U s i n g t h e P a s t t o D e f i n e t h e Present An Introduction to Memor y Politics in Canada & Europe Co-funded by the Erasmus+ Programme of the European Union © 2022 EUCAnet Europe Canada Network. All Rights Reserved.
2 Co-funded by the Erasmus+ Programme of the European Union Acknowledgements Writing, recording, and designing the materials for this booklet has been more challenging than we originally anticipated but at the same time highly stimulating and rewarding. We are thankful for the funding for this project provided by the Konrad Adenauer Foundation Canada. It allowed us to create synergies with the Jean Monnet Network “European Memory Politics”, co-funded by the Erasmus+ Programme of the European Union. The EUCAnet team embarked on this journey with the objective to inspire young minds and give them food for thought on the complex issue of memory politics. Our sincere thanks go to the members of the team and all our supporters whose contributions were essential to the success of this project: The insights were extremely valuable and greatly appreciated. Special thanks We are deeply grateful for the generous support and comments provided by residential school survivor and Penelakut (Coast Salish) Elder Raymond Tony Charlie and Piikani (Blackfoot) Elder Ira Provost. We would also like to acknowledge the important feedback that we received from Matt James, Kelly Bannister, and Ry Moran for the Canadian context of this booklet. In addition, we are greatly indebted to Omeasoo Wahpasiw, Adele Perry, Ry Moran, Sean Carleton, Charlotte Schallié and Jordan Stanger-Ross who shared with us invaluable insights into the Canadian case as part of our webinar series∞. For the European section of the booklet and the introductory video∞, we would like to express our appreciation for the collaboration with the deeply caring co-authors Laurence Claussen, Fazila Mat, and the Konrad Adenauer Fellow, Ann-Kathrin McLean. We are greatly indebted to their devotion to this project. Furthermore, we would like to thank the members of the Jean Monnet Network “European Memory Politics” that shared with us the first research results of their country studies and their comments: Beata Halicka, Birte Wassenberg, Dianá Gabriella Bartha, Francesca Tortorella, Ildikó Barna, Jules Soupault and Piotr Oleksy. We are also grateful for the voices from our younger collaborators, voices that supported the production of the booklet and the introductory video: Christian Tautphäus, Julia Botscher, Sebastien Leroy, Alissa Schmidtke and Sophie Schmidtke. Your joint efforts have been extremely valuable. Thank you for sharing with us about how your generation is likely to read our booklet. Last but not least, we would like to express our appreciation for the work of the videographer Levi Glass and the visual interpretation of the textual material by the illustrator and designer of this booklet: Karen Yen. Thank you all for guiding and supporting us on this journey. Beate and Oliver Schmidtke (Co-leads of EUCAnet) “Each moment is a chance for us to make peace with the world” Thich Nhat Hanh ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ This project has been funded with support from the European Commission. This publication reflects the views only of the author, and the Commission cannot be held responsible for any use which may be made of the information contained therein. © 2022 EUCAnet Europe Canada Network. All Rights Reserved.
3 Using the past to define the present: An Introduction to Memory Politics in Canada and Europe A booklet for high schoolers and early university students AUTHORS: Laurence Claussen, Fazila Mat, Ann-Kathrin McLean, Beate Schmidtke and Oliver Schmidtke. ILLUSTRATION AND DESIGN: Karen Yen. Preface Understanding Memory Politics What Makes Memory Political? Memory Politics in Canada and Europe National Case Studies Canada Germany Poland France Hungary Timeline of Mentioned Events Conclusion Glossary of Key Terms References for Images References for Quotes Links to Online Resources This symbol indicates when a term appears for the first time that is described in the glossary. This link symbol indicates that the online resource is also listed at the end of the booklet. ¤ ∞ 14 20 24 28 32 4 6 8 10 12 36 38 40 43 48 50
4 We chose these five in order to combine narratives from North America and both Eastern and Western Europe, places where historical narratives have recently taken on significant meaning in public debates. However, it must be stressed that memory politics is a diverse and global phenomenon. PREFACE In this booklet, we explore ‘memory politics’ and explain why it matters, offering what we hope are thoughtprovoking examples and ideas. Our main goal is that you become more aware of how remembering the past is a complex task, and how it can be used for political purposes in the news, in political speeches, or on social media. France Canada Germany Hungary Poland We try to make things tangible by looking at five national case studies: 4
5 In writing this booklet, we had to provide definitions for complex and contested ideas. We have tried to be as balanced and accurate as we can, but undoubtedly some of you will disagree with choices we made. If you do, please share your thoughts! We want to start a discussion, and your interpretations are a critical part of that endeavor. Indeed, we don’t claim to cover this complicated topic exhaustively, and by the time you finish reading, you will probably still have questions. That’s a good thing! Finally, why did we write this booklet in the first place? Because how we remember the past can unite or divide us, and many of today’s challenges, such as nationalism, culture wars, right-wing populism, fake news, and declining democracy, are really battles over memory politics. So if any of these issues concern you or interest you, keep reading. INTRODUCTORY VIDEO ∞ 5
6 History is the record and study of the past. Like many academic fields, it is messy and contested - not everyone agrees on how we should interpret or explain certain moments in history, or whether even certain moments happened at all! And because history deals with questions of identity or lived experience, it can inflame passionate debate among historians and nonhistorians alike. Memory Politics describes how (past) events and developments are remembered and how this memory is used in politics to promote particular ideas and objectives. Understanding Memory Politics Why History Matters Societies are continually wrestling with how to remember the past. Some movements – such as efforts to promote understanding of the effects of colonization or presence of racism – often focus on giving voice to persons or groups that have not previously been included in conversations of memory. Other movements – such as the rise of populist nationalist movements – often draw strength from maintaining certain narratives that have often excluded certain groups or ideas from participating. The engagement with history¤ and the approach taken often shapes how these groups interpret or interact with present day matters such as statues, commemorative sites or even how history textbooks are written. In this booklet, we focus on the political use of collective memory¤. Fostering your knowledge of memory politics¤ enables you to gain a better understanding of what informs current political debates and challenges to democracy. Historical revisionism¤ is one such example of memory politics in action. For instance, the resurgence of populist-nationalist¤ parties is deeply couched in different reactions to national mythologies and historical traumas. 6
7 Collective memory passes through generations and coalesces in objectives, sites, monuments, artifacts and media and kinship. These memories are shaped by many factors such as culture, past experiences, education or family heritage. In this respect, memory is not fixed, but relative and continuously reinterpreted. Questions to brainstorm What are ways of remembering and addressing past injustices? How does memory politics influence historical legacies and national narratives? How does memory politics shape current politics and discussions within society? What is the role of archives, libraries and museums in shaping memory? 1. This image refers to the two projects that have been supporting the work on this booklet – see www.memorypolitics.ca European Memory Politics: Populism, Nationalism and the challenges to a European memory culture Erasmus network European and North American perspectives on commemorating and addressing past injustices. Konrad Adenauer Foundation Ottawa ∞ ∞ 7 ∞
8 What makes memory political? Memory becomes political when distinct historical narratives are used to shape current political realities. This happens all the time! In this respect, understanding memory politics is an opportunity to think critically about why history matters and for what reasons. Perhaps most importantly, the more you know, the more you will be able to see the relationships between power, memory, and even violence directed at certain groups in the past and present. Becoming aware of these patterns offers an opportunity to question negative past practices that promote violence, hatred and other destructive forces. 2. Berlin Wall Memorial, Berlin, Germany. 3. Commemoration against terrorist attacks at République place, Paris, France. 8
