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CONCLUSION
The results of the PM2.5 level of the percentage of accumulative of cars classified by fuel type from 2014 to
2018 showed a decreasing trend. However, since there is a large proportion of old cars, this pollutant
reduction would not be significant differences. Additionally, we found that the frequency of newly registered
cars gave a lower level of the PM2.5 compared with the cumulative frequency in this year. Furthermore, the
PM2.5 emissions from newly registered cars in 2018 show that the new Euro has significantly reduced PM2.5
emissions. This might be implied that limiting the number of obsolescence will significantly help to lower
the amount of PM2.5 emissions. However, as the car’s lifetime was not a parameter of the Emission Factor
from EMEP/EEA [6], it is possible that if the cars have a longer lifetime, they might give the Emission
Factor value to be either higher or lower than the calculation. The primary PM2.5 emissions correlated with
health impacts. (If the primary PM2.5 emissions increased, the health impacts would be higher). In other
words, the less amount of PM2.5 emissions, the lower level of health impacts. Besides this, we suggest
supporting standard public transportation, coaches, because the buses have a lower contribution to PM2.5
emissions, excepted the case of the low-quality buses, which created the severe condition of the emissions.
Nonetheless, the values of emission factors used from EMEP/EEA [6] in the study may not be valid for the
coaches in Thailand and this may affect the results. For further study, the EF values should be developed
specific to Thailand and we have to compare the registered car accumulated statistics and the new registered
car statistics every year to consider that if considering only new cars, it has a much better PM2.5 emissions.
However, the number of accumulated old cars is still quite high. Finally, the results of this research can be
used as a preliminary estimate in order to address the air quality problems in the area directly, and lead to an
effective air quality management in the area.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This research was financially supported by National Science and Technology Development Agency
(NSTDA) under the projects entitled “Network for Research and Innovation for Trade and Production of
Sustainable Food and Bioenergy” (Grant No.P-16-51880; NSTDA research chair grant) and “Health Impacts
and Costs of Life Cycle Fine Particulate Matter Formation from Private Vehicles and Public Buses in
Thailand” (Grant SCA-CO-2562-9761-TH; Thailand Graduate Institute of Science and Technology: TGIST).

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I 067

Community Participation in Waste Recycling among Myanmar
Migrants in Khok Kham Sub District, Samut Sakhon Province,

Thailand

Saranya Sucharitakul1* Chalaporn Kamnerdpeth2 and Hnin Wai Phyo3

1*Assistant Professor; 2Lecturer, Faculty of Environment and Resource Studies, Mahidol University
3Student, Faculty of Environment and Resource Studies, Mahidol University

*Phone : +66985432380, Fax :024419509, E-mail :[email protected]

ABSTRACT
Waste production has been increasing all over the world. Waste is a thing which can be defined as

unwanted remains, residues discarded and material or by products which are no longer needed by original
users. Minimization of waste plays as an important role because it has ability to make economic and
environmental benefits increase. This research aims to examine the actual situation of waste management
and waste recycling of Khok Kham, local government's supports for waste management system and factors
influencing on waste management and recycling among Myanmar migrants. Most of Myanmar migrants are
less interested in environmental matters as they think earning money is the most important. On the other
hand, they feel satisfied with supports for waste management by local government of Khok Kham. More
than that, they are willing to participate in waste recycling attributed by religion.

Keywords: waste management system; waste recycling; community participation in waste recycling;
Myanmar community participation in waste recycling

INTRODUCTION
Waste management practices might be different according to different countries based on developed

and developing, regions (urban and rural areas), residential and industrial which every parts take dissimilar
approaches. One of the important portions of waste management is to deal with municipal solid waste that is
the large amount of waste generated by household, industrial, and commercial activities. Waste management
generally includes processes of collection, keeping, treatment and disposal of waste in a proper way to
reduce negative impacts on environment, ecology, human and animal life. It also associated not only with the
activities but also with the actions, which is necessary to deal with waste from its beginning state to final
disposal state. The collection, transport, treatment and disposal of waste should work together with
monitoring and instruction of the waste management process in order to manage waste in a proper way
effectively. Recovering resources and recycling are also important for effective waste management.
Moreover, waste management has to deal with all kinds of waste which means industrial, biological and
household. It also aims to reduce dangerous effects of waste on human and animal health as well as the
environment (Adewole, 2009). The main target of solid waste management system is to support the
protection for human health, support environmental quality, build up sustainability, as well to as supply
sustain to economic productivity. It is one of the most important municipal services and also an essential
requirement for other municipal actions ( Henry, et al, 2006).Solid waste management has been a challenge
for the developing countries sine waste production has been increasing in these countries (Guerrero, 2012).
The amount of solid waste is getting grower and grower even faster than the amount of urbanization.
Therefore solid waste management has become an issue for every city government to provide for its
residents (Hoornweg, et al, 2012).To achieve the goal for sustainable solid waste management system, it has
to be totally embraced by local authorities in partnership not only with the public sector but also the private
sectors. In developing countries, the amount of solid waste generated in urban areas is lesser if it is compared
to industrialized countries but solid waste management remains insufficient for developing countries
(Henry, et al, 2006). In developed countries, such as Japan, Republic of Korea and Singapore, the rate of
recovery of recyclable materials from MSW gradually increase and this rate is increased from less than 10 %
of all MSW in 1988 to 30 % in 1998. Looking at the Asia countries, the country generated the huge
quantities of recycled materials is Japan. Despite recycling is undertaken at source (i.e. at the household,
business and industry level) and is promoted by governments, NGOs and the private sector in the developed
countries, the lack of formal promotion or support of the Government for recycling can be seen in some

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developing countries. (United Nations 1995) The scavengers or waste pickers earned the informal recovery
of materials in developing countries. It can be estimated two percent of population did by recovering
materials from waste to sell for reuse or recycling or for their consumption. (United Nations, 2010). In waste
management, community participation is running as one of important roles. Community participation is an
instrument in order to make waste management more efficient and it is a point in order to achieve social
development (Muller, et al, 2002). The empirical study stated that the community attitude on solid waste
management is important. This study in Malaysia informed that half of the respondents did not agree
segregation for solid waste. The study explained the major factors that prevent the community participation
for solid waste management are time constraint, limited of space and bin and the distance from home to
recycling facilities centre (Malik, N. K. A., Abdullah, S. H., & Manaf, L. A., 2015). Community
participation in recycling program is main role to increase recycling rates however how well they practise is
also important (Thomas, 2001). Therefore, the objectives of this study are 1) to study and find the proper
ways for waste recycling in the study area and 2) to apply the intervention in order to promote recycling
among Myanmar migrants in the study area.

METHODOLOGY
This is a social environmental research and it is studied about Myanmar community participation in

waste recycling in Khok Kham sub district, Samut Sakhon province, Thailand. To deepen the understanding
of targeted research, in-depth interview was used. Snowball sampling was conducted to recruit participants.

Three groups were organized as key informants for this research. Those three groups were 1)
government officers from Khok Kham local administration organization, 2) monks from Sri Bu Ra Na Was
temple and 3) Myanmar migrants from Khok Kham sub district. Data collection included collecting primary
data from the study area named Khok Kham sub district where is situated in Samut Sakhon province,
Thailand. Results compilation was done by checking accuracy, data completing of each study group.
Qualitative analysis was used for this study to analysis development of disposing recyclable waste. Data
collected from and officers from Khok Kham local administration organization, monk from Sri Bu Ra Na
Was temple, Myanmar migrants from Khok Kham sub district was analyzed by using content analysis and
triangulation check.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Previously Khok Kham sub district approximately 150 square kilometres administrative area

which is the largest administrative area and it leads to difficulties in governing all the people. Therefore, the
meeting was approved by the council and the head of district government officers to divide the area into
more sub districts. The resolution of the meeting approved Khok Kham sub district named "Phanthai
Norasing sub district". After that Khok Kham sub district remain with 8 administrative villages. Many
migrants live in Khok Kham. Among them Myanmar and Mon are majority of the area. Khok Kham sub
district administration organization has been implementing the authority and duties to develop Khok Kham
sub district in terms of economic, social and cultural development, including public services such as
performing the cleanliness of the streets, waterways and public walkways, including the disposal of garbage,
waste water, and sewage, operating in the construction and maintenance of infrastructure and facilities, both
land and water, including drainage. The number of population of Khok Kham sub district is totalling 22533
people. However, it still has a number of not registered population not less than 25,000 people who migrated
from the other countries or provinces to work and live in the community. Since most of Myanmar
migrants who live in Khok Kham area mostly work for fisheries and industries, their income is
quite low. The general amount of income is about 80,000 baht per household per year. Most of them are
from rural area of Myanmar where is far from the capital, especially form Mon sate, and few of them are
from other parts of Myanmar such as Kayin State, Taninthayi Division, etc. Most of them have the poor
family background since they have to come to neighbour countries such as Thailand. More than that, their
educational background is quite poor and most of them even could not finish high school. Besides, they
come to Thailand and work since they were teenagers. In their daily life they can only concentrate on earning
money and less pay attention to other issues. Most of them mentioned that they follow the rules and
regulation because they are afraid of problems during their stay in Thailand. For that reason, they normally
try to avoid from making problems. According to their experience of living in Khok Kham, they mentioned
that the local government has been providing required facilities for proper waste management such as bins
and garbage trucks. The result showed that, waste management of Khok Kham has already been set up by

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government. After having in-depth interview with 40 participants form three different groups, the issue of
Myanmar community participation in waste recycling would be presented according to the interviewed
issues.

For qualitative findings, the analysis was used content analysis and triangulation check. In
content analysis was done according to the sub themes. For triangulation check, the findings from Myanmar
migrants, the officers from Khok Kham local administration organization and the monks from the temple in
Khok Kham sub district. All findings were presented as six portions:

1) Experiences and behaviours of waste management and waste recycling among Myanmar
migrants wiled they lived in Myanmar.

2) Situation of waste management and waste recycling in Khok Kham.
3) Problems from miss management of household waste in Khok Kham
4) Factors influencing on waste management behaviour among Myanmar migrants
5) Myanmar community participation in waste recycling attributed by religion
6) Composition of recyclable waste in Khok Kham during five consecutive months

1) Experiences and behaviours of waste management and waste recycling among Myanmar
migrants while they lived in Myanmar
Most of the respondents were from rural area and only very few of them are from cities. Their

educational backgrounds were quite poor. Beside their income was quite low. As the results, the experiences
and behaviours of proper waste management and waste recycling among Myanmar migrants were quiet poor.
The respondents who lived in rural areas told that they did not know about proper waste management and
waste recycling and the local administrations did not manage for that. However, even few respondents who
used to live in cities were not quite sure about waste management and waste recycling when they answered
the questions. Government less paid attention on waste management system especially to rural area.
Therefore, they disposed waste in their own ways such as disposing into the sea or burning garbage. And
some even made fire from plastics or paper when they needed fire to cook. Some respondents heard first
time for the proper waste management. Most respondents told that they never experienced being educated for
proper waste management and they did not know what exactly the waste recycling was. Even though the
authorized persons would have come and gave knowledge about waste management, they would have no
time to receive it. Because, they were so busy to earn the money.

Moreover, the respondents who lived in urban areas of Myanmar, they said that though there
was waste management system under the township municipality organization, the garbage trucks did not
come regularly and those trucks sometimes come once a month. Besides, they mentioned that it was not
enough number of facilities, even though the municipality organization of their home towns provided
facilities. Thus, people threw the garbage to the disposal places or sometimes threw into the river or cannels
or burned. The respondents thought that the supports from government for waste management were still
weak. The local administrations provided some bins in the public areas such as station, markets and parks
however those were not covered at all places. Besides, they seldom saw recycle bins supplied and most of
them did not have any idea for waste recycling. Therefore, the people had difficulties to throw the garbage in
proper ways and to recycle waste in both urban and rural areas.It was obvious that they had been practicing
improper way for waste management when they had to manage their household waste as they had been
practicing it while they were living in Myanmar. More than that, they did not care much about the
environmental issue.

2) Situation of waste management and waste recycling in Khok Kham
The services provided for waste management by local government in Khok Kham was nice.

However, some migrants did not the follow rules and regulations. Actually, the migrants did not know the
place of recycling centers. Some migrants complained there were no separated bins around them. Some
respondents had no idea why recycling was good and they did not know the importance. Some migrants were
not interested about waste management at all. Some respondents sold the recyclable wastes because they got
some money. They thought that people threw trash everywhere if it was not their own place and there is no
consequence or responsibility. If they were provided with the recycle bins, they would have followed the
rules. They did not want to cause any conflict in a foreign land. Therefore, they would comply with the rules
and regulations. There were no or very few recycle bins at Khok Kham. There were no seminars or education
related waste management from non-government or government organizations.

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3) Problems from miss management of household waste in Khok Kham
The problems occurred due to household waste was blocking of the drainage. Because Myanmar

migrants did not use the bin and they used to throw to the cannels. Those answers were same from the
officers in Khok Kham, Myanmar migrants and monks. Due to the blocking of the drainage, the bad smell
caused the problem for environment and unhealthy for the people lived around there. The officers, monks
and Myanmar migrants mentioned that they had been facing the problems of blocking in the drainages by
garbage and getting bad odour around the drainages, cannels and in the market area. Only two of Myanmar
migrants mentioned that they did not have any problem from miss management of waste but the answer from
the rest are the same according to the interviews from three different groups.

4) Factors influencing on waste management behaviour among Myanmar migrants
According to the respondents’ answer, they compared the services for waste management

between their hometown and the recent place (Khok Kham). They told that there were very different services
for waste management between two places. The local government of Khok Kham had been supporting the
required facilities for waste management such as bins and garbage trucks. Garbage trucks came daily to their
place and collected the garbage form the disposal point. Due to the good facilities, it was easy for them to
practice proper waste management. Then, some respondents said that, when it is compared to their
hometowns, the waste management system of Khok Kham was better.

Some respondents wanted the recycle bins nearby and they did not want to go somewhere in
holidays because they want to rest at that days. As for the opinion of the community participation for waste
recycling management, most of the respondents suggested this program and it was the safe environment and
healthy environment. Some respondent said it was for the business.

After in-depth interview with 40 participants from three different groups, the results showed
that the local government had plans for waste management systems of Khok Kham. Required facilities were
provided such as bins and garbage trucks. The garbage trucks went to the community daily. More than that
Myanmar migrants were very satisfied with the waste management of Khok Kham because it was much
better than the waste management system in their hometown. Their behaviour for waste management had
changed a lot after they came here because of the society.

5) Myanmar community participation in waste recycling attributed by religion
As most of the Myanmar migrants were Buddhists, they respected to the monks and they obeyed

the monks’ speak. However, it was difficult to make the Myanmar migrants to participate in waste
management actives The temple had tried hard to instil in the people to see the value of waste and throw
waste at the right places by focusing on the phrase “Waste is not waste”. The local administration had gone
to publicise about separating waste by bringing bins and putting them in the temple area but continual
publicity to the Myanmar community was lacking, which caused them to not be able to truly achieve their
goal. According to interviews, the result was shown that most of Myanmar migrants were Buddhists and
only very few of them belong to other religion. Almost all of them agreed with the intervention but very few
of them had other opinions for it. Most of them felt enjoyment by donating recycling waste to the temple
while only very few of them were uncomfortable to donate the recycling waste to the temple because they
accepted that donating things like waste could not earn merit.

6) Composition of recyclable waste in Khok Kham during five consecutive months
Table presented that the composition of waste in Khok kham District during five consecutive

months. The descriptive statistic was used to analyze the monthly records of recycling waste. Mean, standard
deviation, maximum value and minimum value was applied. Among those, glass waste was the largest
amount and followed by plastic waste and paper waste except fourth month. At the fourth month, plastic
waste was the highest amount (36.9%) and followed by glass waste (34.9%) and paper waste (28.2%).
During those five months, trends of all types of waste were increasing gradually. Looking at the total amount
of waste, fifth month stood the highest number (1160 kg) while the second month stood the lowest amount of
waste (890 kg). The mean number of total waste was 1014 kg (SD = 107.37). Concentrating on detail
composition of amount of waste, the mean of generated plastic waste during five months was 350 kg (SD =
41.23). The minimum amount was seen in second month (300 kg) and the maximum amount can be seen in
fifth month (400 kg). Moreover, regarding the paper waste, the mean of paper waste was 272 kg (SD = 44.9).
The minimum amount was presented in first month (210 kg) and the maximum amount was seen in third and
fifth month (310 kg). As for glass waste, the mean of generated glass waste during five months was 392 kg
(SD = 39.6). The minimum amount was seen in second month (350 kg) and the maximum amount could be
seen in fifth month (450 kg).

