Biology_Anyflip Sem 2

PENERBIT
ILMU
BAKTI SDN. BHD.

Contents

PENERBIT ILMUAnswering Guidelines for Matriculation Biology Examination vi
BAKTI SDN. BHD.
Chapter 1 Biodiversity 1
2
1.1 Biodiversity and Classification 3
1.2 Domain Bacteria and Domain Archaea 4
1.3 Diversity of Bacteria 6
1.4 Domain Eukarya: Kingdom Protista 8
1.5 Domain Eukarya: Kingdom Fungi 10
1.6 Domain Eukarya: Kingdom Plantae 13
1.7 Domain Eukarya: Kingdom Animalia
Summative Practice 1

Cha pter 2 Ecology 16
18
2.1 Ecosystem Concept 19
2.2 Energy Flow through Ecosystem 21
2.3 Biogeochemical Cycle 22
2.4 Conservation and Management 24
2.5 Population Ecology
Summative Practice 2

Summative Assessment Test (UPS) 1 28

Cha pter 3 Selection and Speciation

3.1 Selection 30

3.2 Speciation 33

Summative Practice 3 41



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 Number System

Chapter 4 Biocatalysis

4.1 Properties of Enzyme and Mechanism of Action 45

4.2 Cofactor 47

4.3 Inhibitors 49
PENERBIT ILMU
BAKTI SDN. BHD.4.4 Biocatalysis 51

Summative Practice 4 52

Cha pter 5 Cellular Respiration and Fermentation

5.1 Aerobic Respiration 56
5.2 Fermentation and Its Application 66
Summative Practice 5 68

Cha pter 6 Photosynthesis

6.1 Overview of Photosynthesis 74

6.2 Absorption Spectrum of Photosynthetic Pigments 76

6.3 Light Dependent Reaction 77

6.4 Light Independent Reaction / Calvin Cycle 80

6.5 Alternative Mechanisms of Carbon Fixation: C4 and Crassulacean Acid Metabolism 83
(CAM) Pathways

6.6 Chromatography 85

Summative Practice 6 87



Summative Assessment Test (UPS) 2 92

Cha pter 7 Gaseous Exchange 94
102
7.1 Gaseous Exchange and Control in Mammals 105
7.2 Roles of Chemoreceptors in Controlling Breathing 109
7.3 Gaseous Exchange and Control in Plants
Summative Practice 7

Cha pter 8 Transport System

8.1 Mammalian Heart and Its Regulation 115
8.2 Human Lymphatic System 119
8.3 Transport in Plants 122
Summative Practice 8 129



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Chapter 9 Homeostasis 134
136
9.1 Concept of Homeostasis 138
9.2 Negative Feedback Mechanism 146
9.3 Human Homeostatic Organ: Structure and Function of Kidney
Summative Practice 9 149

Summative Assessment Test (UPS) 3
PENERBIT ILMU
BAKTI SDN. BHD. Cha pter 10 Coordination

10.1 Nervous System 151

10.2 Mechanism of Muscle Contraction 163

10.3 Hormones in Mammals 167

10.4 Photoperiodism 170

Summative Practice 10 173

Cha pter 11 Immunity

11.1 Immune Response 177

11.2 Antibody 178

11.3 Lymphocyte Development 180

11.4 Development of Adaptive Immunity 181

11.5 Immunisation 186

11.6 Health Issue Related to Immune Response 187

Summative Practice 11 190



Semester Examination 193

Answers 197

C00 Matriculation Sem 2 BIO (CTN/GUIDE) 4pp.indd 5 v

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 Number System

Answering Guidelines for

Matriculation Biology Examination

A Structured Questions

 1 Read through the statement given in each question.
 2 Study the diagram in each question, if given.
 3 Be mindful of the marks allocated for each question. The marks showing the number of points should be

written in the answers. For instance: 2 points are equal to 2 marks.
 4 If you are only required to give two points, write only two points. Never provide more answers because

certain questions apply the concept “wrong cancels right,” meaning that one wrong answer can diminish one
correct answer.
 5 There is no need to write answers in sentences for questions starting with “State”, “Name” and “Label”.
 6 If a question requires you to differentiate, write one difference in one full sentence using the conjunctions
“while”, “whereas” or “but”.
 7 If a question requires you to label parts in a diagram, carefully write the labels with accurate spelling,
keeping in mind that the first letter must be a capital letter for a proper noun and if necessary, the singular or
plural noun based on the number of arrows.
PENERBIT ILMU
BAKTI SDN. BHD.
B Essay Questions

 1 Candidates can identify essay questions by the action words and the minimum total marks allocated, which
are usually four or more.

 2 Read the questions carefully.
 3 Distinguish the relevant information from the extraneous information in the questions.
 4 Underline the keywords in the question. Keywords are important as guidelines for writing essays.
 5 Sketching a simple diagram or figure can also help you focus your thoughts.
 6 Make sure your sentences are all complete.
 7 All sentences must be short, concise and not drag on.
 8 All sentences must consist of points. A sentence can have at least one point or more. Your essays should be

concise.
 9 Only draw diagrams if the question specifically instructs you to do so.
10 For incorrectly spelled science terminology, no points are awarded. Please be mindful.
11 Interpreting the action verbs in essay questions:

Action verb Interpretation

Differentiate / Contrast Write the differences only between the two items in sentence form. You are
strictly prohibited to write the differences in a table.
Compare
Describe / Discuss / Write the similarities as well as the differences between the two items.
Explain Normally, only one or two marks are allocated for the similarities. Start the
Define similarities with the word “both”.
Illustrate
You must elaborate in detail to cater to these keywords. You are suggested to
write more than the marks allocated because no mark will be deducted.

The definition must be complete and accurate to get a mark. So, you
must memorise all the definitions given in the lecture. Normally the mark
allocated is either 2 or zero. There is no intermediate mark.

Draw appropriately labelled diagrams to explain.

12 Your handwriting must be clear, neat and in the appropriate size.

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C00 Matriculation Sem 2 BIO (CTN/GUIDE) 4pp.indd 6 07/12/2022 3:28 PM

PENERBIT ILMUBiodiversity 1CHAPTER
BAKTI SDN. BHD.
1.1 Biodiversity and Classification

 Learning Outcomes

● State types of biodiversity.
● State hierarchical classification.
● Explain briefly the three-domain system.

 1 Biodiversity is divided into genetic diversity, ecosystem diversity and species
diversity.

 2 Living organisms are hierarchically classified into taxonomic categories:
Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus and Species.

 3 Table 1.1 briefs the two types of classification systems.

Table 1.1 Types of classification systems

Classification system Proposer Year Classifications
Five-kingdom system 1969
Three-domain system Robert Harding 1977 Kingdom Monera, Kingdom Protista, Kingdom Fungi,
Whittaker Kingdom Plantae, Kingdom Animalia

Carl Woese Domain Bacteria, Domain Archaea, Domain Eukarya

 4 The five-kingdom system was developed based on the level of cell
organisation, types of organism and modes of nutrition.

Example 1

Compare the nutrition modes of saprophytic and holozoic.

Answer

Both saprophytic and holozoic are heterotrophic modes of nutrition. Saprophytic
is the extracellular digestion of food using enzymes followed by absorption of
the nutrients. Holozoic is the ingestion of organic materials using enzymes.