In many instances our stories about the past - and their meaning for the present - are contested. In part, this is because political actors often use history to promote certain political ideas and aspirations. Think about all the different reactions to the Black Lives Matter Movement or Critical Race Theory and their accounts of past injustices linked to colonialism, slavery and racism. Or, from a different ideological perspective, think about nationalist or populist parties that re-interpret history in a quest for political power. In this respect, memory politics is a fascinating struggle over why history matters and for what reasons. Check out the following examples on how past injustices are addressed by the Canadian Museum of Human Rights and the Platform of European Memory: Commemorating the European Day of Remembrance for the Victims of Totalitarian and Authoritarian Regimes Canadian Museum for Human Rights What do you think? Why and how does history matter to you? Can you imagine an historical event that is interpreted in different ways by different peoples and groups? Why are some forms of collective memory politically contested? Can you think of examples of what Pamela Palamater refers to as ongoing "genocial acts"? “So why is it important to understand the history of genocide in Canada? Because it is not history. Today’s racist government laws, policies and actions have proven to be just as deadly for Indigenous peoples as the genocidal acts of the past.” Pamela Palamater, Mi’kmaq lawyer. ∞ ∞ 9
10 Memory Politics in a Canadian and European Context Unsure about memory politics? Let’s make things a little more tangible by taking a closer look at how memory politics works in two specific contexts: “We must be listened to: above and beyond our personal experience, we have collectively witnessed a fundamental unexpected event, fundamental precisely because unexpected, not foreseen by anyone. It happened, therefore it can happen again: this is the core of what we have to say. It can happen, and it can happen everywhere.” Primo Levi, author and Auschwitz survivor. Canada and Europe Canada faces its own unique historical challenge: the process of Truth and Reconciliation with Indigenous peoples. This process has involved history and experiences that had not been listened to previously. This process has fundamentally reshaped how many Canadians understand Canada as a settler colonial state¤ defined by land dispossession, treaties broken or absent, and the residential school system. Discussions on these issues have elevated Indigenous voices and served as a flashpoint for significant political debate and change. In Europe, the traumatic memory of the World Wars and the Holocaust shaped the process of European Integration. The foundation for what eventually became the European Union was the idea that only European political and economic unity would be able to overcome the legacy of war and extreme nationalism; only unity could bring lasting peace to the continent. The memory of the Third Reich, fascism and the Holocaust¤ has therefore been foundational for European politics since 1945. 10
4. Grassroots memorial in front of the British Columbia Legislature Parliament building in Victoria, Canada. Hundereds of childrens’ shoes and toys, have been placed on the steps to remember and honour the 215+ Indigenous children found in the unmarked graves of the residential school in Kamloops, B.C. and elsewhere. Brainstorm this..... Collective memory, a complex topic... Find out which general cohort you belong to by searching online for the example: Generational Cohort Chart. What does collective memory look like for your generation? What shared memory is of a particular meaning for your generation? Do you agree with the attributes of the Gen Z? Why or why not? “Reconciliation is always about relationships. It is about bringing balance to the relations between Aboriginal and Non-aboriginal people. At an individual level people always ask ‘What can I do?’ My answer to that is always ‘Look at how you believe and how you behave and how you think and change that.” Murray Sinclair, former member of the Canadian Senate and Chair of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, 2015. 11
12 NATIONAL CASE STUDIES CANADA 12 CANADA Now that you have an introductory idea about what memory politics is and how it frames political and social discussions, let’s take a closer look at some case studies. By focusing on various national contexts, we hope it becomes clear why commemorating our shared history and confronting past injustices is such an important, yet controversial and contested task. For this purpose, this booklet addresses five national case studies of memory politics: Canada, Germany, Poland, France and Hungary. Each of these countries has been shaped by history and a narrative of the past on which contemporary society’s sense of identity and political community rests.
FRANCE HUNGARY GERMANY POLAND 13
14 CANADA Canada is considered a young country with a relatively recent past, but the history of the land's Indigenous peoples and Nations recount stories, knowledges, and connections to the land that have existed since time immemorial. Despite these rich and complex histories of Indigenous Peoples, Canada’s national narrative has systematically excluded Indigenous cultures, identities, and languages since Confederation in 1867. Embedded in Canada’s current liberal political culture is a deep history of exclusion and horrific injustice. Land considered public in Canada is still referred to as the so- called crown land. Indeed, the very fact that these lands are referred to as crown land indicates the displacement of Indigenous governance systems and imposition of foreign (British and French) systems. As land is of pivotal importance to Indigenous people, to this day it is still the single most important source of conflict that results from the forceful displacement from their ancestral land on which they depend for their livelihood. Even under existing Canadian law, those Nations may have title and rights claims to those lands. Moreover, Canada has a legal commitment to respect these rights through the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP), of 2007, and Bill C-15, of 2021. Yet, we are only at the beginning of a challenging and painful process of confronting Canada’s colonial past. Critical contemporary Indigenous scholarship and 5. Canadian Confederation 1867. Reconciliation is defined as: “establishing and maintaining a mutually respectful relationship between Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal peoples in this country. In order for that to happen, there has to be awareness of the past, an acknowledgement of the harm that has been inflicted, atonement for the causes, and action to change behaviour..." "...we must restore what must be restored, repair what must be repaired, and return what must be returned.” Summary of the Final Report of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada 2015. 14
6. Qu’Appelle Indian Residential School in Qu’Appelle Valley, Saskatchewan. 7. Orange Shirt Day Flags 8. Residential School in Kamloops, British Columbia. What is a residential school? The so-called residential schools are seen by many Indigenous people as prisons, death sentences or child labour facilities. They were designed and run through a partnership between the Canadian federal government and the Catholic, United, Anglican and Presbyterian churches. These facilities operated for over 150 years with the primary intent of forcibly assimilating Indigenous children into mainstream Canadian society. Young children – some as young as the age of three – were forcibly removed from their families and placed into these institutions – often hundreds or even thousands of kilometers away from their families. Once inside the institutions, Indigenous people were systematically stripped of their traditions, languages, cultures, and values. Students recount stories of starvation and extreme levels of physical and sexual abuse. Loneliness was a constant. Research has documented thousands of students died while attending these schools, but estimates suggest that this number may increase fourfold or more. The last schools closed in the late 1990s. 15 How do residential schools shape our contemporary discussions? Think about this... In May of 2021, leadership of the Tk’emlúps te Secwépemc peoples announced the discovery of over 200 unmarked graves at the site of the former Kamloops residential school. Since that time, thousands of other unmarked graves have been discovered across the country at other former residential school sites. expert groups, such as the Reconciliation Committee of the Canadian Political Science Association (CPSA), refer to the magnitude and origins of these past injustices as “genocide”. The Final Report of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada also described “Canada’s Aboriginal policy” as a “cultural genocide” of First Nations, Métis, and Inuit peoples. This report relied, in part, on the historical accounts of more than 6,500 eye-witnesses from across the country that were collected between 2007 and 2015.