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Table presented that the composition of waste in Khok Kham District during five consecutive months

First month Plastic (kg) Paper (kg) Glass (kg) Total (kg)
320 (34.4%) 210 (22.5%) 400 (43.1%) 930 (100%)

Second month 300 (33.7%) 240 (26.9%) 350 (39.4%) 890 (100%)

Third month 350 (33.1%) 310 (29.2%) 400 (37.7%) 1060 (100%)

Fourth month 380 (36.9%) 290 (28.2%) 360 (34.9%) 1030 (100%)

Fifth month 400 (34.5%) 310 (26.7%) 450 (38.8%) 1160 (100%)

CONCLUSION
Most of the Myanmar migrants live in Khok Kham at least for 1 year and some have been living a

decade. Their educational background is poor and economic status is quite low. Most of them even could
not reach to high school and only few graduated from university. They came to Thailand because the
economy of Thailand was better than of Myanmar. Most of the Myanmar migrants from Khok Kham are
Buddhists. Only few of them rely on other religions. Almost of them are less interested in environmental
issues since they have to struggle with earning money.

According to the results, the officers have difficulties to deal with the Myanmar migrants. The study
showed that the administration has some matters to deal with the community because of the language barrier,
and difficult to communicate with the Myanmar migrants in Khok Kham. They are not able to communicate
because some of them are illegally staying here in Khok Kham. Most of them are fear to communicate with
officers. And some of them just refuse to follow the rules and regulation even when the local government
provides bins and garbage trucks to the community. The local government still has challenges to convince
the Myanmar migrants to participate in waste recycling. Most of the Myanmar migrants live in Thailand at
least for 1 year and some have been living a decade. Most of them have poor educational background – most
only finished primary school, only some of them finished high school and very few are graduate from
university. They come to Thailand because the economy of Thailand is better than Myanmar. Most of the
Myanmar migrants from Khok Kham are Buddhists and only few rely on other religions. Most of them are
less interested in environmental matters as they only focus on earning money. For Thai officers to educate
the Myanmar migrants for proper waste management or waste recycling, it is quite difficult because most of
them cannot read Thai and their educational background is quite poor.

Waste management system for Khok Kham has been set up by local government and the facilities
and services are quite good for Myanmar people to practise proper way of waste management. Bins are
provided, garbage trucks come to areas of Khok Kham regularly and also disposal points are not really far
from houses. Myanmar migrants are pleased with the service because it is much better than of their
hometowns.

Most of Myanmar migrants have changed their behaviour of waste management due to some factors
such as good supplies and services. They were convenient to practise proper waste management because the
waste management system is better if it is compared to the systems of their hometowns. In spite of the fact
that they did not experience practice of proper waste management in their hometowns, they tried to put into
practice of proper waste management attributed by their neighborhood residents (Thai people), their house
owners and their employers. Because they became embarrassed with their behviour when they saw behaviour
of other are impressive. And Some Myanmar migrants were afraid of being fired from their works or some
were afraid of being removed from their apartments or houses.

Myanmar migrants did not have any idea about recycling. It means that they are locked in to a non-
environmental behaviour. They did not know why recycling was good for. They needed awareness about
waste recycling as well as recyclable materials. More than that, they did have good practices for waste
recycling while they lived in Myanmar. Myanmar migrants mentioned that they could not recycle waste

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properly because they did not have enough recycle. On the other hand, they only could use recycle bins in
their works but not in their homes. Therefore they felt that the situation of having no enough bins made them
not to separate the waste even they wanted to. They suggested that the local government of Khok Kham
should provide recycle bins in front of their apartments or their houses.

The local government of Khok Kham provides the facilities needed for house hold waste
management. They provide bins and garbage trucks. In addition, the garbage trucks come to the community
every weekends and it make the situation better. There can been seen the garbage bins in front of every
household in Khok Kham. Myanmar migrants said that it is a good system as they can throw the waste
properly because of facilities government provides, as the garbage trucks come to the community properly.
Even they do not concern about the environmental issue, as they are luck of knowledge for it, they are still
willing to keep their household clean. Never the less, some trashes can still be seen on the roads, in the
streets and in the lane of Khok Kham, especially in the market areas. Some of them even throw the garbage
to the drainage and cannels. That is why, people in Khok Kham face the problem of the drainages and
cannels are blocked by garbage.

More than that, the research showed that the government has some matters to deal with the
community because of the language barrier, and difficult to communicate with the Myanmar Migrants in
Khok Kham. They are not able to communicate because they some of them are illegally staying here in Khok
Kham. Therefore, whenever the local government has the plans to educate them, it is quite difficult when
they cannot read and speak properly. However the monks form Sri Bu Ra Na Was temple can communicate
with them easily as they have authority to Myanmar migrants and they can speak Myanmar language.
Myanmar migrants appreciate to go to the temple and donate the recycling wastes from their households
because they are religious and are willing to earn merit.

According to the results from the table 4-1, it showed that there was an overall increase in the
amount of waste that was collected for recycling. Therefore, it showed that Myanmar migrants were willing
to participate in waste recycling because they believed that they could make merit. For that reason, using
religion in intervention plan is very helpful to promote waste recycling among Myanmar migrants.

According to the results of answers from government officers, they mentioned that the local
government has provided recycle bins to the area. However, Myanmar migrants mentioned that they had
difficulty to recycle their waste as there were no enough recycling bins in the area. They could use recycle
bins only in some places such as their work places, hospitals. However, according to observation of the area,
it is obvious that trashes are still can be seen side of roads, sides of streets, around market area, in cannels
and side of cannels in most of Khok Kham region. As it is shown in figure, the area of Myanmar migrants is
full of garbage along the street. Results from the table showed that there was an overall increase in the
amount of recyclable waste composed for recycling. Consequently, it showed that Myanmar migrants were
agreeable to involve themselves in waste recycling since they believed that they could make merit by
donating recyclable waste to the temple. For that reason, using religion in intervention plan is incredibly
supportive in order to promote waste recycling among Myanmar migrants.

AB
Figure Trash along the street and near the cannel in one of Khok Kham areas

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The thesis on Myanmar community participation in waste recycling: a case study of Myanmar and

Mon migrants in Khok Kham sub district, Samut Sakhon province, Thailand was successfully accomplished
with the help of many people. First of all I would like to express my special thanks of gratitude to my parents
and my younger brother who were always there for me whenever I needed enthusiasm, motivation and other
supports. I would like to extend my gratitude to Asst. Prof. Dr. Saranya Sucharitakul who is my major
advisor, Dr. Chulaporn Kamnerdpetch and Asst. Prof. Dr. Wimontip Musikaphan who are my co-advisors
and Dr. Thanate Kitisriworaphan who is my external examiner for giving me the opportunity to work on this
topic and guiding me. Beside I would like to give my thanks to all of my participants as well as my friends
who helped me whenever I needed their help.

REFERENCE
[1] Woodward, R. (2009). The organisation for economic co-operation and development (OECD).

Routledge.
[2] Yemaneh, Y., Abera, T., Hailu, D., Niguse, W., Chewaka, L., Daniel, T., ... & Tsegaye, N. (2017).

Knowledge Attitude and practice towards solid and liquid waste Management among Addis ketema
and Kometa kebele community Mizan-Aman town, Bench–Maji zone, South Nations Nationalities and
Peoples Regional State, South West Ethiopia, 2017. Journal of Environmental Geology, 1(1)
[3] Afroz, R., & Tudin, R. (2017). Economic Feasibility Of Household Waste Minimisation In Dhaka,
Bangladesh.
[4] Adewole, A. T. (2009). Waste management towards sustainable development in Nigeria: A case study
of Lagos state. International NGO Journal, 4(4), 173-179.
[5] Henry, R. K., Yongsheng, Z., & Jun, D. (2006). Municipal solid waste management challenges in
developing countries–Kenyan case study. Waste management, 26(1), 92-100.
[6] Guerrero, L. A., Maas, G., & Hogland, W. (2013). Solid waste management challenges for cities in
developing countries. Waste management, 33(1), 220-232.
[7] Hoornweg, D., & Bhada-Tata, P. (2012). What a waste: a global review of solid waste management
(Vol. 15, p. 116). World Bank, Washington, DC.
[8] United Nations (UN) (1995). State of the environment in Asia and the pacific. United Nations
Economic and Social Commission for Asia and Pacific, and Asian Development Bank (UNESCAP
and ADB). New York: United Nations publications.
[9] United Nations (2010). Introduction types of wastes - United Nations ESCAP Retrieved from
https://www.unescap.org/sites/default/files/CH08.PDF
[10] Muller, M. S., Iyer, A., Keita, M., Sacko, B., & Traore, D. (2002). Differing interpretations of
community participation in waste management in Bamako and Bangalore: some methodological
considerations. Environment and Urbanization, 14(2), 241-258.
[11] Malik, N. K. A., Abdullah, S. H., & Manaf, L. A. (2015). Community participation on solid waste
segregation through recycling programmes in Putrajaya. Procedia Environmental Sciences, 30, 10-14.

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I 068

The Impact of Aviation Business on global Climate Change

Nisakorn Nakornkao

Teacher in Bachelor of Arts in Aviation Business Service, Institute of Metropolitan Development,
Navamindradhiraj University, Thailand

*Phone : 092-5955694, E-mail : [email protected].

ABSTRACT

In twenty first centuries, climatecrisis is one of the crucial problems which occurs globally. Climate change
is mainly derived by man-made and/or human activities from various sectors such as industry, energy,
agriculture and aviation business. Air pollution and climate change caused by aircraft engine are the
significant issues which should be urgently solved. CO2 emission reduction schemes are significant keys to
control the concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide.

This article will identify the causes and the impact of aviation business on climate change. And how to
mitigate carbon emission, carbon offset program including how to calculate the amount of carbon emissions
for the airline. So, International Air Transport Association (IATA) and International Civil Aviation
Organization (ICAO) has set the target and how to reduce CO2 in order to afford the airlines to join the
carbon offset activities for protecting the world atmosphere.

Keywords: Climate change, aviation business, carbon emission, mitigation, carbon offset and program.

INTRODUCTION

This article aims to present the impact of climate change on aviation business and how airlines respond to
climate change in terms of adaptation and mitigation or reducing the impact. The aviation business is related
climate change and must be understood, raise awareness and responsible for reducing carbon emissions into
the environment.

Aviation business is one that effects significantly of the greenhouse gases. Due to the launch of new airline
and many of low-cost airlines. So, International Air Transport Association predicts that by the year 2036,
passengers on airlines around the world will increase twice or approximately 7,800 million years[1].

The aviation industry is likely to grow by 300-700% [1] over the years 2005 and 2050 if there are no
effective measures to reduce greenhouse gases. The proportion of greenhouse gas emissions in the aviation
industry may increase to 15% of all greenhouse gas sources.

In October 2016 the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)[1], a specialized agency of the United
Nations was put regulations and activities for international aviation. They resolved to prepare guidelines and
measures to control greenhouse gas emissions in the aviation industry. The plan is a framework and
measures that are clearly within the next 4 years. Airlines around the world must have measures to monitor
and control the emissions that performing airline by the year 2020 onwards. The measures might start with a
voluntary airline and may not use these measures with the airlines that have few flights.

METHODOLOGY

Air freight or air transport services is important for the transportation, especially in economy. Aviation
business is the first element of the aviation industry and conducted by any person or entity engaged in the
business of air transport passenger and cargo service. Due to the high speed of air transport, you can travel to
destinations both short and long distance in a short time. The frequency of flights and the fuel that were
burned from the aircraft. It produced greenhouse gas such as carbon dioxide (CO2) etc. That will impact on
global climate.

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The impacts of aviation business and mitigation are as follows:

Global warming [2] is a phenomenon of climate change characterized by a general increase in average
temperatures of the Earth, which modifies the weather balances and ecosystems for a long time. It is directly
linked to the increase of greenhouse gases in our atmosphere, worsening the greenhouse effect.

Figure 1. Global Temperature (2019)[3]

And, it is the long-term heating of Earth’s climate system observed since the pre-industrial period (between
1850 and 1900) due to human activities, primarily fossil fuel burning, which increases heat-trapping
greenhouse gas levels in Earth’s atmosphere. The term is frequently used interchangeably with the term
climate change, though the latter refers to both human- and naturally produced warming and the effects it has
on our planet. (Source: NASA's Goddard Institute for Space Studies)[3]

Greenhouse Gas (GHG)[2] is a gas that could absorb infrared waves or IR radiation very good. These gases
are needed to keep the temperature constant in Earth's atmosphere. If there is no atmosphere of greenhouse
gases in the atmosphere. The temperature will be hot in the daytime and very cold at night. Because these
gases absorb radiant heat wave in the daytime. Then gradually heat is radiated out at night. The temperature
in the atmosphere does not change abruptly with a lot of gas that could absorb infrared waves and its
classified as a greenhouse gas. This is the gas that occurs naturally and is caused by human activity. The
main greenhouse gas is water vapor, carbon dioxide, ozone, methane and nitrous oxide and
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), etc.

Carbon dioxide[4] is a colorless, odorless gas found in our atmosphere. Its chemical formula is CO2, which
means it is one carbon atom bonded to two oxygen atoms. It is a waste product in our bodies and is also
produced by burning fossil fuels that affect the global warming.

Table 1: Aviation Emissions

Emission Description Emission Sources Impact
CO2 Carbon dioxide is the product of - Aircraft Climate change
complete combustion of - APU
hydrocarbon fuels like gasoline, jet - GSE
fuel and diesel. Carbon in fuel - Vehicles
combines with oxygen in the air to - Stationary
produce CO2
power plants
- Construction

equipment

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Climate change [5] is one of the biggest threats we face. Everyday actions like using electrical equipment,
heating your home, driving a car and flying consume energy and produce greenhouse gases emissions,
particularly carbon dioxide (CO2) which contributes to climate change. The International Civil Aviation
Organization (ICAO) has warned that the aviation industry needs to prepare for severe disruptions as a result
of climate change and that it needs to make full use of clean technology and policy tools in order to reduce
its carbon emissions.

One of the most serious impacts of climate change [6] is how it will affect water resources around the world.
Water is intimately tied to other resources and social issues such as food supply, health, industry,
transportation and ecosystem integrity. Climate change also threatens the health of our children and
grandchildren through increased disease, freshwater shortages, worsened smog and more. These impacts also
pose incalculable economic risks that far outweigh the economic risks today. The world’s leading scientists
report that to prevent dangerous levels of global warming, governments should act to limit global warming to
less than 2ºC by taking concerted action to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.

The impacts of climate change not only impact carbon emissions but also impact in aviation too. Climate change
impacts on aviation [7] impact by 1) changes in weather behavior observed 2) including increased frequency and
intensity of weather events with adverse effect on aviation 3) strong regional differences. Moreover, it is impacts
4) operational such as route changes and flight times 5) disruptions such as thunderstorms and heavy snowfall 6)
disasters, e.g. hurricanes and 7) route network change in the longer term.

Figure 2. Impacts of Climate Change on Aviation. [8]

A carbon offset[9] is a means of reducing emissions to zero by saving enough carbon to balance the carbon
emitted by a particular action. Several airlines have begun offering carbon offsets to passengers to offset the
emissions created by their proportion of the flight. Money generated is put to projects around the world to
invest in green technology such as renewable energy and research into future technology.

In the context of addressing climate change concerns, offsetting is an action by companies or individuals to
compensate for greenhouse gas emissions, in this case arising from their use of commercial aviation. Carbon
offsets or an equivalent offset by another greenhouse gas, can be purchased by countries, companies or
individuals to reduce their net carbon emissions.

Offsets can either be bought from within the international compliance system under the Kyoto Protocol [10],
or in the voluntary market. Each passenger can therefore pay to offset the emissions caused by their share of
the flight’s emissions. The principle is that emissions for each flight are divided amongst the passengers.
They can therefore pay to offset the emissions caused by their share of the flight’s emissions. And they can
offset their emissions by investing in carbon reduction projects that generate carbon credits.
There are two principal types of carbon credits:

- certified emission reductions, which are backed by the UN, and
- voluntary emission reductions.
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Each passenger can purchase carbon credits generated by certified renewable energy and energy efficiency
projects in developing countries that are verified to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. A carbon credit is a
permit that represents one ton of carbon dioxide that has either been removed from the atmosphere or saved
from being emitted. These carbon credits are then "cancelled" on an official register to ensure that they
cannot be sold or used again [5].

PAYMENT

AIRCRAFT CUSTOMERS OFFSET
emit CO2
pay for projects that PROVIDER
remove CO2 or reduce
CO2 emissions elsewhere provides a record of the
amount of CO2 reduction

achieved

RECORD

Figure 3. The process of offsetting. (IATA guidelines and toolkit)[9]

International Air Transport Association (IATA) [11] has carried out the way to offset carbon emissions,
international accepted and reliable. They have developed a program to calculate the amount of carbon
emissions by the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO). The system is managed in a transparent
and verifiable way and certified by UKs carbon offset quality assurance scheme. The ways to offset carbon
emissions are translating the distance traveled into the amount of money that passengers will voluntarily
donate to the project. This project was certified by the United Nations.