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 Biodiversity Quick Check 1.1

2  1 How does the level of organisation in the five-kingdom system classify
organisms?
C01 Matriculation Sem 2 BIO 4pp.indd 2
 2 How are multicellular organisms classified on the basis of modes of nutrition?
 3 What are the kingdoms which consist of eukaryotes?
 4 Name the genus and species of rice.
BAKTI SDN. BHD.
Chapter 1 1.2 Domain Bacteria and Domain Archaea

 Learning Outcomes

● State the Domain Bacteria and Archaea.
● Differentiate between the Domain Bacteria and Domain Archaea.
● Describe the diversity of bacteria.
● Explain the roles of bacteria.

Mid Semester Test 1  1 Domain Bacteria (examples: Escherichia coli and cyanobacteria) and Domain
Archaea (example: Sulfolobus sp.) are prokaryotes.

 2 Prokaryotes do not have true nuclei and membrane-enclosed organelles.

 3 Figure 1.1 shows the typical structure of a prokaryote and the differences

between Bacteria and Archaea.
ILMU
Pili:

Appendage which

Capsule: facilitates conjugation.

Cell wall: Sticky layer of
The cell wall of Bacteria
polysaccharides or protein.
consists of peptidoglycan,

while the cell wall of Archaea

lacks peptidoglycan.

AnswersPENERBIT Plasma membrane: Flagellum:
Fatty acids in plasma For movement.
membrane of Bacteria Does not consist
are bonded to glycerol of microtubules.
by ester linkages while
fatty acids in plasma Large and circular DNA: Nucleoid:
membrane of Archaea DNA in Bacteria is not associated Contains
are bonded to glycerol with histone proteins while DNA in
by ether linkages. Archaea is associated with chromosomes
histone protein.
Ribosome:
Prokaryotic ribosomes
are smaller than
eukaryotic ribosomes.

Figure 1.1 Structure of a typical prokaryote

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 4 Bacteria can be classified based on cell shape, Gram stain and position of Biodiversity 
flagella.
Bio Info
 5 Based on the shape of bacteria, bacteria can be classified as:
(a) cocci (spherical-shaped bacteria). Bacteria also contain
(b) bacilli (rod-shaped bacteria). small and circular
(c) spirilla (spiral-shaped bacteria). DNA molecules called
(d) vibrio (comma0shaped bacteria). plasmids. Plasmids are
used in the gene cloning
 6 Based on Gram stain, bacteria can be divided into gram-positive bacteria and technique as a cloning
gram-negative bacteria. vector. Gene cloning
is useful to amplify
 7 Roles of bacteria: a particular gene for
(a) Recycles chemical elements in the ecosystem. An example is a particular use, for
Rhizobium sp. in nitrogen fixation. example, to produce
(b) Symbiotic. An example is Escherichia coli in the human intestine. protein products such as
(c) Pathogenic. An example is Salmonella sp. which causes diarrhoea. insulin.
(d) Used in research and development. An example is the bacterial plasmidPENERBIT ILMU Chapter 1
used in gene cloning.BAKTI SDN. BHD.
Mid Semester Test 1
Example 1
Answers
Differentiate between Bacteria and Archaea.

Answer
The plasma membrane in Bacteria contains glycerol-ester bonds, whereas the
plasma membrane in Archaea contains glycerol-ether bonds. The cell wall of
Bacteria contains peptidoglycan, whereas the cell wall of Archaea does not
contain peptidoglycan. The DNA of Bacteria is not associated with histone
protein whereas the DNA of Archaea is associated with histone protein.

Quick Check 1.2

 1 State the main differences between prokaryotes and eukaryotes.

 2 Classify bacteria based on their shapes.

 3 Why are gram-negative bacteria mostly pathogenic?

 4 State the shape of bacteria that can exist singly, in pairs, in chains or in
clusters.

1.3 Diversity of Bacteria

 Learning Outcomes

● Demonstrate the Gram staining technique in classifying bacteria.
● Identify Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria.
● Identify different shapes of bacteria.

 1 The Gram staining technique or Gram stain which was developed by a Danish
microbiologist named Hans Christian Gram in the 19th century is commonly
used to observe bacteria.

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 Biodiversity

Chapter 1 Bio Info  2 By using the technique, bacteria can be classified into gram-positive or BAKTI SDN. BHD.
gram-negative bacteria. The cell wall of gram-positive bacteria has a thick
Mid Semester Test 1 Did you know that layer of peptidoglycan while the cell wall of gram-negative bacteria has lessILMU
the Gram stain is a peptidoglycan and is covered with lipopolysaccharides in the outer membrane.
AnswersPENERBIT valuable technique The Gram stain is purple in colour. Gram-positive bacteria will stay purple
used in medicine? The while gram-negative bacteria will turn pink or red.
technique is used to
quickly determine the  3 Shapes of bacteria can be either spherical, rod, spiral or comma.
type of patient’s infection
whether due to gram-  4 Bacteria can be observed under a compound microscope by applying oil
positive or gram-negative immersion with a 100x objective lens.
bacteria. So that the most
effective antibiotic can be 1.4 Domain Eukarya: Kingdom Protista
used to treat the illness.
This technique can  Learning Outcomes
also diagnose fungal
infections. ● State the unique characteristics of Protista.
● State the classification of Protista based on two major phyla of algae and
Common Error
four major phyla of Protozoa.
Red algae causes red ● Explain the roles of Protista in the ecological community.
tide. Actually, red tide is
caused by dinoflagellates.  1 Protists are very small eukaryotes, mostly unicellular but some are
multicellular.

 2 Kingdom Protista is classified into two groups: Algae which is plant-like and
Protozoa which is animal-like.

 3 Algae has two phyla, which are Chlorophyta (example: Chlamydomonas sp.)
shown in Figure 1.2 and Phaeophyta (example: Fucus sp.) shown in Figure 1.3.

 4 Chlorophyta has green carotenoids while Phaeophyta has brown carotenoids.

 5 Protozoa has four phyla, which are Euglenophyta (example: Euglena sp.)
shown in Figure 1.4, Rhizopoda (example: Amoeba sp.), Ciliophora (example:
Paramecium sp.) shown in Figure 1.5 and Apicomplexa (example: Plasmodium
sp.).

  6 Roles of protista:
(a) Phytoplankton is involved in carbon fixation that converts carbon dioxide
to organic compounds.
(b) Some algae are edible to humans such as Chlorella sp. as a food
supplement.
(c) Green algae causes eutrophication that depletes the oxygen concentration
in water bodies.
(d) Dinoflagellates cause red tide. The red colour is due to the carotenoids
in the dinoflagellates. Some dinoflagellates produce toxins that kill
invertebrates and fishes.
(e) Some symbiotic protists are pathogens such as Plasmodium sp. that cause
malaria in humans.
(f) Protozoa that feed on bacteria are used in sewage treatment to improve the
quality of the treatment.

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C01 Matriculation Sem 2 BIO 4pp.indd 4

Flagellum Biodiversity 

Contractile Air bladder
vacoule: Midrib
For osmoregulation
PENERBIT ILMU Frond
BAKTI SDN. BHD. Nucleus
Cell wall Stipe:
Stemlike structure
Chloroplast: Holdfast: Chapter 1
Cup-shaped, contains Rootlike structure
Starch granule: chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b
Food storage and carotenoids Figure 1.3 Fucus sp.

Figure 1.2 Chlamydomonas sp.

Light Flagellum Cilia: Mid Semester Test 1
detector Eyespot For locomotion

Contractile Oral groove
vacoule
Anal
pore

Contractile vacoule:
For osmoregulation.

Nucleus Micronucleus: Answers
Mitochondrion Diploid, smaller and for
Chloroplast
reproduction.

Food Macronucleus:
vacoule Polyploid and bigger, controls

metabolism and growth.