16 CANADA 16 “Sister Marie Baptiste had a supply of sticks as long and thick as pool cues. When she heard me speak my language, she’d lift up her hands and bring the stick down on me. I’ve still got bumps and scars on my hands. I have to wear special gloves because the cold weather really hurts my hands. I tried very hard not to cry when I was being beaten and I can still just turn off my feelings… And I’m lucky. Many of the men my age, they either didn’t make it, committed suicide or died violent deaths, or alcohol got them. And it wasn’t just my generation. My grandmother, who’s in her late nineties, to this day it’s too painful for her to talk about what happened to her at the school.” George Guerin, Musqueam Nation former chief. Much of the dialogue on reconciliation takes place at an institutional level, by the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC) of Canada, with Calls to Action specifically targeted towards state, church, education, and business actors. The TRC also shared 10 Principles of Reconciliation that were offered as teachings to people from all walks of life. Central in these principles is the idea that human rights must be at the centre of our conversations around healing, including the recognition that Indigenous Peoples have specific rights – including the right to memory – that must be protected and upheld. Institutional settings, however, have frequently failed to address the needs of Indigenous Peoples in areas of health, wellness, economic growth, environmental protection, education, land claims, language, and cultural revitalization. Often the Indigenous voice is marginal in these dialogues as they remain largely absent at the institutional level. Public events like Orange Shirt Day, the new National Day for Truth and Reconciliation, and the construction of memorials have provided an avenue for more genuine community-based truth telling and healing, something of great importance within Indigenous communities. Such occasions have also provided powerful opportunities for Canadians to hear first-hand the Indigenous perspective. 9. Students from St. Anne’s Indian Residential School in Fort Albany 10. St. Anne’s Indian Residential School c. 1945 in Fort Albany
The subjects of historical wrongdoings and redress, healing, and reconciliation have many localized variants, among them 11. Residential School Memorial to remember and honour the 215+ Indigenous children found in the unmarked graves of the residential school in Kamloops, B.C. and elsewhere, Vancouver, British Columbia. 17 Today, there is a misconception that ‘reconciliation’ is a single event or an ‘end goal’, when really it is better understood as a permanent and ongoing transformative process. Canada’s ongoing and past experiences with Indigenous peoples is only one part of its traumatic history, albeit probably the most far-reaching in its impact. There are others, though such as the Japanese internment camps, race riots, Africville, and the Chinese head tax. the internment of Japanese Canadians during the Second World War and the demolition of Africville in the 1960s...Those who have arrived in Canada from places of colonization, war, genocide, and devastation will very likely have valuable insights into historical trauma; their perspectives should be considered also.” Georges Erasmus, President of the Aboriginal Healing Foundation, 2011.
18 CANADA 18 12 and 14. UFV’s Indian Residential School Day of Learning. 13. Things you may not know about the Indian Act. Sketch by Michael Mohammed of the same book title by Bob Jospeh, 2018. In this Booklet, we don’t go into all these examples. But consider how all these moments in memory should be addressed. And consider the questions each one raises. In the context of land dispossession and calls for Indigenous self-determination, take into account justice in the context of distinct Nationhoods, land rights, and communal autonomies (over childcare, education, and health, for instance). Are discussions and acknowledgements enough to heal trauma and injustices, why or why not? How should young people be educated about the trauma in Canadian history? How does this part of Canada’s heritage and history shape how Canadians think of themselves and the values of Canada’s political culture and identity? How can knowledge of this painful past affect our future Think! Think! Think! Dive deeper into the dialogue of reconciliation: What Is Reconciliation? Find out more about the reports of the National Center for Truth and Reconciliation and of the government, as well as current legislation. Reconciliation is dead | Lori Campbell | EDxKitch Witness Blanket: Preserving a Legacy, Canadian Museum of Human Rights ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
Impressions of the Impacts of Indigenous Culture in Canada 16. Detail of the Reconciliation Pole carved by Haida master carver Jim Hart, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. Short-Videos: • “Savage” by Lisa Jackson’s in 2012 - unique exploration of the first day of school for a young First Nations child set in the 1950s • “Club Native” by Tracey Deer in 2008, National Film Board of Canada • “Eye Witness No. 29”, National Film Board of Canada • “The Vancouver Show - Foster Home Program in B.C.” (starting at min 2:45) ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ 15. “The Truth and Reconciliation Commission's (TRC) 19 bentwood box. It was carved by Coast Salish artist Luke Marston to represent First Nations, Inuit and Métis cultures. During TRC events, people placed personal items into the box to symbolize their journey toward healing. “What is it that this government is going to do in the future to help our people? Because we are dealing with major human rights violations that have occurred to many generations: my language, my culture and my spirituality. I know that I want to transfer those to my children and my grandchildren, and their children and so on. What is going to be provided? That is my question. I know that is the question from all of us. That is what we would like to continue to work on, in partnership”. Beverly Jacobs, President Native Women’s Association of Canada, 2008. “In 1907, government medical inspector P.H. Bryce reported that 24 percent of previously healthy Indigenous children across Canada were dying in residential schools. The figure does not include children who died at home, where they were frequently sent when critically ill. Bryce reported that anywhere from 47 percent (on the Peigan Reserve in Alberta) to 75 percent (from File Hills Boarding School in Saskatchewan) of students discharged from residential school died shortly after returning home.” Indigenous Foundation, 2009.
20 GERMANY Germany has a long history of grappling with a horrific legacy; specifically, the legacy of the Third Reich (1933-1945) and the Holocaust. This painful process - called "Vergangenheitsbewältigung" (addressing or coming to terms with the past) in Germany - has provided a moral and political compass for post-war generations. The Holocaust The Third Reich murdered an estimated 6 million Jews, most of whom died during the “final solution” of 1941-1945. This extermination is now known as “The Holocaust”, or the “Shoah”. During the Third Reich and as part of the broader Nazi policy of ethnic cleansing, the Nazi regime also murdered 3 million ethnic Poles, millions of Soviet civilians and prisoners of war, Roma and Sinti, disabled individuals, political and religious dissidents and homosexual men. Today, there is disagreement on the definition of the Holocaust, specifically whether it only describes the extermination of the European Jews. Some have argued that the Holocaust signifies a genocide directed at the extermination of both Jews and the millions of other people who were murdered. The sources of this disagreement are often deeply personal - rooted in a memory of trauma - but also grounded in the larger context of a long history of anti-Semitism, nationalism, ableism, racism, sexism, and homophobia. Unquestionably, the Nazis committed genocide and atrocities upon many millions of innocent people. 20 The memory of the Nazi crimes has shaped modern Germany, its politics and social values. After avoiding or suppressing the memory of the Nazi regime in the post-war period, the commitment to ‘never again’ has gradually become the foundation of modern Germany. The strength of this commitment over time, however, has waxed and waned. And, the memory of the Third Reich and the Holocaust took on a decisively different political meaning in both German states from 1949 to German unification in 1990. While this memory gradually gained central importance for the Western Federal Republic of Germany (FGR), the Communist German Democratic Republic (GDR) - with its claim to be the ‘anti-fascist state’ - framed its political identity primarily based on class struggles and the achievements of the working class. In this narrative the Holocaust did not play a central role.