How to calculate the amount of carbon emissions?

The combustion of 1kilogram (kg) [7] of jet fuel in an aircraft engine produces 3.15 kg of carbon dioxide
(CO2). However, the volume released per flight is based on several factors such as aircraft efficiency and
maintenance, distance travelled, the load carried (passengers and cargo) and weather conditions. Although
there are several ways of calculating the carbon emissions from a flight, airlines participating in the IATA
offset program using a methodology based on that developed by the UN’s International Civil Aviation
Organization (ICAO). The International Air Transport Association (IATA) has developed this concept
further by creating a tool that allows airlines to use their own verified data on fuel burn, passenger and cargo
weights, seat configurations and load factors.

For passenger aircraft, fuel burn was apportioned to passenger and freight carriage using the following
three equations.

Three equation.[12]

Equation I

Total Passenger Fuel Use (kg) = (Total Passenger Weight (kg)) (Total Weight (kg))
(Total Fuel Use (kg))

Equation II

Total Passenger Weight (kg) = (Number of Aircraft Seals) (50 kgs) + (Number of Passengers) (100kgs)

Equation III
Total weight (kg) = Total Passenger weight (kg) + Total Freight Weight (kg)

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Carbon emissions were estimated using the accepted constant of 3.16 tons of CO2 emitted from the
consumption of one ton of aviation fuel.

Methods of mitigating aviation's CO2 emissions.
Mitigation of aviation's environmental impact can be achieved through a variety of measures; the most
obvious and arguably economical of which is to reduce the fuel burn of the aircraft[13].

The next generation of aircraft, including the Boeing 787[14] Dreamliner, Airbus A350 and Bombardier C
Series (airbus family design by Bombardier), are 20% more fuel efficient per passenger kilometer than
current generation aircraft. This is primarily achieved through more fuel-efficient engines and lighter
airframes & supporting structures made of composite materials but is also achieved through more
aerodynamic shapes, winglets, a "one-piece" fuselage and more advanced computer systems for optimizing
routes and loading of the aircraft.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)[15] has estimated that the aviation emissions
account for 2% of all sources of greenhouse gases. It will be increasing the proportion of 5% by the year
2050 due to the rapidly growing aviation industry along with the opening of new routes and new airlines.
Including when the airplane is starting the engine, its causing heat and greenhouse gas from the engine
combustion. Even with the development of technology to enhance fuel efficiency, the proportion of
greenhouse gas emissions in the aviation industry is still growing steadily. If there are no measures to reduce
greenhouse gases. The proportion of greenhouse gas emissions in the aviation industry may increase to 15%
of all greenhouse gas sources. Airline has been prepared and awareness to responsibility of reducing the
impact of aviation, social and environmental seriously. The measure to reduce energy consumption,
management and changing flight patterns including operations the "carbon offset activities" to make
greenhouse gas emissions reduced or set zero.

Total global carbon emissions. We estimate that global aviation operations for both passenger and cargo
carriage emitted 918 MMT of CO2 in 2018, about 2% higher than IATA’s published value. This equals 2.4%

of the estimated 37.9 gigatons of CO2 emitted globally from fossil fuel use that year (Crippa et al., 2019)[16].
Using industry’s values, CO2 emissions from commercial flights have increased 32% over the past five years

from the 694 MMT emitted in 2013 (IATA, 2015)[17]. The implied annual compound growth rate of
emissions, 5.7%, is 70% higher than those used to develop ICAO’s projections that CO2 emissions from

international aviation will triple under business as usual by 2050 (ICAO, 2019a).[18]

As shown in table 2, passenger transport accounted for 747 MMT, or 81%, of commercial aviation carbon

emissions in 2018. Passenger movement in narrow body aircraft was linked to 43% of aviation CO2,
followed by widebody jets (33%), and regional aircraft (5%). The remaining 19% of total aviation emissions,
171 MMT, were driven by freight carriage and divided between “belly” freight carriage on passenger jets

(11%) and dedicated freighter operations (8%).

Table 2 Carbon emissions in 2018 by operation and aircraft class.

Carbon emission from %..... of total
Passenger 0perarions Freight Operations
Narrow body
Widebody 43
Regional 33
Belly Freight 5
Dedicated Freighter
Total 11
8
100

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There is the airline that join carbon offset program such as:

Cathay Pacific[19] Airline has prepared a project "FLY Greener" program, which was implemented in 2007
to provide passenger airline Cathay Pacific, and Cathay Dragon contribute to offset the greenhouse gas
emissions from air travel by themselves. Passengers can use cash or Asia Miles to buy "carbon offset" or
donate a large sum of money. The airline will buy carbon credits from projects as well as projects to reduce
or prevent the emission of carbon dioxide (CO2). In addition, airlines itself has offset the carbon dioxide
(CO2) emissions that arising from staff travel with Cathay Dragon and Cathay Pacific too.

Being one of Australia’s largest international and domestic airlines, Qantas[20] is at the forefront in
reducing their carbon emission through various programs and projects. Qantas has been certified carbon
neutral under the National Carbon Offset Standard (NCOS) Carbon Neutral Program since the year 2007.
Qantas has been ranked the largest carbon off setter in world with over 2.5 million tons of carbon emission.

Virgin Australia[20] seeks to minimize environmental impacts caused by their operational activities,
therefore pushing them to implement initiatives that help reduce carbon emission. Virgin Australia has a fleet
of young planes that are efficient on fuel; the 777 aircraft, ATR 72s, Boeing 737 and Airbus A330s. The
airline has also invested in reducing the aircraft weight, supporting the growth of sustainable aviation biofuel
and enhanced flight planning through their technological and operational initiatives. Virgin Australia
launched its carbon offset program in 2007 being the first airline to get government certification when it
came to carbon offset programs.

In 2009, Thai Airways International Company Limited[21] has taken list offset carbon emissions,
together with the International Air Transport Association (IATA) to passengers who want to offset the
carbon emissions from air travel by the applicant. When the passengers purchase tickets through the website.
The program will show the amount of carbon emissions from passenger according to distance and the value
for money. The program compensates for the carbon emissions have been audited by the Carbon Offset
Approval Scheme of the United Kingdom. Carbon compensation will be taken to support renewable energy
projects and certified.

Year 2009, British Airways'[22] carbon offsetting scheme involves paying a fee dependent on aircraft type,
class of travel and distance flown and therefore prices vary.

2010, Continental Airlines'[23] carbon offsetting scheme involves paying a fixed fee of $2 to cancel out
emissions through reforestation. Passengers can also choose to pay $50 for offsetting emissions through
renewable energy projects.

Jetstar Airline[24] has provided "Fly Carbon Neutral Program" or projects from a zero carbon passenger
flights with Qantas and Jet Star. This program has been accredited by the National Carbon Offset Standard of
Australian Government (National Carbon Offset Standard: NCOS). In 2009, they can offset the carbon
emission of more than 2 million tons.

Delta Airlines[20] has been investing in carbon offset in order to promote carbon neutrality in both domestic
and international flights since 2012. Delta Airlines has invested in fuel efficiency, electric powered tugs, and
the exploration of carbon markets to accomplish their goal of carbon neutrality. Further, they have ensured
their carbon emissions do not reach 2012 levels. It offers customers the chance to offset the carbon emission
caused by their flight through donations made to their carbon neutrality initiative and environmental projects.

CONCLUSION

Climate Change is an issue that affected by air transport more. Many airlines and several foreign
governments are focus on it. There is the policy that used as the standard for new aircraft and the projects to
reduce and offset the carbon emissions of the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO). But it has
no effect on carbon emissions from aviation significantly. International Civil Aviation Organization expected
carbon emissions from global aviation are increasing three-fold by 2050[25] and if the sector can reduce
carbon emissions down. Aviation sector will account for 1 in 4 of the carbon budgets.

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May 2018, International Air Transport Association (IATA)[26] has set 3 targets to reduce carbon emissions
from aviation base by

1) increase fuel using in efficiency by 1.5% per year during 2009-2020.
2) limiting net carbon emissions from 2020, and
3) a 50% reduction in net aviation carbon emissions by 2050 relative to 2005 levels.

Thai Airways International Company Limited[27] is the first airline in the Asia-Pacific that has signed a record deal
with IATA to perform offsetting carbon emissions into the environment. They need to be the green airline.

And, The International Civil Aviation Organization[28] will limit the net carbon emissions of international
flights between participating countries for the years 2021-2035. The limit is initially set at the average of
2019-2020 levels. Provisions in the Carbon Offsetting and Reduction Scheme for International Aviation, or
CORSIA, require evaluation of it every three years in view of the goals of the Paris climate agreement,
offering the possibility of tightening the limit in the future. If it fully implemented, CORSIA could be a
significant step forward for global climate action. It could prevent nearly 2.5 billion tons of CO2 emissions
into the atmosphere over the first 15 years of the program – more if the ambition is increased by tightening
the limit.

CORSIA[28] affords airlines flexibility to choose how to cut CO2. They can:

1) Fly with more efficient aircraft.
2) Use new technologies to set more efficient flightpaths and reduce delays.
3) Use sustainable lower-carbon alternative fuels.
4) Invest in emissions offsets within or outside of the aviation sector.

Aviation industry is also a significant source of carbon dioxide emissions and presents a major threat to
aviation business in terms of carbon emissions growth.

But on March 6, 2020[29] last news from New York Times reported that this program/project will be
slowdown due to coronavirus 19 crisis.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This paper is support by Environmental Engineering Association of Thailand. And all knowledge was
collected from IATA, ICAO and all websites that concern of this article.

RFERENCES
[1] Green News. (April 19,2018) Special Report “Booming flying…carbon floods, Countries preparing

To bid farewell to fossil fuels”. Retrieved from https://greennews.agency/?p=16769.
[2] New York Times. (September 20,2007). Aviation and global warming", retrieved 2010-05-01.
[3] Global Temperature. (2019). NASA's Goddard Institute for Space Studies/global climate change.

Retrieved from https://climate.nasa.gov/vital-signs/global-temperature/.
[4] Carbon dioxide. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Retrieved from

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxide).
[5] IATA Carbon Offset Program – FAQ Airline Participants, version 10.0: January 19, 2019. Retrieved

form www.iata.org.
[6] David Suzuki Foundation (One nature): The impacts of climate change. Retrieved from

https://davidsuzuki.org/what-you-can-do/impacts-climate-change/.
[7] Thomas Roetger, (April 4, 2019). Assistant Director, Environment, Technology, IATA: Climate

Change on Aviation.
[8] United Nation. (Aug 8, 2016). Climate Change. Retrieved from https://unfccc.int/news/aviation-

Industry-needs-to-green-operation-and-prepare-for-climate-impacts-icao-report.
[9] Aviation carbon offset program. (May 2008). IATA guidelines and toolkit, version 1. Retrieve from

www.iata.org.

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[10] Kyoto Protocol. Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Retrieved from
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyoto_Protocol.

[11] International Air Transport Association/IATA. (October 13, 2009). Aviation Presents Climate
Change Plan to the UN. Press Release No.45.

[12] Brandon Graver, Ph.D., Kevin Zhang, Dan Rutherford, Ph.D. (Published: September 19, 2019). CO2
emissions from commercial aviation, 2018. The International Council on Clean Transportation/
ICCT. Working paper 2019-16.

[13] Supawadee Sarawan. (November 5, 2019). Climate Change. Retrieved from
https://www.scimath.org/article-chemistry/item/10620-climate-change.

[14] Boeing 787 Technology. (May 1, 2010). Mitigation of aviation’s environmental impact, retrieved
From https://en.wikipedia.org.

[15] Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. (1988). State of knowledge, review and summarized
and published every five years.

[16] Crippa M., Oreggioni g., Muntean M., Schaaf E., LoVullo E., Solazzo E., Monforti-Ferrario F.,
J.G.J., Vignati E. (2019). Fossil Co2 and GHG emissions of all world countries. Publications Office
of the European Union: Luxembourg.

[17] International Air Transport Association/IATA. (2015). Economic performance of the airline industry:
2015 mid-year report. Retrieved from https://iata.org/publication/economics/Report/Industry-econ-
Performance/IATA-Economic-Performance-of-the-Industu-mid-year-2015-report.pdf.

[18] International Civil Aviation Organization. (2019a). ICAO global environmental trends-Present and
future aircraft noise and emissions(A40-WP/54). Retrieved from https://www.icao.int/Meetings/A40/
Documents/WP/wp_054_en.pdf.

[19] Cathay Pacific. (July 6, 2017). Fly Greener (Our carbon offset program).
[20] Conserve energy future. 11 Airline that offer Carbon Offset Program. Retrieved from

https://www.conserve-energy-future.com/
[21] Travel news. (December 11, 2009) ThaiPR.net: Thai Airways announces emission reduction

Policies of Carbon dioxide.
[22] British Airways Carbon Offset Schemes, British Airways, archived from the original on December

25, 2009, retrieved 2010-05-02.
[23] Continental Airlines Carbon Offset Schemes, Bloomberg, retrieved 2010-05-02.
[24] Jetstar Airways (JQ) and Jetstar Pacific (BL). (July 6, 2017). Fly Carbon Neutral Program.
[25] Master Plan for Climate Change 2015 - 2050. Office of Policy and Planning Natural Resources and

Environment, Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment.
[26] Fact Sheet: Climate Change & CORSIA. (May 2018). Retrieved from

https://www.iata.org/contentassets/fact-sheet-climate-change.pdf.
[27] Travel news. (August 19, 2009) ThaiPR.net: Thai Airways is the first airline in Asia Pacific, who has

signed a memorandum of agreement with IATA.
[28] Environment Defense Fund: Global aviation emission pact. Retrieved from

https://www.edf.org/climate/aviation.
[29] New York Times. (March 6, 2020). Coronavirus could slow efforts to cut Airlines’ Greenhouse Gas

Emissions. Retrieved from https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/06/climate/covid-19-climate-
change.html.

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I 069

Human-associated Escherichia coli Marker: Important Indicator to
Evaluate River Water Quality and Treatment Ability of Surrounding

Wastewater Treatment Plants

Pimchanok Nopprapun1, Suwanna Kitpati Boontanon2, Shigeo Fujii3 and Hidenori Harada4*

1Graduate student; 2Associate professor, Civil and Environmental Engineering Department,
Mahidol University, Salaya, Nakhon Pathom, 73170, Thailand

2,4Associate professor and 3Professor, Graduate School of Global Environmental Studies,
Kyoto University, Yoshida, Sakyo-Ku, Kyoto, 606-8501, Japan

4*Associate Professor, Graduate School of Asian and African Area Studies, Kyoto University,
Yoshida-shimoadachi, Sakyo-Ku, Kyoto, 606-8501, Japan
*E-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT
River water contamination can threaten human health because waterborne pathogens in environmental water
can expose to humans via recreational activities. In addition, river water is an important source for water
consumption in Thailand. Therefore, microbial source tracking has become a crucial method to evaluate the
source of fecal contamination, water quality, and to understand the cause of fecal contamination by
investigating the treatment ability of surrounding wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) affecting the river
water quality. In this study, 200 Escherichia coli isolates collected at four sampling sites around WWTPs of
Mae Klong River were tested with a human-associated E. coli genetic marker (H8) for evaluation the human
fecal pollution in the river. Moreover, water quality parameters were measured at the same sites. The levels
of H8 marker detection were also compared with the ability of WWTPs among four sites along the river.
Real-Time PCR was performed on the isolated samples with the H8 marker and the results showed that
proportions of positive isolates increased at Mueang Kanchanaburi district (KP1: 46%) and Mueang
Ratchaburi district (RP1: 38%). The positive proportions from all sites were significantly different between
the locations (p < 0.001). Furthermore, the number of population and wastewater treatment plants capacity
were relatively high in those areas (KP1 and RP1). This study showed that the H8 marker can be used as a
crucial genetic marker for identifying the human-source contamination in water environment. Furthermore, it
can be suggested that management of wastewater treatment system is a key to reduce human fecal pollution
for better environmental water quality.

Keywords: Microbial source tracking; Human-associated genetic marker; E. coli; Wastewater treatment
plants; Thailand

INTRODUCTION
Pathogenic bacteria can expose to environmental water via human and animal feces from wastewater
overflow of wastewater treatment plants, septic tanks, and urban runoff [1]. Contact with waterborne
pathogens from environmental water can occur accidentally from swallowing of contaminated feces during
recreational activities such as boating, swimming, or through consumption of undercooked aquatic
animals [2]. Many different types of pathogens may exist in aquatic environment and it is time-consuming,
cost prohibitive, and impossible to screen all of pathogenic bacteria from water samples [3]. Therefore,
worldwide regulators normally measure fecal indicator bacteria (FIB) such as E. coli and enterococci in
surface water as a representative of pathogens for many years [4]. In addition, FIB is prevalent in animal
feces so it does not provide information about specifically contaminated sources [5].