Figure 1.4 Euglena sp. Figure 1.5 Paramecium sp.

Example 1

Explain the diversity of protists in terms of locomotion.
Answer
Protists have various means of locomotion, which are pseudopodia, flagella
and cilia. A few protists are nonmotile.

5

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 Biodiversity

Quick Check 1.4

 1 Why are algae called “plant-like” and protozoa are called “animal-like”?
 2 Name the phylum for green algae and brown algae.
 3 What causes the red tide bloom to appear brownish red or pink?
 4 How does the Amoeba sp. differ from the Euglena sp.?
BAKTI SDN. BHD.
Chapter 1 1.5 Domain Eukarya: Kingdom Fungi

Mid Semester Test 1  Learning Outcomes

● State the unique characteristics of Fungi.
● State the classification of Fungi phyla based on the spore-bearing structure.
● Explain the role of Fungi.

 1 Most fungi are multicellular.
 2 Some are parasites but some are symbionts with other organisms.
 3 Fungi are saprophytic as they do not have chlorophyll for photosynthesis.
 4 Fungi can be classified into three phyla based on its spore-bearing structure for

sexual reproduction:
(a) Phylum Zygomycota, also called zygote fungi (example: Rhizopus sp.)

shown in Figure 1.6.
(b) Phylum Ascomycota, also called sac fungi (examples: Penicillium sp. and

Saccharomyces sp.) shown in Figure 1.7.
(c) Phylum Basidiomycota, also called club fungi (example: Agaricus sp.)

shown in Figure 1.8.
ILMU

AnswersPENERBIT Sporangium: Ascospores:
Zygosporangium Haploid spores in
germinates into a
sporangium after sexual reproduction.
meiosis.

Spores:
Zygospores develop
from zygotes.

Sporangiophore: Ascus: Conidia:
Also called as hyphae. Dikaryotic Haploid spores
(n+n) in asexual
Stolon reproduction.
Rhizoid Ascocarp
Conidiophore
Figure 1.6 Rhizopus sp.
Figure 1.7 Penicillium sp.
6

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Summative Practice 1

Objective Questions

PENERBIT ILMUInstruction: There are four answer options for each question. Choose the best answer.
BAKTI SDN. BHD.
 1 Which is true about the three-domain system?  8 Which is a unicellular fungus?
A Proposed by Whittaker
B Domain Archaea consists of true bacteria A Bread mold C Mushroom
C Domain Bacteria consists of prokaryotes
D Domain Eukarya consists of prokaryotes and B Yeast D Rust
eukaryotes
 9 The edible part of the mushrooms is … Chapter 1

A basidiomycete. C basidiospores.

B basidia. D basidiocarp.

 2 Which is not true about the binomial 10 is the gametophyte generation of ferns.
nomenclature?
A It composes of two terms A Prothallus C Gemma
B It was proposed by Carolus Linnaeus
C The species name always begins with a capital B Protonema D Thallus
letter
D The names are derived from Latin and Greek 11 Which phylum in gymnosperms has a single Mid Semester Test 1
words species?
A Coniferophyta C Ginkgophyta
B Cycadophyta D Gnetophyta

 3 Spherical bacteria in chain form are called …

A spirilla. C streptococci. 12 Angiosperms have in their xylem and

B diplococci. D bacilli. in their phloem.

A tracheids; sieve tubes

 4 Most bacteria reproduce by … B tracheids; vessel elements
A transduction. C conjugation.
B transformation. D binary fission. C companion cells; sieve tubes

D sieve tubes; vessel elements

 5 Which phylum of protists is thought to give rise to 13 Which animal is sessile?
A Starfish
plants? B Medusa
C Sponge
A Chlorophyta C Apicomplexa D Planarian Answers

B Ciliophora D Euglenophyta 14 Gaseous exchange in insects is carried out through
…
 6 Malaria is caused by a/an which is A the use of gills.
B the use of tracheae.
carried by as the vector. C a closed circulatory system.
D diffusion across the epidermal layer.
A apicomplexan; Anopheles sp.
15 Which is a unique characteristic of a vertebrate?
B ciliophoran; Anopheles sp. A Has blood containing haemoglobin
B Has a four-chambered heart
C euglenoid; Anopheles sp. C Has a bony endoskeleton
D Has two lungs
D rhizopod; Anopheles sp.
13
 7 Classification of this phylum is difficult because
the members have both plant-like and animal-like
characteristics.
A Phylum Rhizopoda
B Phylum Ciliophora
C Phylum Apicomplexa
D Phylum Euglenophyta

C01 Matriculation Sem 2 BIO 4pp.indd 13 07/12/2022 3:00 PM

Chapter 1  Biodiversity BAKTI SDN. BHD.

Mid Semester Test 1 Structured Questions
Instruction: Answer all the questions.
 1 Figure 1 shows a bacterium as seen using an electron microscope. EXAM CLONE

Figure 1

(a) State the classification for the bacterium based on the three-domain system.
[1 mark]

(b) State the unique characteristic of the bacterium.
[1 mark]

(c) How does the structure of the bacterial cell wall differ from that of the plant cell wall?
[1 mark]

(d) Bacteria can be classified using the Gram staining technique.
(i) State the name of the scientist that invented the technique.

[1 mark]
(ii) State two classification of bacteria based on this technique.

[2 marks]
(e) State two differences between the two types of bacteria stated in (d)(ii).

[2 marks]
(f) Which of the two types of bacteria stated in (d)(ii) is more pathogenic? Give one reason.

[2 marks]

 2 Figure 2 shows three organisms from different kingdoms. EXAM CLONE
ILMU

AnswersPENERBIT
Organism B Organism C
Organism A [3 marks]
[2 marks]
Figure 2
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(a) State the kingdom for organisms A, B and C.

(b) State two similarities between organisms A and C.

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C01 Matriculation Sem 2 BIO 4pp.indd 14

Biodiversity 

(c) Differentiate the cell wall between organisms B and C.
[1 mark]

(d) Differentiate the reproductive characteristics between organism C and gymnosperms.
[3 marks]

(e) State the characteristic of organism B as a decomposer.
[1 mark]

 3 Figure 3 shows a summary of a life cycle of a homosporous plant. EXAM CLONE
PENERBIT ILMU
BAKTI SDN. BHD. Sporophyte

Spore Zygote

Gamete Gamete Chapter 1

Gametophyte

Figure 3 [3 marks] Mid Semester Test 1
[3 marks]
(a) Name the structures that produce … [2 marks]
(i) spores [1 mark]
(ii) male gametes [1 mark]
(iii) female gametes

(b) State three adaptations of this plant to live on land.

(c) State two reasons why this plant is classified as lower level plant.

(d) Name the gametophyte of this plant.

(e) Name the phylum of this plant.

Essay Questions Answers
Instruction: Answer all the questions.