To ilustrate how memory, in particular the memory of the Holocaust, shapes the political culture of Germany and its ongoing political challenges, consider the following quote by the former German Chancellor Angela Merkel: “This site obliges us to keep the memory alive. We must remember the crimes that were committed here and name them clearly... I feel deep shame given the barbaric crimes that were committed here by Germans...Today we are experiencing a worrying racism, rising intolerance, and a wave of hate crime… We are experiencing an attack on the fundamental values of democracy and a dangerous revisionism of history which is used for the purpose of hostility against certain groups.” Speech at the Auschwitz-Birkenau Holocaust memorial, 2019. However, with a growing distance to the Nazi regime and the Holocaust, the ,meaning of the memory is subject to public debate: What is the responsibility of the younger generation (like yours)? Should these past injustices still steer contemporary realities in Germany? 17. An aerial reconnaissance photograph of the Auschwitz concentration camp showing the Auschwitz I camp, 4 April 1944. 18. Hungarian Jews arriving at Auschwitz II, May/June 1944. 19. Crematorium at the Auschwitz Concentration Camp Memorial Site. 20. Auschwitz Crematoria II and III and their chimneys are visible in the background, left and right. 21. Young survivors at the Auschwitz camp, liberated by the Red Army in January 1945. 21
22 GERMANY One radical way of questioning the foundational role of the memory of the Nazi regime and its crimes has been promoted by Germany’s farright nationalist party, the “Alternative für Deutschland” (AfD). For the first time in the country’s post-war history, an openly right-wing, antiimmigrant party was voted into Germany’s federal parliament in 2017. Not surprisingly, one of the key components of its political campaigns is to question the centrality and meaning of the collective memory associated with the Third Reich and the Holocaust. Why do you think that the AfD seeks to change the narrative about Germany’s dramatic 20th Century past? How would a re-evaluation of this memory speak to current political conflicts and visions for Germany’s future? Germans are the “only people in the world who planted a memorial of shame in the heart of their capital. Björn Höcke, AfD politician, 2017 “Hitler and the Nazis are just bird shit in more than 1,000 years of successful German history.” Alexander Gauland, former co-leader of AfD and member of the German parliament, 2018. 22. Plaque in Warsaw: West German Chancellor Willy Brandt falling to his knees at the monument to the Warsaw Ghetto (1970). “I stand before you, grateful for this miracle of reconciliation, and I wish I could say that our remembrance has made us immune to evil… Yes, we Germans remember. But sometimes it seems as though we understand the past better than the present. The spirits of evil are emerging in a new guise, presenting their antisemitic, racist, authoritarian thinking as an answer for the future, a new solution to the problems of our age.” German President Frank-Walter Steinmeier, speech during the Fifth World Holocaust Forum at the Yad Vashem Holocaust memorial museum in Jerusalem on January 23, 2020. 22
Examples of current active memory politics: Monument to Polish WWII victims to be erected in Berlin - memorial in Berlin honouring the Polish victims of German Nazi occupation during World War Two. Famous art project: stumbling stones by the artist Gunter Demnig (there are now over 1200 stumbling stones in many European Countries). 23. Memorial at Yad Vashem Holocaust Museum, Israel. December 2018. 24. Memorial to the murdered Jews of Europe, Berlin, Germany. What is and should be the main lesson of the Nazis for Germany and the world? What main lessons do postwar generations takeaway from learning about Nazi Germany? How can we commemorate terrible atrocities like the Holocaust? What do you think? 23 ∞ ∞
24 POLAND 25. Warsaw ghetto, Jews being escorted by Nazi police. 26. The Polish Military Cemetery in Katyń (2000). 27. Destroyed Warsaw, capital of Poland, Jan 1945. Poland’s national memory is critically shaped by a deep sense of suffering and victimhood. In its modern history, Poland was repeatedly divided up by major European powers and even disappeared from the map of Europe for over a century (see image 28). Most dramatically, Poland was violently occupied by Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union during the Second World War. Most of the crimes of the Holocaust took place on Polish territory: three million Polish Jews were murdered by the Nazis. The Polish government never collaborated with the German authorities, but individual Poles turned Jews over to Germans. Many of the related traumas have not been worked through to this day. 24
28. 30th anniversary mural depicting the murdered priest Jerzy Popiełuszko who publicly supported Solidarity during the 1980s. A critical turning point in Poland’s history was the pro-democracy civic movement centered around the labour union called ‘Solidarity.’ Started in 1980, Solidarity quickly became the most powerful union in Poland, and went on to play a decisive role in Poland’s transition to a democratic, independent government. After the liberation from Soviet rule in 1989, Poland has reinvented itself as an independent country still deeply steeped in its traumatic modern history. This process has involved a strong emphasis on the country’s cultural and national identity. References to the past play a critical role in this country’s effort to reimagine what a free and independent Poland could look like in terms of the country’s national identity and position in the international community. The head of Poland’s ruling party, Jarosław Kaczyński, said that Germany is trying to turn the EU into a federal “German Fourth Reich”. Speaking to a far-right Polish newspaper, the head of the Law and Justice Party (PiS) stated that some countries “are not enthusiastic at the prospect of a German Fourth Reich being built on the basis of the EU”. Jarosław Kaczyński, Deputy prime-minister of Poland, 2021 25 Poles were treated by the Nazis as people of a lower category, destined to slave labor for the Third Reich. They suffered also under Soviet occupation, when between 309,000 and 330,000 Polish citizens were deported to other parts of the Soviet Union in 1940-41 alone. Further deportations followed after 1944 and even after 1945. Perhaps most infamously, the Soviet Union perpetrated a massacre of over 20,000 Polish officers and intelligentsia in the Katyń Forest in 1940. The memory of suffering and hardship associated with this foreign occupation still plays a central role in how Polish society defines its current national identity.
26 POLAND 29. Poland across the centuries: early 1800s, post-WWII, and today. 30. Former Nazi German concentration camp, Auschwitz I (1940-1945). 31. PiS meeting on National Independence Day. Poland’s government under the Law and Justice Party (PIS; 2015-2023) pursued a strong nationalist agenda for which the country’s dramatic past (in particular with respect to foreign rule) has been a key building block. This nationalist agenda has led to conflict and controversy, both with the European Union and within Poland. Thinking about memory politics, it is important to note how the interpretation of history has become a highly contested feature of a nationalist re-imagination of what it means to be Polish and what Poland’s role in Europe should be. 26
A set of ‘memory laws,’ and in particular Article 55a, that were proposed in 2018 are one reaction to this process of back and forth historical controversy. It is a product of a nation trying to grapple with its painful past. “Whoever claims, publicly and contrary to the facts, that the Polish Nation or the Republic of Poland is responsible or co-responsible for Nazi crimes committed by the Third Reich...shall be liable to a fine or imprisonment for up to 3 years.” ∞ Law on the Institute of National Remembrance, Article 55a, Clause 1, 2018. Let’s think together... Do you think it is important for a country to assert its national identity? Does your answer change if that identity has been suppressed for many years? Think about your own country. What aspects of its political culture do you think other people might disagree with or dislike? What do you think are the main differences between Eastern and Western Europe when it comes to using the country’s past in defining national identity? 27 “Over a period of two years, the Polish authorities have adopted more than 13 laws affecting the entire structure of the justice system in Poland, impacting the Constitutional Tribunal, Supreme Court, ordinary courts, National Council for the Judiciary, prosecution service and National School of Judiciary. The common pattern is that the executive and legislative branches have been systematically enabled to politically interfere in the composition, powers, administration and functioning of the judicial branch.” European Commission, 2017.