River in Thailand receives wastewater from point and nonpoint sources such as agricultural runoff,
industries, urban runoff, and domestic wastewater. Downstream area of the river is massive in terms of water
usage [6]. Recently, a human-associated genetic marker for Escherichia coli (H8) has been developed and
successfully used to evaluate the human source from human-associated E. coli in drinking water and water
environment [7][8][9]. Escherichia coli are a gram-negative bacteria (GNB) which can be found in intestinal
of a variety of animals and humans. Not all of E. coli strains are harmless but some of them can cause fatal

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diseases in humans [10]. Thus, microbial source tracking has become an important method to understand the
source of fecal contamination and to decrease the hazard of waterborne diseases that occur in environmental
water. In this study, four sampling sites of Mae Klong River were investigated the river water quality which
were surrounded by wastewater treatment plants in Thailand. In addition, the H8 marker was applied as a
suitable method to evaluate the human source from fecal contamination at the same sites. Moreover, the
treatment ability of surrounding wastewater treatment plants was evaluated and compared with the H8
marker to understand the cause of fecal contamination in the river and be able to suggest proper river water
quality management.

METHODOLOGY

Collecting river water samples
River water samples were collected from ten sampling sites along the river but four sampling points were
focused for this study to evaluate the treatment ability at WWTPs of each city affecting the river water
quality at KP1 (Mueang Kanchanaburi), RP3 (Ban Pong), RP2 (Photharam), and RP1 (Mueang Ratchaburi)
districts [11]. 1,000 mL of river water samples at each of sampling site were collected in sterilized bottles at
the center of water flow. Furthermore, dissolved oxygen (DO), potential of hydrogen ion (pH), electric
conductivity (EC), temperature, turbidity, and total organic carbon (TOC) were measured for water quality
measurement at the same sites. All samples were transported in a cooling box, kept it in the dark at 4 o C to
the laboratory, and processed within 12 hours.

Culturing and collecting E. coli isolates

River water samples were filtrated by using 100 mL funnel sterilized and disposable filtration devices
(0.45μm, white MCE membrane, Merck, Germany). Then, the filter was placed on HiCrome Chromogenic

Coliform Agar (recommended for E. coli detection, HIMEDIA, India) and the petri dishes were incubated at
37 o C for 22 hours. For E. coli analysis, blue colonies of E. coli were picked up by using sterilized toothpicks
and transferred it into each well of a 96-well plate filled with 50 μL MilliQ water. These 96-well plates were
stored and kept at -20 o C for a maximum of 24 hours to PCR analysis.

Conducting Real-time PCR

For PCR analysis, E. coli isolates were performed by using SYBR Green based Real-time PCR assays with
the H8 marker for detecting human fecal pollution. In the total of 15 μL of PCR mixture, it was composed of
7.5 μL of QuantiFast SYBR green PCR (QIAGEN, Germany), 4.9 μL of MilliQ water, 2 μL of E. coli
samples, and 0.3 μL in each of forward and reverse primers. All of PCR reactions were performed on a 96-

well plate for Real Time with Thermal Cycler Dice Real Time System (BIO RAD, Singapore). Positive

(DNA from control strains) and negative (MilliQ water) controls were included for each PCR assay. The
Real-time PCR conditions were set at 95 o C × 5 min + (95 o C × 10 sec + 60 o C × 30 sec) × 40 cycles +

melting curve analysis. The H8 genetic primer sets were used for SYBR Green based PCR assays are shown

the primer and target DNA sequence in Table 1.

In addition, wastewater treatment plant locations in the research areas were obtained from Pollution Control

Department [12].

Table 1 Primer sets for SYBR Green based PCR assays

Gene Name Primer sequence Target DNA sequence Product Source
size [7]
H8 H8-F ACAGTCAGCGAGATTCTTC ACAGTCAGCGAGATTCTTC
H8-R GAACGTCAGCACCACCAA TTGGTGGTGCTGACGTTC 177 bp

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Transition of water quality along the river
Figure 1 shows the results of water quality from upstream to downstream along Mae Klong River. The
transition of pH along Mae Klong River was quite stable values. It was neutral around 7. Temperature from
all sampling sites was around 28.3 to 29.6 o C. For conductivity, turbidity, and TOC, it increased gradually

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along the river flow and higher than other sampling sites, especially at RP1 (conductivity: 247 μS/cm,
turbidity: 12 NTU, and TOC: 2.651 mg/L). This sampling site showed that water quality was affected by the
accumulation of organic substances from the river flow. However, DO gradually decreased along river flow
which was consumed by photosynthetic organisms by high levels of organic pollutants. The lowest value of
DO was in RP1 (DO: 2.4 mg/L). According to water quality standards of the surface water in Thailand, Mae
Klong River was in Class 3 which was mainly used for consumption and agriculture but it has to be passed
through an ordinary treatment process (Class 3 standard: DO > 4 mg/L, BOD < 2 mg/L, Fecal Coliform
Bacteria < 4000 MPN/100mL). DO along Mae Klong River in this study do not pass and meet the surface
water quality standards in Thailand [13]. Furthermore, National Institute of Information Technology Water
and Agriculture reported that water quality in some stations of Mae Klong River was likely deteriorate. The
contamination of total coliform bacteria and fecal coliform bacteria was quite high because wastewater was
largely discharged from the excretion of households and communities into the river [14].

Figure 1 The transition of water quality from upstream to downstream along Mae Klong River
The results of conductivity, turbidity, and TOC concentration showed that the pollutants concentration
increased, especially in downstream areas of Mae Klong River. In addition, E. coli concentration indicated
that microorganisms were high levels of fecal contamination, especially at KP1 and RP3. However, the
contamination results of other water quality parameters were not similar trends with E. coli concentration.
Those water quality parameters were high values and increased continuously along the river flow but E. coli
represented the maximum values at some sampling sites. Therefore, the water quality parameters showed
that it was polluted along the river flow which were highly discharged from point and nonpoint sources and
accumulated at the downstream areas but the sources of pollutants from human or animals could not be

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properly identified. Nevertheless, E. coli concentration might be largely affected by domestic or animal
wastewater contamination at the areas of KP1 and RP3 in Kanchanaburi and Ratchaburi provinces,
respectively. According to the results of E. coli, it could be seen that there were many interesting sampling
points along the river which were found fecal contamination. However, only E. coli parameter was not
enough to identify the source of human fecal contamination and further study should apply other animal
genetic markers to determine other sources of fecal contamination [15][16]. Therefore, this study applied
microbial source tracking method which was necessary to find the human source of fecal pollution in
environmental water that can affect to human health with the H8 marker.

Human fecal contamination in environmental water
Figure 2 shows E. coli and H8 positive percentages from four sampling sites of Mae Klong River. The
results of E. coli concentration were 350 CFU/100 mL (KP1), 455 CFU/100 mL (RP3), 95 CFU/100 mL
(RP2), and 219 CFU/100mL (RP1), respectively. Real-Time PCR was performed with the H8 marker for 200
E. coli isolates collected at four sampling sites. The results of H8 positive percentages in each sampling site
showed that proportions of positive isolates were 46%, 18%, 14%, and 38% at KP1, RP3, RP2, and RP1,
respectively. The H8 positive proportions from all sampling sites were significantly different between the
locations (p < 0.001). Comparison of E. coli concentration and H8 positive percentages illustrated that the
higher E. coli, the higher H8 positive of Mae Klong River. However, RP3 was found different correlation
with positive percentage of the H8 marker. According to the number of livestock in Kanchanaburi and
Ratchaburi provinces, it was found that duck, dairy cattle, and buffalo were the most animals number at Ban
Pong district (RP3) in Ratchaburi province [17][18]. Therefore, the higher number of animals might affect E.
coli highly contributed to RP3 from animal feces. From these results, it was found that the areas of KP1 and
RP1 were more polluted by domestic wastewater discharged to the river. Therefore, the information of
wastewater treatment plants ability in those areas were needed to describe this situation.

Figure 2 E. coli and H8 positive percentages

Relation of human fecal pollution and wastewater treatment plants ability for water quality management
Construction of wastewater management projects completed in Mae Klong River Basin has been operated by
Department of Public Works and Town and Country Planning. Table 1 shows details of wastewater
management projects completed in Mae Klong River Basin.

Table 1 Wastewater management projects completed in Mae Klong River Basin

River water Provinces Districts System Capacity
sampling sites Oxidation Ditch (m3/day)
24,000
KP1 Kanchanaburi Mueang Kanchanaburi
5,000
RP3 Ratchaburi Ban Pong Stabilization Pond
5,000
RP2 Ratchaburi Photharam Oxidation Ditch
20,000
RP1 Ratchaburi Mueang Ratchaburi Stabilization Pond

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These wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) consist of four locations along Mae Klong River and covered
only 48% of the people in those areas. In addition, all of the capacity can treat domestic wastewater around
54,000 m3/day [12].

In this study, it was found that human fecal pollution was more problem than other areas, especially at KP1
and RP1. Moreover, it was found that the number of population in those areas were also high at KP1 and
RP1 in Kanchanaburi and Ratchaburi provinces, respectively [19]. Figure 3 shows comparison of wastewater
treatment plants capacity and H8 positive percentages. According to Figure 3, wastewater treatment plants
capacity was projecting the similar trend with the H8 positive percentages which can be implied the number
of population in those areas as well. Although, KP1 and RP1 have had high capacity of domestic wastewater
treatment plants in the areas, the percentages of human-associated E. coli fecal pollution were still high
levels. Therefore, the treatment ability of these WWTPs were needed to closely investigate. According to
Kanchanaburi Municipality Office, WWTP at KP1 has been constructed since 1995 and operated until now.
There is disinfection system (chlorination) in this plant but it has been inefficiently operated. Furthermore,
population and urban areas have continuously expanded. Therefore, collection of wastewater from sewerage
system to the WWTP has not covered all of the areas and as a result, people have directly discharged
domestic wastewater into the river [20]. Furthermore, there is no disinfection process in the WWTP of
Mueang Ratchaburi district (RP1) so high volume of wastewater has been discharged with high volume of
human fecal pollution to the river [21]. However, the H8 positive percentages and wastewater treatment
plants capacity at RP3 and RP2 decreased because lower number of population and volumes of domestic
wastewater in that areas where lower discharged to the river than the areas of KP1 and RP1. [22] recently
reported that the river water sampling stations which are surrounded by urban areas and high effluent from
WWTPs have discharged and increased human fecal pollution levels in the river. Furthermore, a significant
increasing of fecal contamination from human mainly due to WWTPs capacity cannot receive an exceedance
of the wastewater or individual septic systems continuously discharged [23].

Figure 3 Wastewater treatment plants capacity and H8 positive percentages

These results showed that KP1 and RP1 which are surrounded by urban areas and affected with high levels
of fecal pollution. Therefore, suitable capacity of wastewater treatment system with the number of
population and appropriate management of septic tank systems are required for better water quality
management at Mueang Kanchanaburi and Mueang Ratchaburi districts in Kanchanaburi and Ratchaburi
provinces. In this study, the utility of the H8 marker can help to understand the human source of fecal
contamination in environmental water. Furthermore, it will be useful for decision maker to implement a
robust water quality management plan.

CONCLUSION
The H8 marker was used to investigate the source from human contamination at the sampling locations
which wastewater treatment plants have discharged wastewater to Mae Klong River, Thailand. The river
water quality showed that the pollutants concentration increased, especially in the downstream areas
(Mueang Ratchaburi) of the river but E. coli concentration were high levels of fecal contamination at
Mueang Kanchanaburi and Ban Pong districts. In addition, the results of H8 positive percentages illustrated

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that human-associated E. coli were largely contributed to the areas of Mueang Kanchanaburi and Mueang
Ratchaburi districts where the number of population were high. These results were projecting the same trend
with the treatment capacity of wastewater treatment plants implied to the population density in those areas.
The additional information of their treatment abilities indicated that wastewater treatment plants in those
areas could not decrease human fecal pollution before discharged to the river. Therefore, this study suggested
that a human-associated E. coli marker could be used as an important indicator to evaluate river water quality
and treatment ability of surrounding wastewater treatment plants. Furthermore, management of municipal
wastewater treatment plants are significant to limit human fecal population in the water environment.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This study was supported by the Faculty of Graduate Studies, Mahidol University and the On-site Laboratory
Initiative of Graduate School of Global Environmental Studies, Kyoto University for the research funding.

REFERENCES
[1] Ahmed, W., Zhang, Q., Lobos, A., Senkbeil, J., Sadowsky, M., & Harwood, V. et al. (2018).

Precipitation influences pathogenic bacteria and antibiotic resistance gene abundance in storm drain
outfalls in coastal sub-tropical waters. Environment International, 116, 308-318.
[2] Gyawali, P., Croucher, D., Ahmed, W., Devane, M., & Hewitt, J. (2019). Evaluation of pepper mild
mottle virus as an indicator of human faecal pollution in shellfish and growing waters. Water
Research, 154, 370-376.
[3] Harwood, V., Levine, A., Scott, T., Chivukula, V., Lukasik, J., Farrah, S., & Rose, J. (2005). Validity
of the Indicator Organism Paradigm for Pathogen Reduction in Reclaimed Water and Public Health
Protection. Applied And Environmental Microbiology, 71(6), 3163-3170.
[4] WHO. (2003). Guidelines for Safe Recreational Water Environments. Coastal and Fresh Waters.
Volume 1. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland.
[5] Harwood, V., Staley, C., Badgley, B., Borges, K., & Korajkic, A. (2014). Microbial source tracking
markers for detection of fecal contamination in environmental waters: relationships between
pathogens and human health outcomes. FEMS Microbiology Reviews, 38(1), 1-40.
[6] Khalil, A., Rittima, A., & Phankamolsil, Y. (2018). The projected changes in water status of the Mae
Klong Basin, Thailand, using WEAP model. Paddy and Water Environment.
[7] Gomi, R., Matsuda, T., Matsui, Y., & Yoneda, M. (2014). Fecal Source Tracking in Water by Next-
Generation Sequencing Technologies Using Host-Specific Escherichia coli Genetic Markers.
Environmental Science & Technology, 48(16), 9616-9623.
[8] Warish, A., Triplett, C., Gomi, R., Gyawali, P., Hodgers, L., & Toze, S. (2015). Assessment of
Genetic Markers for Tracking the Sources of Human Wastewater Associated Escherichia coli in
Environmental Waters. Environmental Science & Technology, 49(15), 9341-9346.
[9] Harada, H., Fujimori, Y., Gomi, R., Ahsan, M., Fujii, S., Sakai, A., & Matsuda, T. (2018). Pathotyping
of Escherichia coli isolated from community toilet wastewater and stored drinking water in a slum in
Bangladesh. Letters in Applied Microbiology, 66(6), 542-548.
[10] Belanger L, Garenaux A, Harel J, Boulianne M, Nadeau E, Dozois CM. (2011). Escherichia coli from
animal reservoirs as potential source of human extraintestinal pathogenic E. coli. FEMS Immunol Med
Microbiol. 62: 1-10.
[11] Nopprapun, P., Boontanon, S. K., Harada, H., & Fujii, S. (2020). Human Source Identification by
Using a Human-Associated Escherichia coli Genetic Marker in Mae Klong River, Thailand.
[12] Domestic wastewater treatment plant in Thailand. (2018). Pollution Control Department. Retrieved 13
September 2019, from http://www.pcd.go.th/
[13] Water quality standards of surface water in Thailand. (2000). Pollution Control Department. Retrieved
5 October 2019, from http://www.pcd.go.th/info_ serv/reg_std_ water05.html
[14] Mae Klong River Basin (2012). Hydro and Agro Informatics Institute (Public Organization) Retrieved
26 November 2019, from http://tiwrmdev.haii.or. th/web/attachments/25basins/14-maeklong.pdf
[15] Odagiri, M., Schriewer, A., Hanley, K., Wuertz, S., Misra, P., Panigrahi, P., & Jenkins, M. (2015).
Validation of Bacteroidales quantitative PCR assays targeting human and animal fecal contamination
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[16] Somnark, P., Chyerochana, N., Mongkolsuk, S., & Sirikanchana, K. (2018). Performance evaluation
of Bacteroidales genetic markers for human and animal microbial source tracking in tropical
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[17] The number of livestock in Kanchanaburi province. (2014). Kanchanaburi Provincial Livestock

Office. Retrieved 11 August 2019, from http://pvlo-knr.dld. go.th/index2.html
[18] The number of livestock in Ratchaburi province. (2015). Ratchaburi Provincial Livestock Office.

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[19] The Number of population along Mae Klong River. (2018). Department of Provincial Administration.

