performer – the creator of the persona
a racing driver into the 1970s. identities and has an important legacy. Zize Dupanier – it is no great surprise that
this third and final marriage also became
RENEE RICHARDS CHEVALIER D’EON 3x © Getty Images, 1x Image source: wiki/National Portrait Gallery a spectacle. Positively embracing the
inevitable media attention, the ceremony
Dr Renee Richards was the focus of an intense legal The Chevalier D’Eon lived openly as both a man was performed live on the principal French
battle when she refused to take a chromosome test and a woman at varying points in their life. After television channel, TF1, on the programme
for entrance into the United States Open Tennis a shaky relationship with Louis XV, his successor Tout Est Possible (Anything Is Possible),
Championships. Billie Jean King served as a witness Louis XVI stated they could return to France if funded in return for coverage by the
and Richards was granted the right to compete. they readopted women’s clothing. How much celebrity news magazine France Dimanche.
Despite the ongoing controversy and unsavoury the Chevalier’s decision was forced by Louis XVI Wilson recounted in an interview after
comments from fellow players, Richards would is unknown, but they spent the final 33 years of her death that Coccinelle knew the media
become the 20th top tennis player in the world their life publicly as a woman. While there has would sense a scandal due to their age
and coach Martina Navratilova, who became world been much debate whether to label the Chevalier difference and actively welcomed this idea:
number-one. Richards retired from the spotlight a proto-trans figure, their life demonstrates an “Or Coccinelle adorait les scandales” (Oh
and now lives in up-state New York. early case of acceptance of fluid gender identity. but how she loved a scandal).

46 Together, Wilson and Coccinelle
founded and ran the venue Cabaret
Coccinelle in Marseille, where they lived
together. Coccinelle was as much an
activist as she was a performer, and in
many ways her unbowed visibility as a
trans woman was the greatest activism she
could have undertaken. The way she lived
her life confronted the French state with
transsexuality, which opened a necessary
and evolving conversation regarding
the rights of trans people. In addition
to the defiant, outrageous-yet-dignified
way in which Coccinelle lived her own
life, she also founded the organisation
Association Devenir Femme (To Become
a Woman) in 1994, as well as the Centre
for Aid, Research, and Information for
Transsexuality and Gender Identity, both
of which existed to provide support to
those considering or undergoing a process
of transition.

To honour her memory, a street has
been named after Coccinelle in the
Pigalle area of Paris, close to the Rue
des Martyrs where the club where she
began her career as a performer, Chez
Madame Arthur, is still open and running
as a drag venue. The street sign reads:
“Promenade Coccinelle (Jacqueline,
Charlotte Dufresnoy) 1931-2006 Artiste de
Cabaret”. This is the first street named in
remembrance of a trans person in Europe,
and demonstrates Coccinelle’s continued

The Life and Legacy of Coccinelle

“Her success as a performer, especially and as an individual extended far
as a trans performer, is remarkable” beyond France. As the historian Joanne
Meyerowitz notes: “Coccinelle… inspired
importance as a key figurehead of trans Berlin, and then in venues across South dozens of magazine and newspaper stories
rights in France and beyond. America. She also had roles in a number of that associated her with the world of
films over the years, including the Italian celebrity… For American MTFs, the French
Coccinelle’s success as a performer, Europa Di Note (1959) and the Spanish example served as a draw.” For many
and especially as a trans performer, is Días De Viejo Color (1968). She released abroad, Coccinelle was the epitome of
remarkable. After the publicity of her recordings of her music, including a ‘Best Parisian glamour and what was perceived
first marriage, she went on to produce her Of’ in 2005, only a year before she died. As to be the relatively free and accepting
own show, Chercher la Femme (Searching a performer, Coccinelle toured the world – approach to gender and sexuality in the
for the Woman), which ran at the Paris appearing on stages from Iran to Australia, French capital.
Olympia from 1963. In her typically as well as in French-occupied Algeria,
up-front style, Coccinelle referenced her which is how Bambi recalls she first even Coccinelle’s refusal to live a life in
trans identity in her lyrics, defiant and heard of transsexuality. Internationally the shadows, and her willingness to
unabashed as ever. She would later star in renowned, interest in her as a performer confront the state’s lack of imagination
residencies at the renowned Chez Nous in in recognising trans people’s rights,
ensured that her legacy lives on today.
It is through her inimitable life and the LEFT Coccinelle
style with which she lived that many in at the Saint-Hilaire
France, and internationally, came to learn Club in 1963
about transsexuality, of which she became
the inimitable – and immensely glamorous BELOW Coccinelle
– public face. in her wedding dress