28 FRANCE France is no exception regarding the significance of memory politics. Yet, in contrast to Germany, history is most often presented and understood as a source of pride and inspiration. The national political culture is aspirational, based on a delicate attempt to simultaneously glorify the grandeur of Kings and Emperors and the ideals of the Revolution and the Republic. Pulled in different directions, the French nation has never completely agreed on what a free, democratic, and egalitarian society should look like. These aspirations, represented by the national motto and the motto of the French Revolution - liberté, égalité, fraternité (liberty, equality, and fraternity) - are still contested in contemporary France. Indeed, despite moments of heroism and triumph, France continues to struggle with its controversial past. During WWII, France was split in half by the Nazis, divided between the North and the South. The North was directly annexed by the Third Reich, while the South, known as Vichy France, was occupied by and collaborated with the Nazis. After the war, General De Gaulle created an enduring myth that the entire France was resistant and the country liberated itself (in order to hide the role of the Pétain administration in the deportation of Jews and to dismiss the centuries-old history of anti-Semitism). 32. Example of Vichy propaganda, from 1942. 28 However, the idealized version of the open and inclusive French society based on fundamental political rights has been challenged over recent decades. For instance, in an increasingly culturally diverse France, immigrant groups and minorities have often felt that the great promises of the French Republic did not apply to them in the same way as white, Christian French citizens. Despite granting independence to many territories that were under its colonial administration (1946-1980), the current territory of France is 17% overseas, where more than 2.8 million people live who are not represented by the “national novel.¤”
This situation is further complicated by the fact that the French state has long avoided acknowledging some dramatic events of its colonial past. One example is the Paris massacre of October 17, 1961, where dozens of peaceful Algerian protesters were shot, beaten to death or drowned by Paris police. The massacre has not been recognized for decades by state authorities. And although President Emmanuel Macron recently condemned it, his government did not offer a formal apology. Such episodes fuel heated debates on identity and justice in today’s post-colonial French society. 33. A poster by the French Movement Against Racism and for the Friendship of the Peoples (MRAP) featuring a victim of the Paris Massacre (October 17th, 1961). 34. Storming of the Bastille. Can people have ‘hyphenated identities’? What does it mean to be African-American, Asian-Canadian, or French-African? What do you think of when you hear the words ‘French Revolution’? Think ahout this... 29
30 FRANCE 35. Thomas Sankara, First President of Burkina Faso “The French revolution of 1789, which disrupted the foundations of absolutism, has taught us the rights of man linked to the rights of peoples to freedom.” Thomas Sankara, African Freedom Fighter and Revolutionary, 1984. 36. Demonstration against racism, Front National (FN) party and Rassemblement Bleu Marine, further to elections to the 2014 European Parliament, 29th May 2014 in Beaumarchais boulevard, Paris. 37. FN political poster reading: “The immigrants are going to vote... and you’re abstaining?!!” 30 Indeed, France continues to face fundamental questions on whether its society should be culturally and ethnically homogenous or multi-cultural. The former option is aggressively promoted by the far-right party Rassemblement national. Political parties from left to farright promote a model of assimilation to “universal republicanism” as the dominant narrative of the nation’s past and key values. This building block of French national identity has triggered debates on the visibility of cultural diversity, a topic characterized by xenophobic and racist connotations.
Similarly controversial are public debates about the often ignored collaboration with the Nazis, and the legacy of French imperialism. In particular with respect to the colonial history of France, there is a vigorous attempt to re-evaluate past injustices and their legacy for contemporary French society. In current French memory politics, there are politically charged positions regarding how these components of French history should be remembered, and what responsibility contemporary France has for its less glorious recent past. “Here, they want us to melt into a single body and put aside our cultural diversity... With us, that’s not possible. We’re French, but we don’t forget what makes us whole.” Almamy Kanouté, French actor, activist and leader, 2020. 38. Phillipe Pétain, Chief of State of Vichy France from 1940-1944, meeting Hitler. 39. Tania de Montaigne - Festival Atlantide - Lieu Unique - Nantes, 2017. “They say that there’s something, wherever you are in the world, whatever language you speak, whatever your history, this Black nature endures...But that’s exactly how you make it impossible to become a citizen, because there will always be something in me that will never be included in society.” Tania de Montaigne, French author, 2017. 31
32 HUNGARY Hungary’s historical memory is fragmented and divided. It was once part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire (1867- 1918), a mighty power with over 50 million citizens at its height. And for centuries before that Hungary fiercely defended its unique culture and political independence. Since the end of WWI, however, the country’s history has seen many dramatic ruptures and political fights over how the often-traumatic experiences of the 20th Century should be remembered. The Treaty of Trianon is one of the most significant turning points in 20th century Hungarian history. The Trianon Treaty (4 June 1920) redrew the map of Central Europe after World War I and created new states from the Austro-Hungarian Empire. It resulted in Hungary losing two-thirds of its territory and almost 60% of its population. Almost one-third of Hungarians became citizens of a neighboring country. For Hungary, Trianon meant huge territorial and economic losses. Families were torn apart, and the former country’s borders were eliminated. This traumatic historical event still features heavily in Hungarians’ historical imagination, but how that event is remembered depends on the audience and who is telling the story. The historic trauma has been transformed into a 21st century ‘Trianoncult’, through which the concept and memory of the 1920s were connected with symbols, nationalism, and radical right-wing ideology. As in Poland, in Hungary the end of Communist rule in 1989 has opened the door for a critical re-evaluation of the country’s history and the meaning of its future. The current governing party, Fidesz, and its leader Viktor Orbán have been actively promoting specific historical narratives surrounding the Treaty of Trianon with the objective of fostering an exclusionary image of Hungarian nationalism. It is in this historically framed self-image of the nation that Fidesz claims to be the only true representative of the Hungarian people. 32
40. A ca. 1920 map representing the changes in Hungary’s boundaries according to the Treaty of Trianon. 41. Arrival of the two signatories, Ágost Benárd and Alfréd Drasche-Lázár, on 4 June 1920 at the Grand Trianon Palace in Versailles. 42. The Trianon Museum in Várpalota. “Since Trianon we have never been so close to brining our nation back to selfconfidence and vitality as we are now…” Viktor Orbán, Prime Minister of Hungary, 2018. How much does a country’s ‘selfconfidence and vitality’ depend on its past? Do you think that the nationalist-populist government in Hungary is strengthening antidemocratic sentiments ? Consider Hungary’s 20th century past and the strong anti-European stance of the Hungarian government. How do you think the two can be linked? What are your thoughts? 33