Retrieved 5 October 2019, from https://www.dopa.go. th/main/web_index
[20] Wastewater treatment plant in Kanchanaburi. (2019). Kanchanaburi Municipality Office. Retrieved 25

December 2019, from http://www.muangkan.go.th/
[21] Wastewater treatment plant in Ratchaburi. (2019). Ratchaburi Municipality Office. Retrieved 25

December 2019, from http://www.rbm.go.th/index.php
[22] Ballesté, E., Demeter, K., Masterson, B., Timoneda, N., & Meijer, W. (2019). Implementation and

Integration of Microbial Source Tracking in a River Watershed Monitoring Plan.
[23] Jardé, E., Jeanneau, L., Harrault, L., Quenot, E., Solecki, O., & Petitjean, P. et al. (2018). Application

of a microbial source tracking based on bacterial and chemical markers in headwater and coastal
catchments. Science of The Total Environment, 610-611, 55-63.

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XPS Analysis of Iron Nanoparticles Synthesized using Green Chemistry

Anusara Kaeokan1 and Apichon Watcharenwong2*

1Graduate student, School of Environmental Engineering, Institute of Engineering,
Suranaree University of Technology, Nakhon Ratchasima, Thailand; 2*Lecturer, School of Environmental
Engineering, Institute of Engineering, Suranaree University of Technology, Nakhon Ratchasima, Thailand;

*Phone: 0892019975, Fax : 044-224220, E-mail : [email protected]

ABSTRACT
Chemical synthesis is the most popular method for nZVI. However, these productions require highly reactive
and toxic reducing agents, green synthesis is another interesting way. This work aimed to characterize the
nZVI synthesized with eucalyptus leaves extract (nZVI-EL). After synthesized, comparing with the one
using sodium borohydride (nZVI-Chem) was investigated. The prepared samples were characterized using
FESEM, XRD, and XPS. The XPS technique will provide information on the elements and the atomic
concentration. The mean diameter of nZVI-Chem was estimated to be 100 ± 5 nm, while that of nZVI-EL
was 89 ± 5 nm as proved by FESEM. The full XPS spectrum survey and Fe2p3/2 were also analyzed. The
characteristic peak at about 706 eV corresponded to Fe0 for nZVI-EL was not observed. However, Fe0 for
the nZVI-Chem was measured as 4.84 % of the total iron species on the surface.

Keywords : nano zero-valent iron (nZVI), X-Ray Photoemission Spectroscopy (XPS), green synthesis,
eucalyptus

INTRODUCTION
Nowadays, nano zero-valent iron (nZVI) is becoming an increasingly popular material for the treatment of
groundwater, surface water, and contaminated soil, because nanoparticle size potentially increases the
contact area with the substance and thus a large surface area leads to high volume ratio of the treatment [1].
Many research groups studied the synthesis of nZVI [2-4]. Chemical synthesis is the most popular method
for nZVI. However, these productions require highly reactive and toxic reducing agents such as sodium
borohydride and hydrazine hydrate, which can cause detrimental impacts on the environment, plant, and
animal life to where those chemicals are exposed. Therefore, the development of clean and non-toxic
methods for the synthesizing of nZVI is required. Some experiments have shown a possible reduction of
metal ions to zero-valent metallic particles using green chemicals as an alternative reducing agent instead of
sodium borohydride, such as green tea [5], grape leaves [6] and eucalyptus [3, 7]. These materials are non-
toxic, biodegradable, and act as both dispersive and capping agents due to the polyphenols compounds that
they contain. Eucalyptus leaves have been used for the production of low-cost, non-toxic, and
environmentally friendly metallic nanoparticles.
This work aimed to characterize the nZVI synthesized with eucalyptus leaves extract (nZVI-EL). Especially
focus on using of XPS technique for analysis. Besides, the synthesized sample was characterized using
FESEM and XRD.

METHODOLOGY

Materials
Ferrous sulfate heptahydrate (FeSO4 •7H2O, MW: 278.01), purchased from CARLO ERBA, was analytical
reagent grade and used directly without further purification. Sodium borohydride, purchased from CARLO

ERBA. Ethanol (99.9% pure) from CARLO ERBA. Eucalyptus leaves were obtained from a local farm in

Surin, Thailand. Deionized (DI) water was used in all experiments.

Synthesis and Characterization of nZVI
The green synthesis using eucalyptus leaves extract denoted as nZVI-EL. And the chemical synthesis
denoted as nZVI-Chem. Both samples were synthesized according to the reported method [1]. Morphological
characteristics of the sample were analyzed using a field emission scanning electron microscope (FESEM)
(Carl Zeiss Model Auriga). Composition analysis of nZVI by X-ray diffraction (XRD) patterns was
performed on a Bruker, D2 Phaser with a high-power CuKa1 radioactive source (λ = 0.154 nm) at 40 kV and

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40 mA. All samples were scanned from 15 to 80 2θ. FESEM and XRD techniques were measured at
Suranaree University of Technology, Thailand. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) spectra were
collected at the BL5.3 XPS machine (PHI5000 VersaProbe II, ULVAC–PHI) at the Synchrotron Light
Research Institute (SLRI), Nakhon Ratchasima, Thailand.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscope (FESEM)
Morphologies by field emission scanning electron microscope (FESEM) was shown in Figure 1. The mean
diameter of nZVI-Chem was estimated to be 100 ± 5 nm, while that of nZVI-EL was 89 ± 5 nm. Moreover,
FESEM images shown the aggregation of iron nanoparticles in both cases. However, compared to the
chemically synthesized FeNPs, there are fewer aggregates in the green synthesized nano-particles, which is
attributed to the eucalyptus leaves extract which contains polyphenols acting as the capping agents [4].

Figure 1 FESEM images of nZVI-Chem 60000X
and nZVI-EL 60000X.

X-ray diffraction (XRD) patterns
XRD patterns of nZVI-Chem and nZVI-EL were shown in Figure 2. The peak of synthesized nZVI-

Chem can be easily seen using XRD analysis. Characteristic peaks appearing at around 2θ of 45
corresponded to zero-valent iron (Fe0) were also observed [3]. This property founds a difference between the
ones produced with sodium borohydride (nZVI-Chem) and the green nZVI (nZVI-EL). For the synthesized
nZVI-EL, no apparent characteristic Fe0 peaks were observed. There are deficiencies in the distinctive
diffraction peaks, indicating that the synthesized Fe NPs were amorphous [3, 9]. The broad shoulder peak at
around 2θ=25° can be identified as organic components that acting as capping agents. Similar results were
observed in other studies [7, 10]. Confirming the lack of any ordered crystalline structure due to the organic
components in the extract cover on the surface of synthesized iron particles.

Figure 2 XRD patterns of nZVI-Chem and nZVI-EL.
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X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) spectra
The atomic concentration of iron nanoparticles from X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy technique was

shown in Table 1. The synthesized nZVI-Chem showed an atomic concentration of oxygen (56.39%), carbon
(23.74%), and iron (19.87%). While the synthesized nZVI-EL has oxygen (31.86%), carbon (65.77%), and
iron (2.37%). This indicated the formation of an organic layer on the surface of nZVI-EL. The carbon and
oxygen recorded could be elements from the proteins or organic compounds present in the eucalyptus leaves
extract. Moreover, nZVI-Chem has higher iron content (∼8 times compared to nZVI-EL). It is probably due
to the eucalyptus leaf extract is a mixture of various naturally derived compounds with different reducing
properties [7].

Table 1 Atomic Concentration of iron nanoparticles.

Atomic Concentration %

samples C1s O1s Fe2p3
23.74 56.39 19.87
nZVI-Chem 65.77 31.86 2.37
nZVI-EL

The full spectrum survey of nZVI-Chem and nZVI-EL presented in Figure 3. For the nZVI-Chem, the
apparent characteristic peaks were observed, confirming the Na structure. Chemical contamination, sodium
(Na) found from chemical precursor sodium borohydride (NaBH4). This indicated the formation of a
contamination chemical layer on the surface of nZVI-Chem. In the application of nZVI-Chem, it may result
in chemical residues in the environment. Desorption or degradation of the surface coated nZVI-Chem, may
affect aggregation behavior of the nZVI, which ultimately affect their environmental behavior [11] and also
reduce the pollutant removal performance.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Figure 3 XPS data of nZVI-Chem and nZVI-EL;
full spectrum survey (a) and (c) and Fe2p3/2 (b) and (d).
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The XPS spectra of nZVI-EL and nZVI-chem are presented in Figure 3. O 1s, C 1s, and Fe 2p3/2 on
the surface were analyzed. The O 1s and C 1s peak at 534.20 and 286.50 eV, respectively could be assigned
to the C–H and C=O bonds of the phenyl ring from proteins in the eucalyptus leaves extract [12, 13].
Moreover, the presence of organic carbon implied the coating on the surface of the particle which was a limit
to the detection of the absolute position of Fe0 in nZVI-EL [3]. While the peak at 708 eV of synthesized
nZVI-Chem was observed suggests the presence of Fe0. The peaks on the surface of the nZVI-Chem were
observed designating the Fe0 of iron which made up 4.84 % (Fe0) of the total iron species on the surface.
Moreover, the presence of carbon on the surface of nZVI-Chem dramatically decreased (a decrease of
∼42.03%) when compared with nZVI-EL. In the application of nZVI-EL, it may result in decreased free
radical generation efficiency. Nevertheless, the nZVI from green synthesis could fill up the gap of particle
agglomeration [7, 14].

CONCLUSION
There are tread-off between chemical and green nZVI synthesis. The synthesized nZVI-Chem has higher
iron content (which proved by XPS data) but this uses toxic chemicals and easily agglomerate, while, the
synthesized nZVI-EL, has a lower iron content, but more environmental-friendly. However, the application
of nZVI in environmental remediation quite important to continue researching in the future.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors are grateful to the Center of Excellence in Advanced Functional Materials, Suranaree University
of Technology for financial support, and Synchrotron Light Research Institute (SLRI), Nakhon Ratchasima,
Thailand for XPS instruments. Thank to those who contributed to this work, Dr.Narong Chanlek, Chutarat
Yonchai, Kawintra khongkha and Pariyaporn Seekhumlek.

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bimetallic nZVI/Pd nanoparticles used for removal of methyl orange from aqueous solution. Journal of
hazardous materials, 262, 819-825.
[9] Huang, L., Weng, X., Chen, Z., Megharaj, M., & Naidu, R. 2014. Green synthesis of iron nanoparticles
by various tea extracts: comparative study of the reactivity. Spectrochimica Acta Part A: Molecular and
Biomolecular Spectroscopy, 130, 295-301
[10] Machado, S., Pacheco, J. G., Nouws, H. P. A., Albergaria, J. T., & Delerue-Matos, C. 2015.
Characterization of green zero-valent iron nanoparticles produced with tree leaf extracts. Science of the
total environment, 533, 76-81.

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[11] Lei, C., Sun, Y., Tsang, D. C., & Lin, D. 2018. Environmental transformations and ecological effects of

iron-based nanoparticles. Environmental pollution, 232, 10-30.
[12] Desalegn, B., Megharaj, M., Chen, Z., & Naidu, R. 2019. Green synthesis of zero valent iron

nanoparticle using mango peel extract and surface characterization using XPS and GC-MS. Heliyon,
5(5), e01750.
[13] Phenrat, T., Saleh, N., Sirk, K., Tilton, R. D., & Lowry, G. V. 2007. Aggregation and sedimentation of
aqueous nanoscale zerovalent iron dispersions. Environmental Science & Technology, 41(1), 284-290.
[14] Wang, T., Jin, X., Chen, Z., Megharaj, M., & Naidu, R. 2014. Green synthesis of Fe nanoparticles
using eucalyptus leaf extracts for treatment of eutrophic wastewater. Science of the total environment,
466, 210-213.

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Partitioning of Soil Respiration in Primary Dry Dipterocarp Forest
at Nakhon Ratchasima Province, Thailand

Wittanan Tammadid1 Phuvasa Chanonmuang2 Jumlong Plagsanoi2 Supika Vanitchang1
Amnat Chidthaisong3 and Phongthep Hanpattakit1*

1Department of Environment, Faculty of Environmental Culture and Ecotourism, Srinakharinwirot
University, Bangkok, Thailand; 2Thailand Institute of Scientific and Technological Research, Thailand;

3The Joint Graduated School of Energy and Environment, King Mongkut’s University of Technology
Thonburi, Bangkok, Thailand; *Tel: +662-6495001 # 11318, Fax : +662-2603275,
e-mail : [email protected]

ABSTRACT
Soil respiration (Rs) is an important process on CO2 emission in terrestrial because it small variations can

prominently influence the global carbon cycle. Thus, understanding partitioning of Rs is thus important for
evaluating its roles in the global carbon cycle and its response to climate change. This study aims to

investigate variation and components of Rs and then the correlation of Rs with environmental factors in
primary dry dipterocarp forest at Sakaerat Biosphere Reserves, Nakhon Ratchasima province, Northeast

Thailand. Soil gradient method was hourly and continuously measured Rs during February 2019 to January
2020. Trenching method was separated root respiration (Rb) and microbial respiration (Rm). The results
found that the average monthly of Rs, Rm and Rb ranged between 199.94 to 422.50, 183.22 to 325.34 and
16.72 to 110.84 mgCO2/m2/hr, respectively. Accumulative CO2 emission from Rs, Rm and Rb during a year
were 2.82 kgCO2/m2 or 0.77 kgC/m2, 2.22 kgCO2/m2 or 0.61 kgC/m2, and 0.59 kgCO2/m2 or 0.16 kgC/m2,
respectively. In addition, Rm was the main component and contributor to magnitude and variability of Rs.
Thus, the average ratio of Rm to Rs and Rb to Rs were 0.81 or 81% and 0.19 or 19%. The diurnal variations
of all respirations were positively significant correlation with air and soil temperature and soil moisture,
while the monthly variations were positively significant correlation with soil moisture.

Keywords: Carbon Dioxide, Soil respiration, Microbial respiration, Root respiration, Primary dry
dipterocarp forest

INTRODUCTION
Carbon cycle in forest ecosystem is an important with greenhouse gases exchanged in the atmosphere as

well as carbon source and carbon sinks. The carbon cycle in the forest usually initiates carbon sink in form of
carbon dioxide from photosynthesis. Some of the organic carbon compounds are used to grow tissues in
aboveground and belowground, while others are broken down to supply the plants with energy. During this
process, carbon is released into the atmosphere from ecosystem respiration, disturbance and herbivores. Soil
respiration (Rs) is an important process in the global carbon cycle and nutrients in the forest ecosystem
because it constitutes the second largest component of terrestrial carbon fluxes. Previous studies have found
that carbon dioxide emissions from Rs around the world were 77 PgC/yr. [1] Rs is defined as the production
of carbon dioxide by organisms and the plant parts in soil. The microbial respiration occurs during
decomposition of liter and soil organic matter (SOM), called heterotrophic respiration. The CO2 flux rate
measured at the soil surface is the sum of root respiration (Rb) and microbial respiration (Rm). Hanpattanakit;
et al. (2015) [2] studied contribution and environment factors variation of heterotrophic and autotrophic in
soil respiration at secondary dry dipterocarp forest, Thailand by used trenching method. The results found
that the 4-years average ratio of Rm (trenched) to Rs (untrenched) was 66±4 %. Moreover, Rm was the main
contributor to overall magnitude and variability of Rs. Soil temperature alone was the main driver of diurnal
variation, while the combination of soil moisture and soil temperature determined the seasonal variations.
Although carbon cycled in the tropical forests make up the significant part of global carbon cycle, our
understanding of carbon processes in this ecosystem is very low. For example, there are few data on
partitions of microbial and root respirations and related with environment factors in primary tropical forest.
Although carbon cycled in the primary tropical forests make up the significant part of global carbon cycle,
our understanding of carbon processes in this ecosystem is very low. Hence, understanding partitioning of Rs
is thus important for evaluating its roles in the global carbon cycle and its response to climate change. This

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study aims to investigate variation and components of Rs and the correlation of all respirations with
environmental factors in primary dry dipterocarp forest at Nakhon Ratchasima province, Thailand.

METHODOLOGY

Site description
The study was carried out in primary dry dipterocarp forest at Sakaerat Environmental Research Station,

Nakhon Ratchasima province (latitude: 14° 30' 29.80'' N, longitude: 101° 56' 58.50'' E). This area has
situated at 390 m elevation above sea level, as part of Sakaerat Biosphere Reserves with the total area 49,755
rai or 79.61 km2, which is primary dry dipterocarp forest area of 7,373 rai or 11.80 km2 (1,180 ha),
accounting for 14.8% of the total area. The average annual precipitation and air temperature was 1,260 mm
and 20.44°C, respectively. [3]

Preparation of microbial respiration study plot
This study measured both soil respiration (total soil respiration; Rs) and microbial respiration (Rm).