2x © Getty Images

COCCINELLE’S
FURTHER LISTENING

Five of the French singer’s greatest hits

Chercher La Femme Avec Mon Petit
(Look For The Woman) Faux-Cul
(With My Little False
Je Cherche Un Bottom)
Millionnaire
(I’m Looking For New York New York
A  Millionaire) (cover of the Frank
Sinatra classic)
La Fin d’un Roman
d’amour
[At The End Of A Love
Story]

47

48 © Alamy

HERO OF THE

AITIAN SLAVE
REBELLION
Dr Sudhir Hazareesingh, author of Black Spartacus:
The Epic Life of Toussaint Louverture, on the
remarkable revolutionary leader

Written by Jessica Leggett

R evolutionary hero and military genius Toussaint EXPERT BIO © Catherine Helie was dependent on slavery. In 1791, two years after the French
Louverture led the successful slave revolt in the Revolution, the enslaved people revolted and overthrew the
French colony of Saint-Domingue, resulting in the DR SUDHIR system of plantation slavery, and Louverture was the man who
abolition of slavery and ultimately the founding of HAZAREESINGH led this slave revolution.
Haiti, the world’s first independent Black republic. A
former slave, Louverture became a symbol of Black liberation Dr Sudhir It’s a revolution that unfolded in a number of different
who continues to inspire the global fight against racial injustice Hazareesingh has been stages. First of all, it forced the French – who were still the
today, over two centuries after his death. In his book Black colonial masters – to abolish slavery, which they do in 1794.
Spartacus: The Epic Life Of Toussaint Louverture, Dr Sudhir shortlisted for the Then Louverture becomes the effective political leader of
Hazareesingh charts Louverture’s extraordinary story, his Wolfson History Prize the colony while it’s still under French rule. He develops an
rise as a leader of the Haitian Revolution and the enduring original political system, where people’s equality and basic
significance of his complex legacy. 2021 for his book democratic rights are recognised, so he becomes one of the
Black Spartacus: The most remarkable political figures of his time.
Firstly, could you sum up for our readers who Toussaint Epic Life Of Toussaint
Louverture was? Unfortunately for him, in the late 18th to early 19th century,
He was born into enslavement – his parents were captured as Louverture Napoleon takes over as French ruler and he doesn’t like people
slaves and forcibly transported to the then-French colony of who are independent, strong-minded, and particularly people
Saint-Domingue in the Caribbean sometime in the early 18th who are Black, of course, like Louverture. So he sends an army
century. He grew up on a plantation, and Saint-Domingue was to get rid of Louverture and the regime that he has created, and
the wealthiest French colony in the 18th century, but it had he manages to capture Louverture in 1802. But his lieutenants
a huge number of slaves – half a million. All of this wealth continue the fight against the French, and in 1804 they defeat
the French, and that’s how the state of Haiti is born – the
world’s first Black independent post-colonial state. Louverture is

49

a remarkable figure, because he can be regarded as the founding Louverture himself was given, and quite readily accepted. For that
father of modern Black post-colonial independence. reason, I thought it would be very appropriate to use it as the title.