 1 Compare gymnosperms and angiosperms. EXAM CLONE

[10 marks]

 2 Explain the characteristics of arthropods that allow them to successfully conquer various types
of habitats. EXAM CLONE

[10 marks]

C01 Matriculation Sem 2 BIO 4pp.indd 15 15

07/12/2022 3:00 PM

Summative Assessment Test (UPS) 1

Time: 30 minutes
[17 marks]

Answers all questions.
BAKTI SDN. BHD.
 1 Which type of biodiversity is related to the habitat  7 Which is true about Kingdom Plantae?
A Gametophyte generation is dominant in
in an area? bryophytes
A Genetic diversity B Pteridophytes show alternation of generation
B Ecology diversity C Angiosperms are the most advanced plants
C Species diversity D Gymnosperms have enclosed seeds
D Ecosystem diversity

UPS 1  2 Which of the structures in bacteria is composed  8 Which structure is not associated with sponges?
almost entirely of peptidoglycan? A Spicules
A Flagellum B Osculum
B Cell wall C Cnidocytes
C Capsule D Body cavity
D Pili
 9 Which of the following phyla exhibits radial
 3 Kingdom Protista consists of … symmetry?
A Algae and Mosses. A Cnidaria
B Protozoa and Fungi. B Mollusca
C Algae and Protozoa. C Chordata
D Bacteria and Protozoa. D Platyhelminthes
ILMU
 4 Cell wall of Fungi contains … 10 Chordates have a longitudinal and flexible rod
A chitin. called …
B cellulose. A dorsal hollow nerve cord.
C phospholipid. B pharyngeal cleft.
D lipopolysaccharide. C post-anal tail.
D notochord.
 5 Which of the following pairs is not true?
A Mushroom – Fucus sp. 11 consists of organisms from different
B Club fungi – Agaricus sp. species that live together in a particular area at the
C Bread mold – Rhizopus sp. same time.
D Sac fungi – Penicillium sp. A Community
B Ecosystem
 6 Plant spores are produced by … C Biosphere
A gametophytes. D Biome
B sporophytes.
C gametangia.
D gametes.
AnswersPENERBIT

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C02••UP01 Matriculation Sem 2 BIO 4pp.indd 28

Summative Assessment Test (UPS) 1 

12 obtain nutrients by breaking down dead 15 In a pond, large numbers of aquatic plants are

and decaying organisms. found in the …
A Decomposers A littoral zone.
B Autotrophs B benthic zone.
C Omnivores C limnetic zone.
D Producers D profundal zone.
PENERBIT ILMU
BAKTI SDN. BHD.13 Which of the following is not a parasit?16 Which zone is away from the shore of a lake?
A Taenia sp. A Photic zone
B Hirudo sp. B Littoral zone
C Pheretima sp. C Aphotic zone
D Brugia sp. D Limnetic zone

14 In a terrestrial ecosystem, the Tualang tree can be 17 Which strategy cannot manage forestry in a

found in the … sustainable way?
A shrub layer. A Retention of seed trees
B canopy layer. B Unlimited cutting
C emergent layer. C Reforestation
D understory layer. D Strip cutting

UPS 1

Answers

C02••UP01 Matriculation Sem 2 BIO 4pp.indd 29 29

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PENERBIT ILMU 5CHAPTER
BAKTI SDN. BHD.
Cellular Respiration
and Fermentation

5.1 Aerobic Respiration

 Learning Outcomes

● State the needs for energy and the role of respiration in living organisms.
● Outline the complete oxidation of glucose.
● Illustrate to explain the glycolysis pathway.
● Describe conversion of pyruvate to acetyl coenzyme A.
● Illustrate to explain Krebs cycle.
● Illustrate to explain electron transport chain.
● Explain chemiosmosis.
● Explain the complete oxidation of one molecule of glucose in active cells to

produce 38 ATP.

The Need for Energy

Light 1 Chemical Glucose Oxygen
energy energy 3 4

2 CO2

H2O

ATP

5

Figure 5.1 Flow of energy

 1 Plants, as a producer receives light energy from the Sun during photosynthesis.
 2 Glucose, a product of photosynthesis contains chemical energy in the form of

(ADP + Pi).

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C05 Matriculation Sem 2 BIO 5pp.indd 56

Cellular Respiration and Fermentation 

 3 The glucose consumed by an animal, as a primary consumer, is absorbed into
cells, enters the mitochondrion and undergoes aerobic respiration (cellular
respiration).

 4 When the animal inhales oxygen, the glucose breaks down into carbon dioxide
and water.

 5 Mitochondrion use the energy (ADP + Pi) from the glucose to form ATP
(energy).

 6 This energy is used for growth, muscle contraction for movement,
reproduction, respiration, digestion and many more functions of the cell.
PENERBIT ILMU
BAKTI SDN. BHD.Complete Oxidation of Glucose Chapter 5

 1 Cellular respiration, a form of aerobic respiration, is an oxidation-reduction
(redox) reaction.

 2 Glucose is a high-energy molecule, that breaks down into CO2 and H2O which
are low-energy molecules and in the process, energy is released. The energy
released is used to produce ATP.

Example 1

Write down a redox reaction for glucose oxidation. Smart Tips!
Answer
Oxidation = Loss of
Oxidation electron
+ 6O2 Reduction = Gain of
electron

C6H12O6 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy
Reduction

 3 A complete oxidation of a molecule of glucose involves three metabolic stages:
glycolysis, Krebs cycle and oxidative phosphorylation. Figure 5.2 presents an
overview of the complete oxidation of glucose.

Absorbed 1 molecule of glucose
Cristae of mitochondria

H+

Cytoplasm O2 Chemiosmosis
of a cell Electron
Transport 32 and
Matrix of mitochondria Chain 34 ATP

Glycolysis Pyruvate oxidation Krebs cycle

e–

2 pyruvate + 2 Acetylco-A 6 NADH + H+ H2O
2 NADH + H+ 2 NADH + 2H+ 2 FADH2 + + 4CO2
+ 2CO2
2 ATP 2 ATP

Substrate level phosphorylation Oxidative phosphorylation

Figure 5.2 Overview of the complete oxidation of glucose

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 Cellular Respiration and Fermentation

 4 Glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm of cell, and produces 2 molecules of
pyruvate, 2 NADH + H+ and 2 ATP.

 5 The Krebs cycle occurs in the matrix of mitochondrion, and produces
6 NADH + H+, 2 FADH2, 4 molecules of CO2 and 2 ATP.

Example 2

State the electron carriers used in cellular respiration.

Answer

NAD+ (NADH) and FAD (FADH2)

 6 A total of 4 ATP are formed through substrate-level phosphorylation during
glycolysis and Krebs cycle, outside the electron transport chain.

 7 Oxidative phosphorylation occurs at the cristae (fold) in the inner membrane
of mitochondrion and consists of a series of electron transport chains and
chemiosmosis.

 8 For each molecule of glucose, 10 NADH and 2 FADH2 transport electrons to
the electron transport chain. Half molecule of oxygen accepts electrons and
forms water.

 9 Protons from the intermembrane space are pumped into the matrix of the
mitochondrion and take part in chemiosmosis.

10 32 or 34 ATP are produced through oxidative phosphorylation.
Smart Tips! BAKTI SDN. BHD.

NAD+ / NADH and FAD /
FADH2 are high-energy
electron carriers.

Chapter 5

Mid Semester Test 1 Glycolysis

 1 Glycolysis is the first major stage of cellular respiration that takes place in the
cytoplasm of a cell, and does not require any oxygen.

 2 Glycolysis contains 10 reactions in its metabolic pathway.
 3 Table 5.1 summarises the glycolysis pathway.

Table 5.1 Glycolysis pathway
ILMU
Series Carbon structure (-C-) Molecule Notes
1
ATP Glucose 1 ATP is used to activate
2 glucose by adding phosphate,
AnswersPENERBIT catalysed by hexokinase (Energy
Investment Phase).

P Glucose 6-phosphate Isomerisation takes place.