Which, separated root respiration (Rb) from Rm by root extraction technique using trenching method. [2] One
plot each for a trenched and untrenched plot was established with two CO2 probes installed for each plot at
different soil layers. For the trenched plot, dug trenches around the study area and backfilled after installing
the gypsum board to prevent root ingrowth. The size of each trenched plot was 1 m wide × 1 m length × 0.3
m depth.

Instrument setup
Soil CO2 flux from Rs at the site was continuously measured from February 2019 to January 2020 by

using CO2 probe (GMP343: Vaisala Inc., Finland) [4-5]. The CO2 concentrations were measured vertical
buried at depths of 5 cm and 20 cm and recorded average value during 1 min into the data logger (CR1000:
Campbell Scientific, Logan, Utah, USA), which 2 probes each for Rs and Rm (Fig. 1). Then, the CO2
concentrations with environmental factors were used to calculate CO2 effluxes of each component (Rm and
Rb) of Rs as follows equation (1 to 5).

F = -Ds d (1)
d

where F is soil CO2 flux (mg CO2/m2/hr), Ds is CO2 diffusion coefficient in the soil (m2/s), d is the
d
vertical soil CO2 gradient, C is CO2 concentration (µmol/mol or µmol/m3), and Z is soil depth (m).

Ds = ξDa (2)

where Da is the CO2 diffusion coefficient in the free air (m2/s) and ξ is the gas tortuosity factor.

Da = Da0 T 1.75 P (3)
293.15 101.3

where Da0 is the reference value of Da at 20 °C (293.15 K) and 101.3 kPa, and is given as 14.7x10-3 m2/s,

T is the air temperature (K) and P is the air pressure (kPa). There are several empirical models for computing
ξ [5] as

ξ = α10/3/φ2 (4)

where α is the volumetric air content and φ is the porosity.

φ = α+θ = 1- ρb (5)
ρm

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where θ is the volumetric soil water content, b is the bulk density (g/cm) and m is the particle density
for the mineral soil (g/cm). The bulk density and the particle density for the calculations at the primary dry
dipterocarp forests site were 0.59 and 2.73 g/cm3.

Data logger

Computer

0.05 m CO2 Probes 0.18 m Soil temperature and
0.20 m (sensors) Soil moisture at 0.05 m

Fig.1 Placement and position of the GMP343 probes in the soil profile for soil CO2 concentration
and environmental factors measurements.

In addition to these measurements, air and soil temperature and soil moisture were continuously

measured inside and outside the trenched plots, to analysis of Rs in correlation to environmental factors and
soil properties were carried out to understand its variation at different timescales. Soil temperature and
moisture were measured at soil depth of 5 cm. Air and soil temperature were measured by using

thermocouple probes (TCAV, Campbell Scientific, Inc., USA). Soil moisture was measured by using water
content reflectometers (CS615, Campbell Scientific, Inc), then calculated water filled pore space (%WFPS)

from the volumetric water content as follows equation (6). [6-7]

%WFPS = ( SW )
BD
BD (6)
PD
1-( )

Where, %WFPS is Water-filled pore space (%), SWC is the volumetric soil water content, BD is the
bulk density (0.59 g/cm3), and PD is the particle density (2.73 g/cm3).

Data analysis
Comparison of CO2 emission from Rs in primary dry dipterocarp forests used one-way ANOVA

statistical analysis. And relationship between Rs with air and soil temperature and soil moisture in primary
dry dipterocarp forests used Pearson’s correlation and linear regression statistical analysis by using IBM
SPSS statistics for Window, version 20 (IBM Crop., Armonk, N.Y. USA).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Environmental variables
The measurement of environmental factors were air temperature, soil temperature, and soil moisture

during February 2019 – January 2020 shows in Fig.2. It was found that air and soil temperature ranged
between 21.03 to 33.40°C and 21.32 to 29.72°C, respectively. The average air temperature for 2019 was
28.57°C with the monthly highest average air temperature of 31.38°C in March but the lowest was 24.03°C
in December. While, the average yearly soil temperature was 25.95°C with the monthly highest average soil
temperature of 28.27°C in March and the lowest was 22.82°C in December, which the air and soil
temperature variation increases and decreases similarly. Moreover, the soil moisture ranged between 38.48 to

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53.65%WFPS. The average soil moisture was 42.73%WFPS with the monthly highest average soil moisture
of 48.62%WFPS in September and the monthly lowest was 38.96%WFPS in February.

2019 2020

Fig.2 Daily average air and soil temperature, and soil moisture during February 2019 to January 2020.

Diurnal variation of soil respiration
Diurnal variation of monthly CO2 flux from Rs was continuously measured and compared between dry

season (January 2020) and wet season (May 209). The results found that the Rs, Rm, and Rb in dry season
ranged between 185.70 to 228.71, 164.43 to 211.88, and 3.56 to 28.10 mgCO2/m2/hr, respectively (Fig.3A).
While, Rs, Rm, and Rb in wet seasons ranged between 422.93 to 471.65, 357.45 to 426.15 and 38.25 to 85.01
mgCO2/m2/hr, respectively. (Fig.3B). The Rs and Rm gradually increased from the morning to the afternoon
(10.00 hr. until 16.00 hr.) and gradually decreased through the night. On the other hand, Rb gradually
decreased from the morning to the afternoon and gradually increased through the night. (Fig.3A-B). This was
because the temperature and moisture during the day was different, which it has variation similar to
Rs and Rm

When comparing the CO2 flux from the Rs between dry and wet season, it was found that Rs, Rm, and Rb
in wet season were higher than in dry season. Moreover, these results showed that all respirations were
significantly different (p<0.05) for the two seasons, due to the wet season had air and soil temperature lower
than dry season and had soil moisture higher than dry season. Air and soil temperature and soil moisture in
dry season were 28.69°C, 26.03°C and 39.45%WFPS, and in wet season were 30.23°C, 27.46°C and
40.41%WFPS. Hence, low air and soil temperature and high soil moisture stimulate the activity of microbes
and plant roots in the soil affect to increased CO2 emissions from Rs [8]. The daily pattern of CO2 flux
variation was possibly a result of soil temperature changes. This is a common characteristic of soil
respiration in relation to responses to temperature and soil moisture change. These results were consistent
with previous studies, Intanil. (2017) [7] found that the diurnal variation pattern of Rs gradually increased in
the morning and gradually decreased in the night (after midnight). According to Hanpattanakit; et al. (2015) [2]
found that the CO2 flux from the Rs in wet season higher than in dry season, with Rs in wet season ranged
between 300 to 600 mgCO2/m2/hr and in dry season ranged between 150 to 450 mgCO2/m2/hr. The diurnal
pattern of soil respiration fluxes between dry and wet seasons were different CO2 emission because the soil
temperature in wet season were earlier increased lead to start the root and microbial activities. Rates of soil
respiration at night may be even higher than during the daytime in arid ecosystems due to increased relative
humidity and decreased soil temperature at night. [9] High humidity favors activities of microorganisms.

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(A) Dry season - 369 -

(B) Wet season

(C) Dry season (D) Wet season

Fig.3 Diurnal variation of monthly Rs, Rm and Rb (A, B) with air and soil temperature, and soil moisture
(C, D) in dry season (January, 2020) and wet season (May, 2019).

Seasonal variations of soil respiration
CO2 emission from soil respiration and environmental factors in primary dry dipterocarp forest was

measured during February 2019 to January 2020. The average monthly of Rs, Rm and Rb ranged between
199.94 to 422.50, 183.22 to 325.34 and 16.72 to 110.84 mgCO2/m2/hr, respectively. (Fig.4) The Rs, Rm and
Rb were responded follow by soil moisture and temperature. Seasonal variation of Rs, Rm and Rb were
positively related to soil water content and soil temperature. There was positively correlated with soil water
content and soil temperature. Moreover, in the dry period when soil water content was low, all soil
respiration rates were still lower. In contrast, soil respiration rates increased during wet season.

Comparing the CO2 flux from the Rs between dry season (February to March 2019 and November 2019
to January 2020) and wet season (April to October 2019), it was found that the average Rs, Rm and Rb in dry
season were 283.60, 247.84 and 35.76 mgCO2/m2/hr, respectively, while in wet season were 393.79, 301.32
and 90.79 mgCO2/m2/hr, respectively. The Rs, Rm, and Rb in wet season were higher than in dry season,
similar to diurnal variation. (Fig.4) In addition, Accumulative CO2 emission from Rs, Rm and Rb during a
year was 2.82 kgCO2/m2 or 0.77 kgC/m2, 2.22 kgCO2/m2 or 0.61 kgC/m2, and 0.59 kgCO2/m2 or 0.16
kgC/m2, respectively. Nonetheless, these results were consistent with the research of Hanpattanakit. (2008)
[10], the seasonal pattern of CO2 flux from Rs, Rm and Rb in secondary dry dipterocarp forest during wet
season were higher than in dry season, due to the wet season had high soil moisture, which its affect directly
to the activities and respiration of microorganisms and root, nutrients and oxygen diffusion. And when the
soil has wet alternating with dry, it makes the soil respiration high about 48-144%. [8] Moreover, the studied
of Wichaisuchat; et al.(2018) [11] found that soil moisture make increasing the number of microbes and their
activities, which affect to soil respiration in hill evergreen forest, dry dipterocarp forest and mixed deciduous
forest, resulting CO2 from soil respiration increasing.

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2019 2020

Fig.4 Average monthly CO2 emissions from Rs, Rm, Rb, soil and air temperature, and soil moisture
during February 2019 to January 2020

Partitioning of soil respiration
The average contribution of Rm/Rs was 81% and Rb/Rs as 19% The highest ratio of Rm/Rs in March and

the lowest in April. While, the highest ratio of Rb/Rs in June and the lowest in March. Moreover, the ratio of
Rm/Rs was always higher than the ratio of Rb/Rs. (Fig.5) Accordingly, Rm was the main component and
contributor to the magnitude and variability of Rs. Because of the effect of high soil moisture (ranged 38.48
to 53.65%WFPS). Microbes increase response to soil moisture and activity in soil, resulting to high Rm.
Meanwhile, high soil moisture and less sunshine decrease the activity of plant roots, root growth and gas
exchange, resulting to low Rb [7]. Contribution of Rm increased significantly from dry to wet season, and
remained high until the end of measurement period. Compare to Rm and Rb changes throughout the study
period was less dramatic. This indicates that moisture was the important factor for stimulating/limiting
microbial respiration in this ecosystem.

2019 2020

Fig.5 The ratios of microbial respiration to soil respiration (Rm:Rs) and root respiration to soil respiration
(Rb:Rs) in primary dry dipterocarp forest during February 2019 to January 2020.

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Relationship with environmental factors
The diurnal variations in dry season of Rs and Rm were positively significant correlation (p<0.05) with

air and soil temperature and soil moisture, while Rb was negatively significant correlation with air and soil
temperature, but positively significant correlation with moisture, respectively (p<0.05). The diurnal
variations in wet season of Rs was positively significant correlation with air and soil temperature (p<0.05).
Rm was positively significant correlation with air and soil temperature (p<0.05) but negatively significant
correlation with soil moisture, while Rb not significant correlation with environmental factors. (Fig.6) This
result similar to the research of Hanpattanakit; et al. (2015) [2] found that the diurnal variation of Rs have a
correspondence with soil temperature than with soil moisture, and there are reports that diurnal variation of
Rs have change according to air temperature [12]

The monthly variation of Rs and Rm were positively significant correlation with soil moisture (p<0.05),
while Rb not significant correlation with environmental factors. (Fig.6) In the same way with the research of
Hanpattanakit (2009) [13], Lee; et al. (2003) [14] and Shoji; et al. (2004) [15] that Rs was positively
correlation with soil moisture and it has to be within the appropriate range. However, temperature and soil
moisture affect to activities and respiration of root plant and microorganisms in soil, which they are
component of Rs. Thus, soil moisture increased and temperature decreased after rain coming were stimulated
activity of Rs, Rm and Rb. the substrate is to limit the respiration rate of microorganisms that using air in dry
soil, the water content in dry soil influence to the movement of microbes and the diffusion of nutrients.
Normally, oxygen and carbon dioxide gas have a diffusion rate in soil at a certain extent, but when there is
water content replaces the air in soil, it will reduce the diffusion rate of oxygen and carbon dioxide gas, the
gap in soil affects to the diffusion rate of gas. Therefore, when there is rain or variable humidity and
temperature, the gas to diffusion rate rapidly. [7]

(A) (B)

(C)

Fig.6 Relationship monthly average of Rs, Rm and Rb with air (A) and soil (B) temperature,
and soil moisture (C) during February 2019 to January 2020

CONCLUSION
The variation of Rs in diurnal scale was gradually increasing from the morning to the afternoon and

gradually decreasing through the night. In the dry season, Rs was positively significant correlation with air
and soil temperature and soil moisture, while in the wet season, Rs was positively significant correlation with
air and soil temperature, but not significant correlation with soil moisture.

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The seasonal variation of Rs change according to soil moisture. Thus, it was a positive significant
correlation with soil moisture. Moreover, the average ratio of Rm to Rs and Rb to Rs respiration were 0.81 or
81% (281.87 mgCO2/ m2/h) and 0.19 or 19% (70.78 mgCO2/ m2/h). Rm was greater than Rb, and it was an
important role in determining the magnitude and variations of Rs in primary dry dipterocarp forest.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors would like to thank Sakaerat Environmental Research Station at Nakhon Ratchasima

province for providing access to the study plots. This research was successful with support funding from
Thailand Institute of Scientific and Technological Research, Faculty of Environmental Culture and
Ecotourism, Srinakharinwirot University, The Graduate School of Srinakharinwirot University, and
International foundation for Science (IFS)

REFERENCE
[1] Raich, J.W.; and Potter, C.S. (1995). Global patterns of carbon dioxide emissions from soil. In

Biogeochemical Cycles. (9): 23-36.
[2] Hanpattanakit, P.; et al. (2015). Multiple Timescale Variations and Controls of Soil Respiration in a

Tropical Dry Dipterocarp Forest, Western Thailand. In Plant and Soil. (390): 167-181.
[3] Sakaerat Environmental Research Station. (2018). General Condition of Sakaerat Environmental

Research Station. Retrieved October 20, 2018, from https://www.tistr.or.th/sakaerat/.
[4] Bulsathaporn, A.; et al. (2018). Soil CO2 Emissions Measured by Closed Chamber and Soil

Gradient Methods in Dry Dipterocarp Forest and Sweet Sorghum Plots. In Science Asia. (44): 1-10.
[5] Tang, J.; et al. (2003). Assessing Soil CO2 Efflux Using Continuous Measurements of CO2 Profiles

in Soils with Small Solid-State Sensors. In Agricultural and Forest Meteorology. (118): 207–220.
[6] Hanpattanakit, P.. (2013). Temporal Variations of Soil Respiration in A Dry Dipterocarp Forest.

Dissertation Ph.D.(Environmental Technology). Bangkok: The Joint Graduate School of Energy and
Environment at King Mongkut’s University of Technology Thonburi.
[7] Intanil, P.. (2017). Estimation of Soil Respiration in Dry Dipterocarp Forest, Northern Thailand.
Ms.C.(Environmental Science). Phayao: University of Phayao.
[8] Broken, W.; et al. (1999). A Climate Change Scenario for Carbon Dioxide and Dissolved Organic
Carbon Fluxes from a Temperate Forest Soil. In Soil Science Society of America. 63(6): 1848-
1855.
[9] Medina, E.; and Zelwer, M.. (1972). Soil respiration in tropical plant communities. University of
Georgia, Athens, GA.
[10] Hanpattanakit, P.. (2008). In situ measurement of CO2 emission from root and soil respiration in
dry dipterocarp forest. Dissertation M.S.(Environmental Technology). Bangkok: The Joint
Graduate School of Energy and Environment at King Mongkut’s University of Technology
Thonburi.
[11] Wichaisuchat, W.; et al. (2018). Soil Carbon Dioxide Emission and Soil Carbon Stock in Different
Forest Types at Doi Suthep - Pui National Park, Chiang Mai Province. In KKU Research Journal
(Graduate Studies). 18(4): 61-77.
[12] Wiriyatangsakul, S.. (2006). Effects of Moisture and Temperature on Respiration in Tropical Forest
and Agricultural Soil. In Kasetsart Journal-Natural Science. (40): 395-409.
[13] Hanpattanakit, P.. (2009). Temperature and Moisture Controls of Soil Respiration in a Dry
Dipterocarp Forest, Ratchaburi Province. In Kasetsart Journal-Natural Science. (43): 650-661.
[14] Lee, M.; Kakine, L.; and Nakatsubo, T. (2003). Seasonal changes in the contribution of root
respiration to total soil respiration in a cool-temperate deciduous forest. In Plant and Soil. (255):
311-318.
[15] Shoji, H.; et al. (2004). Soil respiration and Soil CO2 concentration in a tropical forest, Thailand.
In Journal of Forest Research. (9): 75-79.