34 HUNGARY When Fidesz rose to power in 2010, one of the government’s first measures was to establish a national memorial day on June 4 to mark the anniversary of the day the Treaty of Trianon was signed. However, the Treaty has also been used as a means to increase electoral support for Orbán. Hungary’s dismemberment meant that many ethnic Hungarians were scattered between the neighbouring countries of Romania, Ukraine, Slovakia and Serbia. The government led by Viktor Orbán has moved to make those ‘cut-off’ Hungarians eligible for citizenship, on the basis of a simplified naturalization process where the applicant acquires Hungarian citizenship based on Hungarian ancestry. The objective was to secure their votes whenever Hungarians head to the polls. His efforts seem to have paid off thus far: In Hungary’s 2014 and 2018 parliamentary elections, over 95 percent of votes cast by non-domestic citizens went to Fidesz. 43. “Hungarians won’t live according to the commands of foreign powers”, Orbán told the crowd at Kossuth square on 15 March 2012. 44. The blasted Chain Bridge in Budapest, Hungary. February 3rd, 1946. 45. Poland’s Law and Justice (PiS) leader Jarosław Kaczyński with Orbán on 22 September 2017. 34
47. A map representing ethnic Hungarians living in some of Hungary’s neighbouring countries. 46. Hungarian Parliament Building, Budapest, Hungary, 2015. 35
36 Timeline of key events: Europe and Canada 1910 1920 WWI 1914-1918 First residential school under British Colonial Rule opens 1831 Women Granted Right to Vote in Federal Elections 1918 The Indian Act allows greater federal control over Indigenous Peoples 1876 Canada becomes a Federation 1867 The Trianon Treaty 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 TIMELINE The Third Reich 1933-1945 WWII 1939-1945 The Final Solution 1941-1945 (Holocaust) The Treaty of Rome created the European Economic Community 1957 The Paris Massacre 1961 The Katyń Forest Massacre 1940 Great Depression & Economic Crisis 1929-1933 Pétain in charge of Vichy State 1940-1944 First Nations Women Granted Right to Vote in specific Council Elections 1951 The Treaty of Versailles is signed 1919 French Colonial Administrat1945-1980 36 Cold War: From late 1940s19The Ber
tion s to 1990 Chancellor of Germany Willy Brandt kneels in Warsaw 1970 Current Law and Justice government begins term in Poland 2015 Pro-democracy “Solidarity” movement is founded in Gdansk, Poland 1980 Europe Canada Global Events 70 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 2021 End of Communist rule in Hungary & Poland 1989 Poland & Hungary joined the EU 2004 AfD Party elected to German Parliament 2017 Fidesz Party rose to power in Hungary 2010 The Maastricht Treaty establishes the European Union 1992 lin Wall divides Germany into two states 1961-1989 Black Lives Matter Movement 2013-present Discovery of mass graves of Indigenous children at the former Residential Schools in Canada 2021 Truth and Reconciliation Commission 2008-2015 37 Canadian Multiculturalism Act 1988 Canada Supreme Court acknowledges that Indigenous title was a legal right 1973 Last Residential School closed 1996
38 CONCLUSION It is up to you to responsibly examine and evaluate each narrative you come across. In our preface, we expressed the hope that this Booklet would leave you with a better understanding of memory politics and a greater awareness of how history is constantly reinterpreted and driven by distinct political interests and aspirations. As our national examples illustrate, history is intrinsically linked to contemporary identities, politics, and culture. Looking at what a society commemorates, and what parts of its history it celebrates, often reveals what values it holds dear and how it envisions the future of the political community. And because so much of identity and politics is tied up with history, historical narratives steering our collective memory are crucially important. We choose to remember particular accounts of our shared past and create stories that interpret these events. Against this background, it is important to be aware of how these historical narratives are used politically and by whom. In short, the use of a narrative always involves promoting certain interpretations over others. 38
And while memory politics can be divisive and concerning, addressing the past and often neglected injustices can also be a path towards justice and healing. It can allow us to consider new narratives, allowing for voices to be heard that have been persistently ignored. If nothing else, you must know that history is a contested concept, with different political actors constantly fighting for control. And debates over the future - like what Hungary’s borders should be, how the Holocaust should be addressed in Germany, or how Canada should reconcile with its Indigenous Peoples - are often mirrored by debates over the past. Listening to the human story we learn about beautiful achievements but also about oppression and injustices. With this booklet we focused on creating space for critical debates that are fundamental to our democratic culture. 39
40 Glossary of Key Terms Collective memory Collective memory passes through generations and coalesces in objectives, sites, monuments, artifacts, media and kinship. These memories are shaped by many factors such as culture, past experiences, education or family heritage. In this respect, memory is nothing fixed but relative and continuously reinterpreted. European Integration The gradual process of deepening the economic, cultural, and political ties between European countries, with the aim of creating a more stable, prosperous, and peaceful European community of nations. Some, however, might characterize the aims of European Integration as the homogenization of European culture and erosion of sovereign power and national autonomy. Historical Revisionism Historical revisionism is generally a term that expresses the intention to revise the interpretation of a major historical event such as denying that genocides actually took place. The Holocaust-deniers are one extreme example, but there are many others. However, historians who seek to overturn the bias and exceptionalism of certain national histories are also known as revisionists (Oxford Reference). History History is the record and study of the past. Like any academic field, it is messy and contested - not everyone agrees on how we should interpret or explain certain moments in history, or even whether certain moments happened at all! And because history deals with questions of identity or lived experience, it can inflame passionate debate among historians and nonhistorians alike. 40
Holocaust The Holocaust is the crime of genocide of estimated 6 million Jews, most of whom died during the "final solution" of 1941-1945, perpetrated by the Third Reich and supported to varying degrees by Nazi-allied or occupied states. As part of the Third Reich and the Nazi genocidal policies the Nazi regime also murdered 3 Million ethnic Poles, millions of Soviet civilians and prisoners of war, political and religious dissidents, so called minority groups such as The Roma, the disabled, and gay men. This extermination is now known as "The Holocaust", or the "Shoah". Memory politics The politics of memory deals with shaping historical consciousness and influencing how (past) events and processes are remembered in a given society, and how this memory can be used to achieve specific political goals. Nationalism The belief that nation-states represent legitimate political communities, characterized by internal cohesion and the ability to autonomously pursue national interests. Further, nationalism entails an identification with one’s own nation and support for its interests. Usually, but not always, this includes the belief that one’s own nation is both morally and materially superior to other nations. National Novel A notion that refers to a historical narrative used for state-building purposes and forms of collective identity. Nazi(ism) Nazism is a radical, extreme nationalist and racist political movement introduced by the National Socialist German Workers' Party (NSDAP), which ruled Germany from 1933 to 1945. Every member and supporter of it was referred to as a Nazi. The word Nazism is a shortened version of the term National Socialism. 41