6

3 Fructose 6-phosphate 1 ATP is phosphorylated,
catalysed by phosphofructokinase
ATP P (Energy Investment Phase).
6

4P P Fructose 1,6-bisphosphate Splitting produces two 3-C
molecules
1 6

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Cellular Respiration and Fermentation 

5 P P DHAP/ G3P G3P is oxidised and undergoes

Dihydroxyacetone phosphate phosphorylation. NAD+ receives

3 6 (DHAP) is converted into high-energy electrons to form
G3P DHAP Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate NADH.
(G3P)
PENERBIT ILMU
6 BAKTI SDN. BHD. 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate and Phosphate is removed. 2 ATP

ATP ATP NADH + H+ produced through substrate-level

1 31 3 phosphorylation (Energy Payoff

P PP P Phase).

7 3-phosphoglycerate and 1 ATP. Relocation of phosphate. Chapter 5

PP

33

8 P P 2-phosphoglycerate Oxidation takes place by
removing 2 molecules of water.
22

H2O H2O

9 Phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) Phosphate is removed. 2 ATP are

PP produced through substrate-level

ATP ATP phosphorylation (Energy Payoff

Phase).

10 2 molecules of pyruvate The end of glycolysis.

 4 During the energy investment phase, 2 ATP are used. Smart Tips!
 5 During the energy payoff phase, 4 ATP are gained. Therefore, the net gain
You need to remember
through the substrate-level phosphorylation is 2 ATP. on the number of the
ATP spend, and on what
Example 3 substrate. For instance:

Explain the energy investment phase and energy payoff phase. ATP To spend

Answer Energy Investment
Energy investment phase is the phase where two ATP are used, to start Phase: on substrate? And
the breakdown of a glucose. This enables glucose with 6 carbons to be becomes?
split into two molecules of 3 carbon, glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate. Energy
payoff phase is the phase where ATP are produced through substrate-level 59
phosphorylation. This takes place when a phosphate group is removed from
1,3-bisphosphoglycerate, producing 2 ATP and when a phosphate group is
removed from phosphoenolpyruvate, producing another 2 ATP.

 6 The end products of glycolysis are 2 molecules of pyruvate, 2 NADH + 2H+,
2H2O and 2 ATP.

C05 Matriculation Sem 2 BIO 5pp.indd 59 07/12/2022 3:05 PM

 Cellular Respiration and Fermentation

Pyruvate Oxidation

 1 Pyruvate is a charged molecule and enters the mitochondrion matrix by active
transport, assisted by transport proteins.

 2 In the matrix, pyruvate oxidation takes place and comprises three reactions.
The conversion is illustrated in Figure 5.3.
BAKTI SDN. BHD.
1 Pyruvate
(3-C)

Transport protein

Chapter 5 Oxidative
decarboxylation

2 NAD+ Matrix of mitochondria

e–

NADH + H+ 3 Acetyl-CoA
(2-C)
Mid Semester Test 1
ILMU Figure 5.3 The illustration of pyruvate oxidation

AnswersPENERBIT Smart Tips! Reaction 1: One carbon is removed from pyruvate (3C), forming a two-carbon
molecule and releasing 1 molecule of CO2.
1 molecule of glucose
➝ 2 pyruvate ➝ 2 acetyl- Reaction 2: The two-carbon molecule undergoes oxidation and the released
CoA electrons are transferred to NAD+ (storing energy) to form
NADH.

Reaction 3: The oxidised two-carbon molecule (acetyl group) is attached to
coenzyme A (CoA) and acetyl-CoA is formed.

 3 The products of pyruvate oxidation are 2 molecules of acetyl-CoA, 2 NADH +
2H+ and 2 molecules of CO2.

Example 4

State the importance of pyruvate oxidation.

Answer

This is the oxidation reaction where a 3-carbon pyruvate is converted to
2-carbon acetyl group and CO2 is given off. The acetyl group combines
with CoA, to form acetyl-CoA to carry the two carbons into the matrix of
mitochondrion for Krebs cycle.

60 07/12/2022 3:05 PM

C05 Matriculation Sem 2 BIO 5pp.indd 60

Cellular Respiration and Fermentation 

Krebs Cycle Bio Info

 1 Krebs cycle is the second major stage in the cellular respiration. Krebs cycle= Citric acid
 2 For each glucose molecule, two molecules of acetyl-CoA enter the Krebs cycle. cycle = Tricarboxylic acid
cycle
Figure 5.4 illustrates the Krebs cycle. https://www.
sciencedirect.com/topics/
engineering/krebs-cycle
PENERBIT ILMU S-CoA
BAKTI SDN. BHD.
1

Acetyl-CoA

CoA-SH

Redox NADH Oxaloacetate

NAD+ e– 8 2 S-CoA Chapter 5

7 Citrate

CO2 DDeeccaarbrboomxxyylalatitoionn

Malate

Rearrange Krebs NAD+ Redox
Cycle
H2O 6 e– 3

Fumarate NADH

FADH2 α-ketoglutarate S-CoA
FAD
Redox e– 5

Succinate CoA-SH DDeeccaarbrboomxxyylalatitoionn

GTP GDP 4 e– CO2
+ NAD+
P1 Succinyl
CoA NADH Redox

S-CoA

Figure 5.4 Krebs cycle

 3 This cycle consists of eight steps:
Step 1: Acetyl-CoA is added to oxaloacetate (4C) to form citrate (6C).
Step 2: Citrate is converted to its isomer, isocitrate.
Step 3: Isocitrate is oxidised to α-ketoglutarate (5C) and NAD+ is reduced to

NADH + H+ through the decarboxylation process. In this process, CO2
is released.
Step 4: Decarboxylation takes place again (CO2 is released again), when
α-ketoglutarate is oxidised to form a 4C molecule, reducing NAD+
to NADH + H+. The molecule is then attached to coenzyme A by an
unstable bond to form a molecule called succinyl CoA.
Step 5: CoA is displaced by a phosphate group and succinyl CoA forms
succinate. GTP is produced through substrate-level phosphorylation.
Step 6: Two hydrogen atoms are transferred to FAD, to form FADH2 and
succinate is oxidised to fumarate.

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Summative Practice 5

Objective Questions

Instruction: There are four answer options for each question. Choose the best answer.BAKTI SDN. BHD.

Chapter 5  1 Which of the following statements about cellular  5 Which of the following stages in aerobic
respiration is true? respiration release carbon dioxide?
A ATP remains in the cytoplasm as a source of A Krebs cycle and oxidative phosphorylation
energy for the cell B Pyruvate oxidation and Krebs cycle
B Glycolysis starts by splitting glucose and ends C Glycolysis and pyruvate oxidation
with two pyruvate molecules D Glycolysis and Krebs cycle
C Electron transport chain generates a proton
gradient across the matrix of mitochondrion  6 Fructose 6-phosphate is added with a phosphate
D In the cytoplasm of cells, glucose is broken group, catalysed by …
down into carbon dioxide and water as ATP is A isomerase.
produced B hexokinase.
C pyruvate kinase.
 2 Which of the following correctly matches a stage D phosphofructokinase.
of cellular respiration with the location it takes
Mid Semester Test 1 place in?  7 Choose the correct inputs and outputs of
glycolysis.
Stage in cellular
respiration Location Inputs Outputs

A Glycolysis Cristae of A 1 molecule of 1 pyruvate + 1 NADH
mitochondrion glucose + 1 ATP
B Krebs cycle Inner membrane of
mitochondrion B 1 molecule of 2 pyruvate + 2 NADH
C Electron transport Inner membrane of glucose + 2 ATP
chain mitochondrion
Cytoplasm of cell C 1 molecule of 1 pyruvate + 1 CO2 +
D Pyruvate oxidation ILMU glucose 1 ATP

D 1 molecule of 2 pyruvate + 2 CO2 +
glucose 2 ATP

AnswersPENERBIT  3 Which of the following occurs during the splitting  8 Which of the following is the correct statement
of glucose? about pyruvate oxidation?
A Glucose is phosphorylated with only one ATP A Pyruvate releases ATP during its oxidation
during the energy investment phase B Pyruvate is oxidised to form acetyl-CoA and
B Glucose is phosphorylated with two ATP CO2
during the energy investment phase C Pyruvate is oxidised to form acetyl-CoA and
C The splitting does not require any enzymes ATP
D The splitting does not involve isomerisation D Pyruvate produces acetyl-CoA, NADH and
CO2
 4 The splitting of fructose 1,6-bisphosphate,
forms …  9 Which molecule combines with the oxaloacetate
A glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate.
B 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate. substrate in the Krebs cycle to form the six-carbon
C 3-phosphoglycerate.
D phosphoenolpyruvate. citrate?