9th International Conference on Environmental Engineering, Science and Management
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Poster

Presentation

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I 017

The Electricity Production Capability from
Palm Oil Mill Effluent (POME)

Wilasinee Yoochatchaval1* and Acharapun Prothirusmee2

1*Assistant Professor Department of Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Engineering,
Kasetsart University, Bangkok 10900, Thailand; 2Student, Department of Environmental Engineering,

Faculty of Engineering, Kasetsart University, Bangkok 10900, Thailand
*Phone : 0 2797 0999, Fax : 0 2579 0730, E-mail : [email protected]

ABSTRACT
Thailand energy consumption is increasing in every sector. Biogas is a promising renewable energy
resource which can be utilized for the electricity production. Biogas produced from anaerobic digestion of
organic matter biodegradation. Palm oil mill effluent is the major sources of biogas because it is high
value of organic matter. Moreover, Palm oil mill effluent will generate a water pollutant issue when
discharged without treatment. Thus, electricity production from biogas using palm oil mill effluent is
another option to reduce water pollution caused by palm oil mill effluent. Currently, Thailand has more
than 200 palm oil industry factories but approximately 40 plants have biogas production systems for
generating electricity. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to review palm oil mill effluent
characteristics and biogas technology. Including to evaluate the capability of electricity production from
palm oil mill effluent. From the study indicated that an overall characteristic of palm oil mill effluent have
the COD in the range of 44,882 - 100,000 mg/l. The average pH was 4.55 with high temperature and high
amounts total solids. The SMA value was in the range of 0.037 - 0.226 gCH4-COD/gVSS.day.
Considering the biogas technology, a continuous stirred tank reactor (CSTR) was the most used biogas
technology. The results of this study suggest that biogas from palm oil mill effluent is suitable for
electricity generation. The 15 factories can produce 307,613.00 kWh of electricity. The potential of
electricity generation depends on many factors such as the characteristics of biogas, the operating
parameters, and operator experience. The electricity generation from biogas using palm oil mill effluent as
substrate is valuable. It can be solve the pollution problems, lead to implement palm oil mill effluent to be
a source of renewable energy and reduce greenhouse gas emission.

Keywords: biogas; palm oil mill effluent; electricity; renewable energy

INTRODUCTION
Energy is an important factor in driving economic growth. Thailand is a developing country with

continuously increasing energy consumption in every sectors such as agriculture, household, business,
shop, transportation and industrial. Biogas is an alternative energy that is widely used today. It is an
energy source that occurs from the degradation of organic substances by the anaerobic digestion process.
Suitable raw materials for biogas production include domestic waste, waste, and wastewater from
industrial and agricultural sectors [1],[2]. Biogas can be utilized in 3 forms which are heat generation,
electricity generation, and combined heat and power generation. Biogas production is a process that
reduces pollution emissions into the environment as well.

Palm Oil Mill Effluent (POME) is a suitable raw material for biogas production because it is high
chemical oxygen demand (COD), Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), organic and nutrient contents.
Fresh POME is a thick brownish, acidic with pH of POME between 4 to 5, colloidal slurry of water, oil
and fine cellulosic fruit residues [3]. POME is a non-toxic waste because there is no chemical added
during the oil extraction process, but it has become one of the major sources of water pollution because it
is high value of COD and BOD [4]. For every ton of palm oil produced, 2.5 tons of POME is generated
[5]. Thailand has more than 200 palm oil industry factories [6]. Approximately 40 plants have biogas
production systems for generating electricity [7]. Considering the proportion of the amount of electricity
produced and the amount of wastewater from the palm oil production process, it is still very small.
Therefore, this study investigated the limitation of electricity production from biogas and find ways to
increase electricity production from POME. Including, assessing the potential for reducing greenhouse gas
emissions.

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METHODOLOGY
Data were collected from the final report of the survey and guideline to increase the efficiency of

biogas production in Thailand, supported by the ministry of energy [8].
I. Reviewed the POME characteristics of 15 factories with previous research.
II. Analyzed the microbiological activity involved in biogas production by the specific
methanogenic activity (SMA) value.
III. Reviewed on biogas production technology. Calculated the electricity production capability
from 15 factories POME and compare with the actual data and find ways to increase the
efficiency of electricity production.
IIII. The latter part of this paper highlighted the potential of biogas from POME for reducing

greenhouse gas emissions and use to be a guideline to conserve the environment by reducing the electricity
generation from coal. Measuring the greenhouse gas emissions from human activities can be calculating
by the following equation;

GHG = A x EF

When; GHG = the amount of GHG emission, A = Activity, EF = the emission factor

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

The POME characteristics
The POME characteristics of 15 factories as shown in table 1. It can be seen that the POME is quite

acidic, high temperature, high amounts of total solids and has a high chemical oxygen demand (COD)
value in the form of dirt which in the range of 44,882 - 100,000 mg/l. The average pH of 15 factories was
4.55. Following the previous research, the COD of POME is in the range of 15,000 - 100,000 mg/l and pH
around 4-5. The result revealed that POME is potential industrial wastewater suitable for biogas
production by the anaerobic digestion process because it is high organic content. Moreover POME is
suitable carbon and nitrogen source for microbial growth [9],[10].

Table 1 The characteristic of POME from the data collection of 15 factories.

Parameter Range Average SD

pH 4.03 - 4.85 4.55 0.24
Temperature (°C) 27.7 – 55.0 41.3 7.76
COD (mg/l) 44,882 - 100,000 72,798 15,624
TS (mg/l) 26,784 - 76,150 47,061 12,051
VFA (mg/l) 2,345 – 13,633 6,310 2,970

The specific methanogenic activity (SMA)
SMA is a value used to measure the methane producing capability of the microorganism in the

biogas system. A methanogen bacterium uses organic matter as a substrate to produce methane gas,
especially acetic acid which is intermediate substrates in anaerobic digestion process. The active
methanogen bacterium is the great importance factor for obtain POME treatment efficiency. SMA can be
used to indicate the aptness of anaerobic systems and determine the appropriate initial organic loading
rate. The SMA was expressed in gCH4-COD/gVSS.day.

In this study, the SMA value of 15 factories was in the range of 0.037 - 0.226 gCH4-COD/gVSS.day
the average SMA value was 0.10 gCH4-COD/gVSS.day. According to the value from previous research
has provided, SMA value of POME was 0.16 gCH4-COD/gVSS.day [11] and 0.083 gCH4-COD/gVSS.day
[12] both are used batch reactors in lab scale. The results suggest that the factory using hybrid channel
digester (HCD) provided highest SMA value; 0.226 gCH4-COD/gVSS.day which combines between
stirring property in CSTR and one way flow property in plug flow reactor. HCD can create good contact
between the microorganism and organic matter and still maintain a suitable amount of microorganism in
the reactor. The SMA is related to the amounts of substrate and microorganism in the reactor. Suitable
amounts of substrate and microorganism cause the microorganism are ready to degradation of organic

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matter and the system has a suitable environment allowed methanogen bacteria to produce methane to be
activities fully. The over amounts of substrate and biomass led to acids accumulation in the reactor and
decreased methanogen activity (SMA lower). Moreover, the SMA value depends on the proportion of
volatile organic acids and amount of active methanogen bacteria in the reactor, because methanogen
bacteria use volatile organic acids as a substrate to produce methane gas [13], [14].

Biogas production technology
Anaerobic digestion has been widely used for POME treatment with a large emphasis placed on

capturing the methane gas released as a product of this method. It can support the high loading rate. The
cost of investment and operation is lower than aerobic digestion, small space is required and small amount
of excess sludge generated.

According to the studies, the most used biogas production technology is Continuous stirred tank
reactor (CSTR). Next is Covered lagoon, Hybrid channel digester (HCD), Upflow anaerobic sludge
blanket reactor (UASB), Anaerobic filter (AF), High coupled split reactor (HCSR), Covered lagoon bio-
reactor (HCSR), and Modified covered lagoon (MCL) respectively. As shown in figure 1. All technology
had the COD removal efficiency more than 60% and also found that the COD removal efficiency was 94%
in CSTR, higher than other technology. The COD removal efficiency of the biogas production technology
was shown in figure 2. According the previous researches, the COD removal efficiency of CSTR was
between 85%-95%. The higher efficiency of CSTR due to the different operating conditions with a mixer,
the mixer provides more areas of contracting between the microbial community and the organic matters.
CSTR can be accepting waste that is contaminated with toxic substance because stirring and mixing helps
to dilute the toxins. Moreover, the measurement and operation of the CSTR reactor is not complicated
[15],[16].

CSTR : Continuous stirred tank reactor HCD : Hybrid channel digester
UASB : Upflow anaerobic sludge blanket reactor AF : Anaerobic filter
CLBR : Covered lagoon bio-reactor HCSR : High coupled split reactor
MCL : Modified covered lagoon

Figure 1 The pie graphs showing the proportion of 33 biogas reactors of 15 factories.

% Efficiency

Figure 2 The COD removal efficiency of the biogas production technology of 15 factories.

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Biogas production capability from POME
The result shown the actual amount of biogas production was in the range of 7,000 - 26,629 m3/day.

The total actual amount of biogas production of 15 factories was 215,433 m3/day while the total amount of
biogas production from theoretical calculation was 238,357 m3/day higher than the actual amount 22,924
m3/day or 10.64%. In Indonesia less than 10% of palm oil mills treat POME by using biogas technology.
They estimated that all of POME generated in Indonesia can produce biogas more than 800,000 tons/year
[17] and Malaysia estimated that around 578,693 tons/year [18].

The average of biogas produced was 29.43 m3 per 1 m3 POME slightly higher than the previous
study reported that the efficiency of biogas production from POME about 1 ton can be converted to biogas
28 m3 approximately [19]. However, the efficiency of biogas production depends on many factors; pH,
temperature, organic loading rate (OLR), hydraulic retention time (HRT), mixing rate, pressure,
equilibrium, nutrient, and microbial activities. Choong et al. reported the biogas production efficiency and
the microbial population existence are influenced by the temperature of reactor. There are more diverse
microbial community can be found in mesophilic reactor while the thermophilic reactor can be produce
higher volume of biogas [20]. Moreover, pH is an important factor effect to the reactor performance. The
microbial community is sensitive to pH change. High volatile fatty acid concentration causes a drop in pH
which inhibited methanogen bacteria activity. In general, VFA concentration in a reactor varies between
200-800 mg/l [21]. The reactor could tolerate acetic acid concentrations up to 4,000 mg/l without
inhibition of gas production [22].

Electricity production capability from POME
Biogas generated from POME treatment can be used in a gas engine for power generation for

electricity. Thailand government has the target of electricity generation from biogas sources about 546
MW under the Power Development Plan 2018 and provides special incentives for persuade the producers
invest in the renewable electricity by Feed-in-tariff (Fit) system [23]. However, biogas power plants are
still considered few amounts in Thailand.

According to the studies, the total actual amount of electricity generation is 307,613 kWh. The total
amount of electricity generation from theoretical calculations is 333,700 kWh. This is 26,087 kWh or
8.48% higher than actually produced. The total amount of electricity generation of 15 factories is 22,072
kW, it is just 4.04% when compere with the target of Power Development Plan 2018. Considering the
engine efficiency, the study found that the highest efficiency of gas engine is 40.3% and the lowest
efficiency of gas engine is 16%. According to the previous research provided, the gas engine efficiency
between 26% - 40% [24],[25]. The gas engine efficiency depends on the brand of the engine and the
quality of biogas. If the factories change to use the high efficiency in gas engine and improve the
efficiency to the maximum capacity of the engine, it will be able to increase the amount of electricity
generation.

The limitation of electricity production from POME biogas of 15 factories
The potential of electricity production from POME biogas of 15 factories depends on many factors can

be summarized as follows;
I. Some factories used biogas technology that has COD removal efficiency less than 85%.
II. POME has an unsuitable pH and temperature for biogas reactor. The pH of the anaerobic reactor
lower than 5, it should be controlled within the appropriate range for methanogenic bacteria (6.8–7.2).
The temperature between 27.7 – 55.0 °C. It was in late mesophilic and almost as thermophilic
affect to the performance of methanogen bacteria. It can be seen that pH and temperature are the
main factors that affect to methanogen bacteria to grow slowly, reduces the activity of bacteria,
and reduces the performance of reactor.
III. There was a lower level of volatile fatty acid in the wastewater causing the methanogen bacteria
not active, growing, and decreased COD removal efficiency.
IIII. There was an inappropriate sludge concentration affects the lower amount of methanogen
bacteria. It decreased the organic matter degradation.
IV. There was the SMA value quite low relate to the amount of methanogen bacteria in the reactor.

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V. POME that has a high amount of total solids can be accumulating at the bottom of the reactor,
affecting to decrease volume of the reactor, resulting in decreased HRT of the system. Therefore,
should be controlling the amount of total solids to be pulled out lower than the bacteria growth in
the system.

VI. Some factories used a low efficiency of the gas engine will result in a loss of large amounts of
fuel.

VII. Opportunity loss due to maintenance shutdown of gas engines affects the amount of electricity
produced. And the factories do not have stuff training; it is an important issue to the maintenance
of reactors.

From the above limitation factors, it can be seen that the potential of electricity production from POME
biogas depends on many factors. Thus, the solution to increasing the potential of electricity production
should be considering all aspects of the issue such as controlling pH and temperature of the reactor within
the suitable range, selecting the high-efficiency biogas and gas engine technology, training the stuff about
reactor operating and maintenance. Moreover, if the government has supported and developed the local
biogas technology will decrease the importation of reactors and material from other countries. The costs of
installation and maintenance will decrease.

Carbon dioxide emission reduction
The largest source of greenhouse gas emissions is energy production from the industrial sector

causing the global temperature to increase. Therefore, it is necessary to reduce the amount of greenhouse
gas emissions by reducing energy consumption and use renewable energy. Biogas is green and a
sustainable energy. This study considers the electricity production from biogas to replace the electricity
production from fossil fuels, which is the main caused of global warming and greenhouse gas emissions.

The result shows that the electricity generation from biogas using POME of 15 factories can help to
reduce greenhouse gas emissions into the environment about 53,627,320 kgCO2/year or 53,627 tCO2/year.
However, if all 15 factories can treat COD and converse to biogas for electricity production wil l reduce
greenhouse gas emissions up to 58,995,500 kgCO2/ year or 58,995 tCO2/year or increase 10% of the
amount of electricity that can be produced. When the emission factor of the electricity generation process
from fossil fuels is 0.6933 kgCO2/kWh.

CONCLUSION
POME as one of the water pollutant source in Thailand due to it is high value of organic substance.

Anaerobic digestion widely used to treat POME because it is offer more benefits such as low costs, small
space required, small amount of excess sludge and biogas production. In this study, POME with COD in
the range of 44,882 - 100,000 mg/l and pH of 4-5 is a good substrate for biogas production. The SMA
value was in the range of 0.037 - 0.226 gCH4-COD/gVSS.day. CSTR is the most popular biogas
technology, which has COD removal efficiency up to 94%. Biogas can be converted to electricity by a
generator about 307,613 kWh, the efficiency of the engine is average 34.75% should be improved to the
maximum efficiency according to the power generating capacity of the engine will be able to increase the
amount of electricity generation. Moreover, electricity generation from biogas can reduce greenhouse gas
emissions by a shift towards renewable energy deployment replacing the running out of fossil fuel sources .

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The researcher would like to acknowledge with deep thanks the Energy policy and planning office

which supported the data from the final report of survey and guideline to increase the efficiency of biogas
production in Thailand. In addition, the researchers would like grateful to all participants for their
involvement.

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[4] Zolkefli, Ramli, and Mohamad-Zainal. 2020. Alcaligenaceae and Chromatiaceae as pollution bacterial
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[7] Department of Alternative Energy Development and Efficiency, Ministry of Energy. 2019. Renewable
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[8] Energy Policy and Planning Office, Ministry of Energy. 2019. The report of survey and guideline to
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[9] Madaki and Seng. 2013. Palm oil mill effluent (POME) from Malaysia Palm oil mill: waste or
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[10] Jongkon. 2006. Study of Biogas Technology in Treating Palm Oil Mill Effluent. The complete
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[12] Nabarlatz, Beltrán1, Herrera-Soracá1 and Niño-Bonilla. 2013. Biogas production by anaerobic
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[16] Khemkhao, Techkarnjanaruk and Phalakornkule C. 2015. Simultaneous treatment of raw palm oil mill
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[17] Rajani1, Kusnadi, Santosa, Saepudin, Gobikrishnan, and Andriani. 2019. Review on biogas from palm
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[18] Chin May Jia, Poh Phaik Eonga,n, Tey Beng Tia, Chan Eng Senga, and Chin Kit Ling. 2013. Biogas
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[19] Lam and Lee. 2011. Renewable and sustainable bioenergies production from palm oil mill effluent
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[20] Choong, Chou and Norli. 2018. Strategies for improving biogas production of palm oil mill effluent
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[21] Adela, Muzzammil, Loh, and Choo. 2014. Characteristics of palm oil mill effluent (POME) in an
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[22] Poh P.E., Chong M.F. 2009. Development of anaerobic digestion methods for palm oil mill effluent
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[23] Energy Policy and Planning Office, Ministry of Energy. 2019. Power Development Plan 2018.
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[24] Souza Nelson, Lenz Anderson Miguel, Werncke Ivan, Nogueira Carlos Eduardo Camargo, Antonelli
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[25] Deublein Dieter and Steinhauser Angelika. 2008. Biogas from Waste and Renewable Resources: An
Introduction. Page 368.