42 Glossary of Key Terms Populism A political approach or ideology that strives to appeal to ordinary people who feel that their wellbeing and concerns are disregarded by established elites. Settler Colonial System Settler colonialism is a form of colonialism that seeks to replace the original or Indigenous population of the colonized territory with a new society of settlers. As with all forms of colonialism, it is based on external domination from a government and society foreign to the territory in question. Third Reich The Nazi regime from January 1933 to May 1945 was often referred to as the Third Reich (Third Empire). The meaning of the term Third Reich is based on the claim of the National Socialists that it was the successor to the earlier Holy Roman Empire (800–1806) and German Empire (1871–1918). Hitler and the Nazis referred to the Third Reich, as the Thousand-Year Reich. It ended in May 1945 after 12 years when the Allied Forces defeated Germany, ending World War II in Europe. 42
43 References for Images 1. This image refers to the two projects that have been supporting the work on this booklet, www.memorypolitics.ca 2. Berlin Wall Memorial at Bernauer Strasse, Berlin, Germany (known as Gedenkstätte Berliner Mauer in German). https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ File:Mauergedenkst%C3%A4tte_Bernauer_Stra%C3%9Fe,_Berlin,_170514,_ako.jpg 3. Paris, France - November 18, 2015: Commemoration against terrorist attacks, on November 18th, 2015 at Republique place in Paris, France. 4. Grassroot memorial at the UBC Robson Square in Downtown Vancouver. 5. Canadian Confederation 1867. Photo by James Ashfield of Canadian artist Robert Harris’ 1884 painting, “Conference at Québec in 1864, to settle the basics of a union of the British North American Provinces”, also known as “The Fathers of Confederation”. The original painting was destroyed in the 1916 Parliament Buildings fire. Public Domain. 6. Qu’Appelle Indian Residential School in Qu’Appelle Valley, Saskatchewan. https:// commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Quappelle-indian-school-sask.jpg 7. This is a photograph of a banner advertising Orange Shirt Day, flying in a Canadian town. This is one of several lamp posts in the town flying this banner, along the main street of the town. This photograph was taken on August 19, 2021. https:// en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orange_Shirt_Day#/media/File:Orange_Shirt_Day_Banner_2.jpg 8. Kamloops Residential School in 1934. https://collections.irshdc.ubc.ca/index.php/ Detail/objects/2211 9. Students from St. Anne’s Indian Residential School in Fort Albany. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Students_of_Fort_Albany_Residential_ School_in_class.JPG 10. 10. St. Anne’s Indian Residential School c. 1945 in Fort Albany 11. Kamloops Residential School Memorial 2021 in Vancouver, British Columbia. 43
44 12. UFV’s Indian Residential School Day of Learning. https://commons.wikimedia.org/ wiki/File:UFV%27s_Indian_Residential_School_Day_of_Learning_(9825146873).jpg 13. Things you may not know about the Indian Act. Sketch by Michael Mohammed@michael_tdsb, of the book of the same title, by Bob Joseph. Source: https://publish.twitter.com/?query=https%3A%2F%2Ftwitter. com%2FTheMikeMohammed%2Fstatus%2F1093246807545733123&widget=Tweet 14. UFV’s Indian Residential School Day of Learning. https://commons.wikimedia.org/ wiki/File:UFV%27s_Indian_Residential_School_Day_of_Learning_(9825054485).jpg 15. “The Truth and Reconciliation Commission's (TRC) bentwood box. It was carved by Coast Salish artist Luke Marston to represent First Nations, Inuit and Métis cultures. During TRC events, people placed personal items into the box to symbolize their journey toward healing. 16. Detail of the Reconciliation Pole carved by Haida master carver Jim Hart, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. 17. An aerial reconnaissance photograph of the Auschwitz concentration camp showing the Auschwitz I camp, 4 April 1944. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auschwitz_ concentration_camp#/media/File:AerialAuschwitz1944.jpg 18. Jewish women and children from Hungary walking toward the gas chamber, Auschwitz II, May/June 1944. The gate on the left leads to sector BI, the oldest part of the camp. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auschwitz_concentration_camp#/ media/File:Birkenau_a_group_of_Jews_walking_towards_the_gas_chambers_and_ crematoria.jpg 19. Crematorium at the Auschwitz Concentration Camp Memorial Site. https:// commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Auschwitz_-_gas_chamber_(10901307583).jpg 20. Crematoria II and III and their chimneys are visible in the background, left and right. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auschwitz_concentration_camp#/media/File:Arrival_ platform_at_Birkenau.jpg 44 References for Images
45 21. Young survivors at the camp, liberated by the Red Army in January 1945. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auschwitz_concentration_camp#/media/File:Child_ survivors_of_Auschwitz.jpeg 22. Plaque in Warsaw: West German Chancellor Willy Brandt falling to his knees at the monument to the Warsaw Ghetto (1970). Public domain. 23. Memorial at Yad Vashem Holocaust Museum, Israel. December 2018. By Eelco Böhtlingk. 24. Memorial to the murdered Jews of Europe in Berlin, Germany. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Holocaust_Memorial,_Berlin.jpg 25. Warsaw ghetto, Jews being escorted by Nazi police. Public domain. 26. The Polish Military Cemetery in Katyń (2000). https://www.ponarseurasia.org/atransformation-of-the-memorial-site-in-katyn/ 27. Destroyed Warsaw, capital of Poland, January 1945. Public domain. https:// commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Destroyed_Warsaw,_capital_of_Poland,_ January_1945_-_version_2.jpg 28. 30th anniversary mural depicting the murdered priest Jerzy Popiełuszko who publicly supported Solidarity during the 1980s. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Solidarity_(Polish_trade_union)#/media/File:Ostrowiec_Solidarnosc_20100815.jpg 29. Poland across the centuries: early 1800s, post-WWII, and today. http:// easteurotopo.org/ (Partition poland) / https://www.britannica.com/event/ Warsaw-Pact (Warsaw Pact Poland) / https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ File:European_Union_main_map.svg (EU Poland) 30. German concentration camp, Auschwitz I (the main camp), Poland (1940-1945). https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auschwitz#/media/Archivo:Auschwitz_I_(22_ May_2010).jpg