A Pyruvate C Fumarate

B Acetyl CoA D Isocitrate

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10 In which of the following steps, is NADH  Cellular Respiration and Fermentation
produced in the Krebs Cycle?
12 How many ATP are produced through FAD in
Steps Production of NADH oxidative phosphorylation?
I A 1
The oxidation of isocitrate into B 2
II α-ketoglutarate C 6
III D 10
The oxidation of malate into fumarate
IV 13 Which of the following is an electron acceptor?
The oxidation of α-ketoglutarate into A Ubiquinone
succinyl CoA B ATP synthase
C Cytochrome c
The oxidation of malate into D Cytochrome c reductase
oxaloacetate
PENERBIT ILMU 14 Which of these enzymes, catalyses the ATP
BAKTI SDN. BHD.A I, III and IV production in chemiosmosis? Chapter 5
B I and II A Hexokinase
C II and IV B ATP synthase
D I, II and IV C Pyruvate kinase
D Phosphofructokinase
11 During the Krebs cycle, which of the following Mid Semester Test 1
takes place? 15 When an animal cell lacks oxygen, it produces …
I FAD is reduced, malate is generated I ATP
II FAD is reduced, succinate is oxidised into II lactate
fumarate III ethanol
III NAD+ is reduced, α-ketoglutarate is oxidised IV CO2
into fumarate A I, III and IV
IV NAD+ is reduced, oxaloacetate is generated B I and II
A I, III and IV C II and IV
B I and II D I, II and IV
C II and IV
D I, II and IV

Structured Questions

Instruction: Answer all the questions.

 1 Figure 1 shows stages in aerobic respiration. EXAM CLONE Answers

X C NAD+ NADH Y
M X

CC C CC X C
Pyruvic acid M
Acetyl-CoA
NAD+ NADH

B ATP ADP
A

Figure 1

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 Cellular Respiration and Fermentation

(a) State the locations of stage A and stage B in cellular respiration.
[2 marks]

(b) What are X and Y?
[2 marks]

(c) State the function of X in this process.
[1 mark]

(d) Describe the reaction at Y.
[2 marks]

(e) (i) Name process M.
[1 mark]

(ii) State the molecule released from process M.
[1 mark]

(iii) How many molecules are released from M if two molecules of glucose are oxidised?
[1 mark]

 2 Figure 2 shows the stages of glycolysis that occurs in animal cells. EXAM CLONE

Glucose
Chapter 5 BAKTI SDN. BHD.

2 ATP Phase 1
Y
Mid Semester Test 1
2 ADP

P PX
NAD+
NAD+ PP
PP
NADH ILMU NADH
P PM Phase 2
2 ADP
2 ADP
2 ATP 2 ATP
AnswersPENERBIT
2Z

Figure 2

(a) (i) Name phases 1 and 2.

(ii) Briefly explain phases 1 and 2. [2 marks]
[2 marks]
(b) Name molecule X. [1 mark]
[1 mark]
(c) (i) Name enzyme Y. [3 marks]

(ii) Explain the process at Y.

70

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10CHAPTERPENERBIT ILMU
BAKTI SDN. BHD.
Coordination

10.1 Nervous System

 Learning Outcomes

● State the organisation of the nervous system.
● Define membrane potential:
– resting potential; and
– action potential.
● Explain generation of action potentials along the membrane of axon.
● Describe the characteristics of nerve impulse along the membrane of axon:
– all or nothing event;
– refractory period; and
– speed of conduction.
● Describe the structure of synapse.
● Explain transmission of impulse at synapse.
● Differentiate transmission of impulse along the axon and across the

synapses.
● Explain the mechanism of cocaine action at synapse.
● Describe nervous system disorders in relation to dopamine:
– excess of dopamine: Schizophrenia; and
– lack of dopamine: Parkinson’s disease.

Introduction

 1 The nervous system is one of the systems in the body of living organisms that
consists of nerves and neurones.

 2 This system is involved in body coordination by transmitting electrical signals
between different parts of the body.

 3 The nervous system can be divided into two major types:
(a) Central nervous system
(b) Peripheral nervous system

151

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 Coordination

Nervous System

Peripheral Central
Nervous System Nervous System
BAKTI SDN. BHD.
Autonomic Somatic Brain Spinal
Nervous System Nervous System Cord

Chapter 10 Sympathetic Parasympathetic Sensory Motor
Nervous System Nervous System

Mid Semester Test 1 Figure 10.1 Organisation of nervous systemILMU

AnswersPENERBIT  4 The central nervous system (CNS) consists of the brain and spinal cord.
 5 It acts as the integration center which interprets sensory input and sends signals

to effectors such as muscles and glands for appropriate responses.
 6 The peripheral nervous system (PNS) consists of sensory neurones, nerves that

connect sensory organs with the CNS and also nerves that connect the CNS
with effectors.
 7 In the PNS, neurones that carry information from sensory receptors to the CNS
are afferent neurones, while neurones that carry command signals from the
CNS to effector cells are efferent neurones.
 8 The peripheral nervous system can be further divided into two:
(a) Somatic nervous system
(b) Autonomic nervous system
  9 Somatic nervous system involves voluntary action. It helps the body to respond
towards changes in the external environment. Its effectors are skeletal muscles.
10 Autonomic nervous system involves involuntary action, which maintains
homeostasis in the internal environment. This type of nervous system is
regulated by the medulla oblongata and the hypothalamus in the brain. Its
effectors such as smooth muscle, cardiac muscle and glands.
11 In the autonomic nervous system, there are two types of neurones:
(a) Preganglionic neurones – neurones that carry signals from CNS to the

ganglion.
(b) Postganglionic neurones – neurones that carry signals from the ganglion to

the effector.
12 Ganglion refers to a cluster of nerve cell bodies.