Why did you choose the title ‘Black Spartacus’ for How did you conduct the research for your book?
your book? That was a big task, because all the historical material about the
Well, for two reasons. One is that Louverture until recently was Haitian Revolution and Louverture is outside Haiti. There’s very
relatively unknown in Britain; he is a bit better known in France little material that was left there – the bulk of the archives, letters,
and America. I wanted a title that would immediately explain manuscripts, publications of various kinds were all in France in
to the potential reader who this person was, and I think ‘Black the National Archives in Paris and the colonial archives in Aix-
Spartacus’ does that because you immediately appreciate that this en-Provence. I used those extensively, and read everything that
is going to be about a slave revolt, and the leadership of that slave I could on the period in the French colonial archives.
revolt is by a Black person. I also chose this title because it was
bestowed upon him by his many admirers, and in particular by One of the characteristics of the Haitian Revolution is that
one of the local French republican governors, Etienne Laveaux, it also involves all the great powers of the time: the British are
who was a great admirer of Louverture. So this was a name that involved – they tried to capture Saint-Domingue in the late 1790s
– the Spaniards are also there, as are the Americans. So I also
THE HAITIAN REVOLUTION wanted to be sure that I was looking for material there too, and
I found some interesting stuff in British, Spanish and American
The story behind the most successful slave rebellion in history archives. It was quite a comprehensive bit of archival research that
was needed, but it yielded a lot of original material.
3x © Alamy Partly inspired by the French the leader of the rebels. After slavery
Revolution and after suffering years of was abolished, he subsequently joined Was there anything you found particularly challenging when
oppression and brutality, the enslaved sides with the French and helped trying to piece together Louverture’s life?
people on the plantations of Saint- them prevent Spain and Britain from Various things, one is that the amount of source material is very
Domingue – the French colony on the overtaking the colony. He eventually unevenly distributed. We have a lot of documents about his life
island of Hispaniola – launched an named himself as Governor-General from the mid-1790s up to 1802, the time of his death; but for the
organised revolt in August 1791. They for life of Saint-Domingue in 1801 after first 50 years of his life, during most of which he was an enslaved
burned numerous plantations, killed consolidating his control, but he was
their masters, and by March 1792, the arrested by Napoleon’s forces the “LOUVERTURE IS A REMARKABLE FIGURE
French government had granted civil following year. BECAUSE HE CAN BE REGARDED AS THE
and political rights to free Black people FOUNDING FATHER OF MODERN BLACK
in an attempt to regain control. After Louverture’s arrest, Napoleon
declared that he wanted to reintroduce POST-COLONIAL INDEPENDENCE”
However, the rebels formed alliances slavery in Haiti. This triggered a new
with the British and Spanish, who had revolt in 1802 led by Jean-Jacques person, we have very little because slaves were not expected
both declared war against the French Dessalines, one of Louverture’s to know how to read and write, although we think Louverture
in 1793. Hoping to take advantage of lieutenants, which saw the French probably did become literate (he was probably taught by the
France’s problems in the colony, the forces ultimately defeated at the Battle Jesuits). He didn’t leave many records, so there were decades of
British and Spanish provided the rebels of Vertières in 1803. After the French his life where there’s little direct material. The other big challenge
with supplies such as food, weapons officially surrendered, Saint-Domingue is the difficulty in interpreting the material at times. Louverture,
and medicine. To put an end to this, was declared independent from France because he is such a clever, sophisticated person, sometimes
the French government was forced to on 1 January 1804. Renamed Haiti, it keeps you guessing in terms of what his real intentions were. So
abolish slavery in its colonies, including became the first country to be founded that was quite challenging, but in a positive way.
Saint-Domingue, in 1794. by former slaves, with the revolution
inspiring other revolts across the Louverture was a former slave – how did he rise to become
During the revolt, former slave Caribbean and United States. one of the leaders of the Haitian Revolution?
Toussaint Louverture had emerged as That’s what’s so remarkable about him. He was already recognised
as a man with great leadership potential, even as a young boy
and as a young man, because his exceptional talents are noticed
by the people on the Bréda plantation. The plantation manager
Bayon de Libertat eventually hires him as his coachman, and
the coachman was in effect, the assistant manager. So, from
early on, his skills as a leader were recognised. I think it was his
personal qualities – his intelligence, his strategic thinking, his
organisational capacity and his intellectual abilities in general
– that allowed him to emerge at the time of the revolution.

The other thing is that he was in tune with the wishes of the
people. What I try and do in the book is to emphasise the extent
to which Louverture isn’t an isolated figure. What makes him so
special is that he understands what his people want and works
hard to try and make that possible. What they seek is to be free,
to be united, not to be exploited by imperial and colonial powers,

50