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Prevalence of Depressive Symptom and Sleep Quality
of Local Elderly Resident near Lignite Power Plant,

Mae Moh Subdistrict, Lampang Province

Chatsuda Mata1 Nutta Taneepanichskul2* Sattamat Lappharat3 and Yaowares Chusiri4

1Graduate student, Collage of public health, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand;
2*Assistant Profoessor, Collage of public health, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand
3Epidemiology Unit, Faculty of Medicine, Prince of Songkla University, Hat Yai, Songkla, Thailand
4General Education Unit, Faculty of Science, Rajabhat Lampang University, Lampang, Thailand

*Phone : 089 9991227, E-mail : [email protected]

ABSTRACT
This study was to examine the prevalence of depression symptom and sleep quality in Mae Moh, Lampang
province, Thailand. This study conducted the physical examination by Saliva collection procedure for
detecting salivary cortisol hormone from 105 elderly. The study also employed face to face interview by
questionnaires including the Patient Health Questionnaire 9 (PHQ 9) for assessing depression module and
the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality index (PSQI) to measure sleep quality of people who get the disturbances over
one month time interval. The prevalence of depressive symptom showed 31.4 % of elderly which could lead
to depression disorder. Sop pad showed the highest abnormal cortisol range 64.5%. and the highest
prevalence of the poor sleep quality 54.8 %. There was a significant positive correlation between study area and
salivary cortisol.

Keywords : depression; sleep quality; elderly

INTRODUCTION
In 2017, there were many people whose ages were 60 years old or over. More than 900 million

people, which is expected to double amount of elderly person in 2050. Elderly populations will be more than
adolescents and youth at ages 10 – 24 years old. The developing countries have two thirds of the world’s
elderly persons. It will nearly than 8 in 10 of the worlds within next 30 years. Worldwide predicts the
increasing number of elderly in 2050, that will include Northern America 28 %, Latin America and the
Caribbean 25%, Asia 24 %, Oceania 23 % and Africa 9 % (7).When the people get aging, it is directly to
changing in human body. Both physical and mental health will be the main problem of aging population.

There is an association between increasing age and high morbidity, including chronic illnesses, function
dependence, depression and cognition impairment (10). WHO reported the mental health problems among
elderly that approximately 20 % suffer from a mental or neurological disorder and 17.4% of Years Lived
with Disability (YLDs). The highest prevalence diseases in this group are dementia and depression. These
diseases affect to 5% and 7 % of the world’s elderly population. Depression can lead to impair function in
daily life (8). In many previous studies defined the meaning of depression as the major depressive disorder
regarding to the first mental disease in elderliness differ from the early ages depression. In term of clinical
presentation, etiology, treatment and prognosis. Major Depression Disorder (MDD) is a syndrome that has
depressive mood for more than two weeks, loss of interest or hard to enjoy life (11). Depending on elderly
with major depressive disorder are reported sleep problems by 60 – 90 %. That can define the sleep problem
in non-continue in sleep latency. Case of depression is including genetic and non- genetic factors with 50%

and 50% . The non- genetic factors can environment. The emotional symptoms were mainly to be associated

with the air pollutions (6). However, the health effect of elderly residents living near the power plant area is

not clear and needs further detailed including depression symptom and sleep quality. Hence, this study

examined the prevalence of depression symptom and sleep quality in Mae Moh, Lampang province,

Thailand.

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METHODOLOGY
This study is a cross sectional study at Mae Moh, Lampang province, Thailand. Mae Moh is one of district at
eastern part of Lampang province. There are many neighboring districts including Mae Tha, Mueang
Lampang, Chae Hom and Ngao of Lampang Province, Song and Long of Phrae Province. Almost of the
geographic of this area is mountain. Dominate mountains in the landscape of this district is Phi Pan Nam
mountain.Mae Moh district is divided into five sub-districts (tambons) and subdivided into 37 villages
(moobans), no municipal (thesabans). We selected three areas depending on air monitoring stations,
including Mae Moh, Sop Pad and Ban Dong monitoring stations. NO2, SO2, O3, PM10 and PM2.5 are used to
access an association in this study. We collected the data in the wet season on October, 2019. There is the
lignite power plant near the resident of elderly in this study. Mae Moh is far from the power plant around 13
kilometers, Sop Pad 7.5 kilometers and Ban Don 19 kilometers (Figure 1).

Ban
Don

Mae Moh

Sop Pad

Figure 1 Map of Mae Moh district and three area of air monitoring stations
Participants in this study selected from each sub-district using proportion to size. The elderly sample sizes
were drawn from the following subdistricts; 22 from Bandon, 52 from Mae Moh, and 31 from Sop Pad. In
addition, the inclusion and exclusion criteria were considered as follows.
Inclusion criteria :

- Male or female who 60 years old or above with independent
- Thai nationality
- Residence in Lampang at least 5 years
- Allow to collect the data
Exclusion criteria :
- Persons diagnosed with Dementia, Alzheimer’s disease and Depression by physician.
- Medical use for sleep problem

Flow chart of study process is presented in Figure 2.

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Lampang consists of
13 districts

Mae Moh district consist of 5 sub districts Purposive sampling based on
number of elderly population

Stratified sampling based on air
monitoring station

Ban Don Mae Moh Sop Pad Apply
inclusion and

exclusion
criteria

systematic random sampling in every 3rd persons

elderly met eligible criteria will elderly met eligible criteria elderly met eligible criteria

join the study will join the study will join the study
(n=22) (n=52) (n=31)

Measurement
(n = 105)

Figure 2 Participant flowchart

Measurement Tools

1. Questionnaire
1.1 The Patient Health Questionnaire 9 (PHQ9)

PHQ9 is 9 items questionnaire can be entirely self-administered by the patient for assessing depression
module. For each item can be scored from 1 to 3; several days = 1, More than half the days = 2, Nearly every
day = 3. The range score can be 0 – 27. If 9 or more of 9 depression symptoms within the past two weeks is
diagnosed as Major Depressive Disorder or other Depressive Disorder. The reliability of the PHQ-9 was
Cronbach’s alpha 0.89 (4). Interpretation of total Score is as follows.

Total score Depression Severity
1 -4 Minimal depression
5-9
Mild depression
10 - 14 Moderate depression
15 -19 Moderate severe depression
20-27
Severe depression

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1.2 The Pittsburgh Sleep Quality index (PSQI)
PSQI is an instrument used to measure sleep quality in population by self-report, of which the
disturbance is over one month time interval. Nineteen items measuring seven domains (2) are as follows;
1. Subjective sleep quality
2. Sleep latency
3. Sleep duration
4. Habitual sleep efficiency
5. Sleep disturbances
6. Use of sleep medication
7. Day time dysfunction
Scoring the answer from 0 to 3; Not during the past month = 0, Less than once a week = 1, Once or
twice a week =2 and Three or more times week = 3. A total score of 5 or greater indicates a poor sleeper.
The PSQI can be used for initial and ongoing measuring elderly. An internal consistency and reliability
coefficient was 0.83 for its seven components.

2. Physical examination
Cortisol levels are useful in the diagnosis of abnormalities in the associated mechanism. Between the

adrenal gland Pituitary gland and hypothalamus (HPA axis). Therefore, cortisol testing is used to help
diagnose diseases that over or less cortisol secretion (5).

Patient Preparation
1. Collect saliva between 6.00 – 10.00 hrs in the Salivette tube.
2. Do not apply lipstick or lip gloss on the mouth and moisturizer at hand before collecting saliva.
3. Do not smoke on the sampling date. Because smoking may cause higher values than reality.
4. Do not eat or drink water for at least 30 minutes before collecting saliva.
5. Can brush teeth before collecting saliva for at least 2 hours.
6. 15 minutes before collecting saliva, rinse mouth with water to clean the mouth.
Saliva collection procedure for detecting Cortisol
1. Start from opening the lid and took a cotton ball inside the Salivette tube into the mouth.
2. Chew the cotton for 2 minutes to stimulate the saliva and keep the cotton in the Salivette tube. Then

close the lid tightly.
3. Record the name, date and time of saliva collection on the Salivette tube. (Do not have blood in

cotton. If there is blood, must to let doctors know)
4. Keeps saliva in the refrigerator at 4-8 degrees Celsius.
5. Must be delivered for laboratory within 4 days from the date of collecting saliva.
Report
Report in µg/dL by reference value 5 th -95th percentile.
Midnight ± 30 minutes < 0.274 µg/dL
Morning hours 6-10a.m. < 0.736 µg/dL
Content validity
Validity was reviewed by 3 experts as following; There are 3 qualified person including doctors, nurse and
professor from public health division. And have to get an index of the Item Objective Congruence (IOC) of
the questionnaire in each item and overall of questionnaire. Require > 0.5 for each item.
Reliability
The researcher conducted a questionnaire from elderly samples before do the survey. There were 30
technicians who found that the tool reliability at Mae Tha district and use the Cronbach’s Alpha and KR-20
(Kuder–Richardson Formula 20) measure for dichotomous items showed 0.71.
This study approved by the ethical consideration from research involving human research subject, Health
Sciences Group, Chulalongkorn University with the certified code. All respondents informed about this
study before participating. The consent from signed by subjects before report questionnaire and physical
examination.

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RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Table 1 General Characteristics of Elderly Samples

Total Mae Moh Ban Don Sop Pad
n (%) n (%)
General Characteristic n (%) n (%)
1 (4.5) 6 (19.4)
Gender 21 (9.5) 25 (80.6)

Male 20 (19.05) 13 (25) 9 (40.9) 12 (38.7)
1 (4.5) 12 (38.7)
Female 85 (80.95) 39 (75) 12 (54.5) 7 (22.6)

Age 36 (34.3) 15 (28.8) 1 (4.5) 2 (6.5)
60 – 64 years old 30 (28.6) 17 (32.7) 13 (59.1) 21 (67.7)
65 – 69 years old 8 (25.8)
8 (36.4)
70 years old and more 39 (37.1) 20 (38.5) 13 (42)
10 (45.5) 12 (38.7)
Marital status 4 (18.2) 6 (19.4)
5 (22.7)
Single 4 (3.8) 1 (1.9) 3 (13.6) 0

Married 63 (60.0) 29 (55.8) 15 (68.2) 23 (74.2)
0 3 (9.7)
Separated 38 (36.2) 22 (42.3) 0 1 (3.2)
1 (3.2)
Living arrangement 1 (4.5) 3 (9.7)
6 (27.3)
Alone 36 (34.3) 9 (17.3) 21 (67.7)
20 (90.9) 8 (25.8)
Wife or husband 24 (22.9) 8(15.4) 1 (4.5)
1 (4.5) 0
Daughter or Son 34 (32.4) 23 (44.2) 0 2 (6.5)
0
Relative 11 (10.5) 8 (15.4) 0
9 (40.9)
Education level 3 (13.6) 9 (29)
9 (40.9) 6 (19.3)
Primary school 74 (70.5) 36 (69.2) 1 (4.5) 12 (38.7)
4 (12.9)
High school 12 (11.4) 9 (17.3) 4 (18.2)
2 (9.1) 9 (29)
Bachelor degree 3 (2.9) 2 (3.8) 1 (4.5) 1 (3.2)
1 (4.5) 5 (16.1)
Non formal education 3 (2.9) 1 (1.9) 2 (9.1) 2 (6.5)
8 (36.4) 1 (3.2)
Non education 12 (11.4) 4 (7.7) 4 (18.2) 6 (19.4)
7 (22.6)
Income 2 (9.1)
7 (31.8) 2 (6.5)
Less than 5,000 baths 88 (83.8) 47 (90.4) 3 (13.6) 8 (25.8)
10 (45.5) 3 (9.7)
5,000 – 10,000 baths 13 (12.4) 4 (7.7) 1 (4.5) 18 (58.1)
10,001 – 15,000 baths 1 (1.0) 0 1 (4.5) 3 (9.7)
15,001 – 20,000 baths 2 (1.9) 0 2 (6.5)

More than 20,000 baths 1 (1.0) 1 (1.9)

Career

No job 47 (44.8) 29 (55.8)

General employed 16 (15.3) 7 (13.5)

Gardening 32 (30.5) 11 (21.2)

Trade 10 (9.5) 5 (9.6)

Chronic Disease

None 27(25.7) 14 (26.9)

Diabetes 3 (2.9) 0

Hypertension 15 (14.3) 9 (17.3)

High cholesterols 9 (8.6) 6 (11.5)

Musculoskeletal disorder 8 (7.6) 5 (9.6)

DM HT and high cholesterols 25 (23.8) 11 (21.2)

other 18 (16.2) 7 (13.5)

Exercise

Non exercise 7 (6.7) 3 (5.8)

1-2 times/week 32 (30.5) 17 (32.7)

3 times/week 15 (14.3) 9 (17.3)

everyday 5 (48.6) 23 (44.2)

Alcohol consumption 15 (14.3) 11 (21.2)

Tobacco 6 (5.7) 3 (5.8)

9th International Conference on Environmental Engineering, Science and Management
The Heritage Chiang Rai, Thailand, May 27-29, 2020

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Table 1 shows general characteristic of elderly in each area. Including Mae Moh, Ban Don and Sop Pad.
Almost of the elderly are female 80.9% and 70 years old and more 37.1 %. Some of them living alone
34.6%. There are chronic disease including hypertension, diabetes and high cholesterols.

Table 2 Sleep Quality of Elderly Samples of Each Study Area

Mae Moh Good sleep Quality Poor Sleep Quality
Ban Don n (%) n (%)
Sop Pad
33 (63.5) 19 (36.5)
Total 10 (45.5) 12 (54.5)
14 (45.2) 17 (54.8)
57 (54.28) 48 (45.7)

When elderly got the score 5 or more than 5 on PSQI questionnaire could be detected as poor sleep quality.
Sop Pad was the highest prevalence of the poor sleep quality 54.8 %, Bandon 54.5% and Mae Moh 36.5
respectively (Table 2).
The prevalence of poor sleep quality in Chaing Rai province was 44.0%. Ban Don and Sop Pad were higher
than elderly in Chaing Rai Province (12).

Table 3 PSQI score in seven components

Total Mae Moh Ban Don Sop Pad

PSQI component 0.76 (0.68) Mean (S.D.) 0.74 (0.77)
1.50 (1.35) 1.84 (1.53)
Sleep duration 0.25 (0.62) 0.71 (0.72) 0.90 (0.43) 0.35 (0.80)
Sleep disturbance 0.02 (0.14) 0.03 (0.18)
Sleep latency 1.35 (0.48) 1.19 (1.20) 1.77 (1.34) 1.48 (0.51)
Daytime dysfunction 0.24 (0.58) 0.26 (0.63)
Sleep efficiency 0.47 (0.64) 0.27 (0.60) 0.04 (0.21) 0.71 (0.82)
Subjective sleep quality
Use of sleep medications 0.02 (0.14) 0

1.31 (0.47) 1.27 (0.45)

0.23 (0.58) 0.23 (0.53)

0.31 (0.47) 0.5 (0.60)

Table 3 presents PSQI score in seven components. In each component of sleep quality showing the sleep
disturbance is the main effect of sleep problem in three areas. Sleep disturbance is the most component that
effect to sleep quality; 1.35%. Sleep disturbance due to environment noise pollution associated with health
deterioration, because of its synergistic direct and indirect influence on biological systems. (3)

Table 4 PHQ 9 depression level

Total Mae Moh Ban Don Sop Pad

Depression 72 (68.6) n (%) 21 (67.7)
None 33 (31.4) 10 (32.3)
Depression 38 (73.1) 13 (59.1)
Total 105 31
(100) 14 (26.9) 9 (40.9) (29.5)

52 22

(49.5) (21.0)

Table 4 shows the prevalence of depressive symptom; 31.4 % of elderly can lead to depression
disorder. In Ban Don is the highest rate (40.9%), Sop Pad (32.3%) and Mae Moh (26.9%) respectively.

9th International Conference on Environmental Engineering, Science and Management
The Heritage Chiang Rai, Thailand, May 27-29, 2020