CNS PNS

Preganglionic Postganglionic Effector organs:
neuron neuron Cardiac muscle
Smooth muscle
Glands
Adipose tissue

Autonomic ganglion

Figure 10.2 Preganglionic and postganglionic neurones

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13 There are two divisions of autonomic nervous system: Coordination 
(a) Sympathetic system
(b) Parasympathetic system 153
14 These systems have antagonistic effects.
15 The sympathetic system is referred to as the ‘fight or flight response’. 07/12/2022 3:13 PM
16 Signals carried by sympathetic nerves generally enhance activities that

consume energy. The sympathetic nerves emerge from middle spinal cords
(thoracic and lumbar regions).
17 The parasympathetic system is referred to as ‘relax and digest’.
18 Signals carried by parasympathetic nerves generally enhance activities that
conserve energy. Parasympathetic nerves emerge from the lower brain and
sacral region of spinal cord.
PENERBIT ILMU Chapter 10
BAKTI SDN. BHD.Sympathetic Parasympathetic

Dilates Constricts
pupil pupil

Stimulates
tear production
and salivation

Inhibits Relaxes
salivation airways

Brain Vertebral Constricts Constricts Brain Mid Semester Test 1
stem ganglia blood vessels airways stem

Spinal Accelerates Slows Spinal
cord heartbeat heartbeat cord

Superior Stimulates
mesenteric sweat
ganglion production

Stimulates glucose Stimulates
Celiac production and release digestion
ganglion

Stimulates Answers
bile release

Inferior Inhibits
mesenteric digestion
ganglion
Stimulates
Stimulates Inhibits secretion
secretion voiding
of norepinephrine Promotes voiding
and epinephrine

Stimulates
orgasm

Stimulates ejaculation Stimulates erection

Figure 10.3 Autonomic nervous system

C10 Matriculation Sem 2 BIO 5pp.indd 153

 Coordination

Membrane Potential

  1 Membrane potential refers to the difference of electrical charge across the
plasma membrane of all living cells.

 2 The difference of electrical charge is due to the difference in ion concentration
inside and outside the cells.

 3 Membrane potential can be measured in voltage.

Resting potential

  1 Resting potential is the membrane potential of an unstimulated neurone.
 2 If a neurone is not transmitting any electrical signal, the neurone is in resting

state.
 3 The value of the resting potential is about –70 mV.
 4 During the resting state, the inside of the membrane is more negative compared

to outside of the membrane.
 5 Resting potential can be maintained by four factors:
(a) Sodium-potassium pump which always brings 3 Na+ ions out of the cell

and brings 2 K+ ions into the cell.
(b) Permeability of the axon membrane towards the K+ ion is higher compared

to the Na+ ion.
(c) Presence of anions in the cell which are too large to diffuse out.
(d) Closing of both voltage-gated K+ and Na+ ion channels.

Outside
cell
Chapter 10 Bio Info BAKTI SDN. BHD.

Sodium-potassium pump
is an example of active
transport.

Mid Semester Test 1 ILMU + ++ ++ ++ ++ ++ +

_ __ __ __ __ __ _

Inside
cell

AnswersPENERBIT Key Na+ Sodium- Potassium Sodium
K+ potassium channel channel
pump

Figure 10.4 Resting potential

 6 Due to the four factors, the inside of the membrane becomes more negatively
charged compared to the outside of the membrane.

 7 The cell membrane is said to be polarised.

Action potential

  1 Action potential refers to the membrane potential of a neurone when it is
stimulated by a strong stimulus. This strong stimulus will cause depolarisation
of the membrane to occur which opens the Na+ ion voltage-gated channel thus
making the inside of the membrane more positively charged.

 2 Stimulus is any disturbance in the external or internal environment which
changes the potential difference across a membrane. The stimulus may be either
chemical, thermal or electrical.

154

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Coordination 

 3 Action potential consist of three phases:
(a) Depolarisation phase
(b) Repolarisation phase
(c) Hyperpolarisation phase

 4 Generation of Action Potential
(a) During the resting state, both voltage-gated Na+ and K+ channels are

closed. The neurone membrane is remains polarised.
(b) When there is a stimulus, some voltage-gated Na+ channels open to

allow Na+ to diffuse into the cell and causes depolarisation of the
membrane. The influx of more Na+ will cause further depolarisation. If
the depolarisation reaches the threshold level, more voltage-gated Na+
channels will open and trigger an action potential.
PENERBIT ILMU Chapter 10
BAKTI SDN. BHD.Na+ Na+
__ _ _ __ __

++ ++ ++ ++

K+

3 Rising phase of the action potential Na+ ++ Na+ ++ Mid Semester Test 1
++ __ ++ __
Depolarisation opens the activation __
gates on most Na+ channels, while __
the K+ channels’ activation gates K+
remain closed. Na+ influx makes the
inside of the membrane positive
with respect to the outside.

Na+ Na+ Membrane Action potential 4 Falling phase of the action potential
++ ++ ++ ++ potential (mV)
+50 4 The inactivation gates on most Na+
__ _ _ __ __ 51 channels close, blocking Na+ influx.
03 The activation gates on most K+
K+ Time channels open, permitting K+ efflux
2 which again makes the inside of the
2 Depolarisation cell negative.
A stimulus opens the activation gates –50 Threshold
on some Na+ channels. Na+ influx
through those channels depolarises 1
the membrane. If the depolarisation
reaches the threshold, it triggers an –100
action potential.
Na+ Na+ Answers
++ ++
Extracellular fluid Na+ Potassium Activation ++ __ ++
++++++++ __ __ K+ __
channel gates
P_la_sm_a m_ e_mb_ran_e_ ++ ++ ++

__ __ __

Cytosol Sodium K+ Inactivation 5 Undershoot
channel gate
Both gates of the Na+ channels are
1 Resting state closed, but the activation gates on
some K+ channels are still open. As
The activation gates on the Na+ and K+ channels these gates close on most K+
are closed, and the membrane’s resting potential is channels, and the inactivation gates
maintained. open on Na+ channels, the
membrane returns to its resting state.

Figure 10.5 Generation of action potential

155

C10 Matriculation Sem 2 BIO 5pp.indd 155 07/12/2022 3:13 PM

Chapter 10  Coordination (c) During the rising phase of action potential, more voltage-gated Na+ BAKTI SDN. BHD.
channels open, while voltage-gated K+ channels remain closed. The influx
Mid Semester Test 1156 of Na+ makes the inside of the membrane become positive, and the outer
membrane become negative.

(d) During the falling phase of action potential, the voltage-gated Na+ channels
close and voltage-gated K+ channels open, causing the outflow of K+ out
of the cells. The inside of the membrane becomes negative again. This is
known as repolarisation of the membrane potential.

(e) During hyperpolarisation, the permeability of membrane towards K+ is
higher compared to during resting state because voltage-gated K+ channels
are still open, making the inside of the membrane to become more
negatively charged compared to resting potential. But then, the voltage-
gated K+ channels eventually close, returning the membrane to its resting
potential.

Characteristics of Nerve Impulse

 1 There are three characteristics of nerve impulse along the membrane of axon:
(a) All or nothing event
(b) Refractory period
(c) Speed of conduction
  2 All or nothing event refers to whether there is a generation of action potential

or not.
 3 Action potential will only occur when the depolarisation of the membrane

reaches the threshold level.
 4 The stronger the stimulus, the more voltage-gated Na+ channels open, causing

more influx of Na+ into the cell. Once the threshold potential is reached, action
potential will be achieved.
 5 If an action potential is achieved, a stronger intensity of a stimulus won’t
increase the size of it.
Voltage (mV) ILMU
+40 Action
potential

AnswersPENERBIT 0 Depolarisation Repolarisation

Threshold Failed Resting state
–55 initiations
–70 Refractory
period
Stimulus

Time (ms)
012345

Figure 10.6 All or nothing event

  6 Refractory period refers to the recovery phase after an action potential is
achieved.

 7 Refractory period is important to make sure that impulse would always
propagate along the axon in a one-way direction.

C10 Matriculation Sem 2 BIO 5pp.indd 156 07/12/2022 3:13 PM

 8 There are two phases in refractory period: Coordination 
(a) Absolute refractory period (b) Relative refractory period
 9 During absolute refractory period, the axon membrane undergoes 157

hyperpolarisation, whereby the membrane’s permeability to K+ ions increase 07/12/2022 3:13 PM
highly. These ions diffuse out making the charge inside of the membrane
become too negative.
10 During this period, the axon cannot respond to a depolarisation even if the
stimulus intensity is increased.
11 Relative refractory period is a phase following the absolute refractory period
where a high intensity stimulus may produce a depolarisation.
12 During the relative refractory period, most of the voltage-gated K+ channels are
closed making the membrane less permeable towards K+ and the charge within
the cell becomes less negative. The axon membrane is said to be reaching its
resting state.
VoltagePENERBIT Chapter 10
ILMU
BAKTI SDN. BHD.Spike Resting state Mid Semester Test 1
Threshold
Resting state

Stimulus

Refractory period Answers
Time (ms)

012345

Figure 10.7 Refractory period

13 Speed of conduction depends on:
(a) presence of myelin sheath (b) diameter of axon
14 Myelin sheath acts as an electrical insulator, whereby depolarisation only

occurs at the nodes of Ranvier which is a region on the axon without the
presence of myelin sheath.
15 Action potential jumps from one node of Ranvier to another along the axon.
This type of conduction is known as saltatory conduction.
16 The conduction velocity is increased up to 50 times as compared to an
unmyelinated neurone.