46 References for Images 31. PiS meeting on National Independence Day. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ File:Narodowego_%C5%9Awi%C4%99to_Niepodleg%C5%82o%C5%9Bci_(1).jpg 32. Example of Vichy propaganda, from 1942. Public domain. 33. A poster by the French Movement Against Racism and for the Friendship of the Peoples (MRAP) featuring a victim of the Paris Massacre (October 17th, 1961) https://archives.mrap.fr/mediawiki/index.php/Dossiers_th%C3%A9matiques_-_ Massacre_d%27alg%C3%A9riens_le_17_octobre_1961#Les_rapports_officiels_ sur_les_archives 34. Storming of the Bastille. Public domain. 35. Thomas Sankara, First President of Burkina Faso https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ File:Thomas_Sankara.jpg 36. Demonstration against National Front in Paris after the results of the 2014 election. By Jiel Beaumadier. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Rally#/ media/File:Jielbeaumadier_manif_anti-fn_paris_2014.jpeg 37. FN political poster reading: “The immigrants are going to vote... and you’re abstaining?!!” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Rally#/media/File:National_ Front.gif%20 38. Philippe Pétain. Chief of State of Vichy France from 1940 to 1944, meeting HItler. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-H25217,_Henry_ Philippe_Petain_und_Adolf_Hitler.jpg 39. Tania de Montaigne - Festival Atlantide - Lieu Unique - Nantes - 3 mars 2017 by FrimousseRoche. https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tania_de_Montaigne#/media/ Fichier:Tania_de_Montaigne_-_Atlantide_2017.jpg 40. A ca. 1920 map representing the changes in Hungary’s boundaries according to the Treaty of Trianon. By Emich. Published by the Hungarian Women’s National Association. Holder: Wolfsonian-Florida International University. https://www. dvhh.org/history/1900s/manza.htm 46
47 41. Arrival of the two signatories, Ágost Benárd and Alfréd Drasche-Lázár, on 4 June 1920 at the Grand Trianon Palace in Versailles. Public domain. 42. The Trianon Museum. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Trianon_ Museum,_sign_and_parapet,_2017_V%C3%A1rpalota.jpg 43. “Hungarians won’t live according to the commands of foreign powers”, Orbán told the crowd at Kossuth square on 15 March 2012. https://commons. wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Orb%C3%A1n_Viktor_besz%C3%A9de,_2012.03.15,_ Kossuth_t%C3%A9r_(1).JPG 44. The blasted Chain Bridge in Budapest, Hungary. February 3rd, 1946. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Lanc_hid_-_Budapest_3_Febr_1946_ Foto_Takkk_Hungary.jpg 45. Poland’s Law and Justice (PiS) leader Jarosław Kaczyński with Orbán on 22 September 2017. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Jaros%C5%82aw_ Kaczy%C5%84ski_i_Viktor_Orb%C3%A1n_w_Sejmie.jpg 46. Hungarian Parliament Building, Budapest, Hungary, 2015. By Andrew Shiva. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:HUN-2015-Budapest-Hungarian_Parliament_ (Budapest)_2015-02.jpg 47. A map representing ethnic Hungarians living in some of Hungary’s neighbouring countries. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ File:MagyarsOutsideHungary.png
4848 References for Quotes Pamela Palamater, Mi’kmaq lawyer. From the National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls Final Report, 2019. https://www.mmiwg-ffada.ca/final-report/ Primo Levi, Auschwitz Survivor. Quote from 1986. https://mjhnyc.org/blog/primo-levi-at-100/ Murray Sinclair, former member of the Canadian Senate and Chair of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada. Quote from 2015. https://humanrights.ca/story/ childhood-denied Summary of the Final Report of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada 2015. https://ehprnh2mwo3.exactdn.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/Executive_ Summary_English_Web.pdf Georges Erasmus, The Aborigianl Healing Foundation, 2011. https://ehprnh2mwo3. exactdn.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/cultivating-canada-pdf.pdf Musqueam Nation former chief George Guerin, Kuper Island school. Quote from Stolen from our Embrace, 1998. https://indigenousfoundations.arts.ubc.ca/the_residential_school_system/ Indigenous Foundation, 2009. https://indigenousfoundations.arts.ubc.ca/the_residential_school_system/ Beverly Jacobs, President Native Women’s Association of Canada, 2008. https://www.rcaanc-cirnac.gc.ca/eng/1100100015717/1571590149046 Speech at the Auschwitz-Birkenau Holocaust Memorial, 2019. https://www.bundesregierung.de/breg-en/chancellor/speech-by-federal-chancellor-drangela[…]itz-birkenau-foundation-auschwitz-6-december-2019-1704954 (In the order that they appear)
German President Frank-Walter Steinmeier, speech during the Fifth World Holocaust Forum at the Yad Vashem Holocaust memorial museum in Jerusalem on January 23rd, 2020. https://www.bundespraesident.de/SharedDocs/Reden/EN/Frank-WalterSteinmeier/Reden/2020/01/200123-World-Holocaust-Forum-Yad-Vashem.html Björn Höcke, AfD Politician, 2017. https://www.dw.com/en/despite-holocaust-remarksafd-lawmaker-bj%C3%B6rn-h%C3%B6cke-allowed-to-remain-in-party/a-43715394 Alexander Gauland, former co-leader of AfD and member of the German parliament, 2018. https://www.dw.com/en/afds-gauland-plays-down-nazi-era-as-a-bird-shit-ingerman-history/a-44055213 Jarosław Kaczyński,The head of Poland’s ruling party, 2021. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/dec/24/poland-jarosaw-kaczynskigermany-eu-fourth-reich Law on the Institute of National Remembrance, Article 55a, Clause 1, 2018. https://researchbriefings.files.parliament.uk/documents/CDP-2018-0134/CDP-2018- 0134.pdf European Commission, 2017. https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/ en/IP_17_5367 Thomas Sankara, African Freedom Fighter and Revolutionary, 1984. https://www.marxists.org/archive/sankara/1984/october/04.htm Tania de Montaigne, French author, 2017. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/07/14/world/europe/france-racism-universalism.html Almamy Kanouté, French actor, activist and leader, 2020. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/07/14/world/europe/france-racism-universalism.htm Viktor Orbán, Prime Minister of Hungary, 2018. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/jun/22/hungarian-nationalist-rockopera-to-retell-1920s-grievances?ref=hvper.com&utm_source=hvper.com&utm_ medium=website
5050 Links to Online Resources Canadian Museum for Human Rights. https://humanrights.ca/story/childhood-denied Commemoration at the Holocaust Memorial. https://www.dw.com/en/holocaustremembrance-day-marks-25-years/a-56349754 Commemorating the European Day of Remembrance for the Victims of Totalitarian and Authoritarian Regimes. https://www.memoryandconscience.eu/2021/08/23/ commemorating-the-european-day-of-remembrance-for-the-victims-of-totalitarian-andauthoritarian-regimes/ Erasmus+ Programme of the European Union. https://erasmus-plus.ec.europa.eu/ European Memory Politics: Populism, Nationalism, and the challenges to a European Memory Culture, Jean Monnet Network European Memory Politics (EuMePo), housed at the Centre for Global Studies at the University of Victoria, co-financed by the Erasmus+ Programme of the European Union. https://www.memorypoiltics.ca European and North American Perspectives on Commemorating and Addressing Past Injustices, scholarly outreach project, housed at the Centre for Global Studies at the University of Victoria, co-financed by the Konrad Adenauer Foundation Ottawa. https://www.memorypolitics.ca Europe-Canada Network (EUCAnet), an outreach platform for experts in Canada that work on European and Canadian issues from a transatlantic perspective with a particular focus on memory politics and democracy, housed at the Centre for Global Studies at the University of Victoria. https://www.eucanet.org/ ‘Eye Witness No. 29.’ produced by Gordon Burwash and Sydney Newman, provided by the National Film Board of Canada. https://www.nfb.ca/film/eye-witness-no29/ Introductory video to Memory Politics, short movie produced by the EUCAnet team, University of Victoria. https://www.eucanet.org/memory-politics-new-video-for-youngstudents-soon-available Konrad Adenauer Foundation Ottawa. https://www.kas.de/en/web/europaeische-undinternationale-zusammenarbeit/europe-and-north-america (In alphabetical order)