Saltatory
conduction

Action potential Saltatory
Na+ conduction

Myelin
Axon

Na+
Figure 10.8 Saltatory conduction

C10 Matriculation Sem 2 BIO 5pp.indd 157

 Coordination

17 Another factor that influences the speed of conduction is the axon diameter.
The larger the diameter, the higher the velocity of the propagated action
potential. The resistance is reduced when the diameter of the axon is big.

Propagation of Impulse along the Axon

 1 The action potential is produced locally in the axon, whereby the membrane
becomes depolarised at a specific area on the axon.

 2 An action potential generates local currents that tend to depolarise the
membrane immediately adjacent to the region that has achieved action
potential.

 3 This is because the depolarised area has a different charge from the inactive
area next to it, thus a local circuit is produced.

 4 When depolarisation caused by the local currents reaches the threshold, a new
action potential is produced adjacent to the original one.

 5 The continuous occurrence of depolarisation from one area to the next ensures
the transmission of impulses, even over great distance.

 6 The propagation of impulses occur in one direction because the recently
depolarised area of the membrane is in absolute refractory period, which cannot
generate an action potential.
Chapter 10 BAKTI SDN. BHD.

Mid Semester Test 1 Neurone Axon

Na+ Na+ Na+ Na+ Na+ Na+

Na+ Na+ILMU Axon

1 Na+ enters axon.

+ – Na+ + – + + +–
– Na+ Na+ – – –
–
–
– +–+ +
–+ Act_ion pot_ential + + + +

Na+ Na+ ++ __ __
Na+ Na+ Na+ 1 + Na+ + __ Axon
AnswersPENERBIT Na+
_ _ segment

2 Charge spreads; __ ++ ++
membrane
+ – Na+ Na+ – – + + – “downstream” + K+ + Action potential + +
+ – + + depolarises. ++
– ++ +
– Na+ – 3 Voltage-gated _ _++ __
– Na+ – Na+ – channel opens in
+ ++ response to
depolarisation.
2 _ _ + Na+ + _ _

Na+ Na+ Na+ Na+ ++ __ ++

K+

+ – + + –+ ++ + K+ + Acti_on pote_ntial
+ – Na+ –
+ Na+ – Na+ – + – _ _ __ ++
– Na+ Na+ Na+ – + Na+ 3_ _ _ K+ _ + Na+ +
__
– ++

++

K+

Figure 10.9 Propagation of impulse along the axon

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Structure of Synapse Coordination 

 1 Synapse is the junction between two adjacent neurones or between a neurone 159
and an effector.
07/12/2022 3:13 PM
 2 It transfers information between neurones.
 3 The information is transmitted from a presynaptic neurone to a postsynaptic

neurone.
 4 Membrane on the presynaptic neurone is known as presynaptic membrane,

while postsynaptic neurone has a postsynaptic membrane.
 5 There are voltage-gated Ca+ channels on the presynaptic membrane.
 6 Ligand-gated Na+ channels together with the receptors for neurotransmitter are

found on the postsynaptic membrane.
 7 The gap between the presynaptic neurone and the postsynaptic neurone is

known as synaptic cleft.
PENERBIT ILMU Chapter 10
BAKTI SDN. BHD.
Nerve impulse

1
Calcium ion

Voltage-gated Mid Semester Test 1
Ca2+ channel

Presynaptic
2 terminal

Synaptic vesicle

Neurotransmitter 3 Synaptic
cleft

4 Postsynaptic
5 neurone

Ligand-gated Answers
Na+ channel

Figure 10.10 Synapse

 8 Synapse has a bulbous structure known as the synaptic knob which is posited
at the end of the axon of a presynaptic neurone.

 9 Synaptic knob contains mitochondria and numerous synaptic vesicles which
contain neurotransmitter molecules.

10 The function of mitochondria in synaptic knob is to provide ATPs (energy) for:
(a) the synthesis of neurotransmitter
(b) the release of neurotransmitter into the synaptic cleft
(c) the uptake of neurotransmitter
11 Neurotransmitter is a small chemical substance that helps to transmit impulse

across a synapse.
12 There are two types of neurotransmitters:
(a) Acetylcholine
(b) Noradrenaline

C10 Matriculation Sem 2 BIO 5pp.indd 159

 Coordination Mechanism of Impulse Transmission across Synapes

160  1 When an action potential arrives at the synaptic knob, the presynaptic
membrane depolarises.
C10 Matriculation Sem 2 BIO 5pp.indd 160
 2 The depolarisation of presynaptic membrane causes more voltage-gated Ca2+
channels to open, triggering an influx of Ca2+ into the cell.

 3 The influx of Ca2+ ions will cause the synaptic vesicles to move and fuse with
the presynaptic membrane, thus rupture and release the neurotransmitter into
synaptic cleft via exocytosis.

 4 Neurotransmitter diffuses across synaptic cleft and bind to the receptors on
ligand-gated Na+ channels on the postsynaptic membrane.

 5 The binding of neurotransmitter to the receptors causes the opening of the
ligand-gated Na+ channels, thus allowing Na+ to diffuse into the cell.

 6 This leads to the depolarisation of the postsynaptic membrane.
 7 Depolarisation that occurs at the postsynaptic membrane is known as

excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP).
 8 If EPSP exceeds a threshold level, action potential will be produced at the

postsynaptic neurone.
 9 After changing the permeability of the postsynaptic membrane,

neurotransmitter is then hydrolysed by a specific enzyme:
(a) Acetylcholine is hydrolysed by acetylcholinesterase
(b) Noradrenaline is hydrolysed by monoaminoxidase.
10 After being hydrolysed, the components of neurotransmitter are reabsorbed

back into the synaptic knob.
Chapter 10 BAKTI SDN. BHD.

Mid Semester Test 1 ILMUPresynaptic 1
neurone Nerve impuls

AnswersPENERBIT 2 Ca2+ 2 Ca2+ Voltage-gated Ca2+
channel
Synaptic Synaptic
end bulb vesicles Cytoplasm

Synaptic
cleft

Ca2+ Na+
3 Neurotransmitter
Ligand-gated
4 channel open

Neurotransmitter Postsynaptic neurone
receptor
6 Postsynaptic
Ligand-gated potential
channel closed

7 Nerve impulse

Figure 10.11 Impulse transmission across synapse

07/12/2022 3:13 PM

Summative Practice 10

Objective Questions

PENERBIT ILMUInstruction: There are four answer options for each question. Choose the best answer.
BAKTI SDN. BHD.
 1 The functional unit of the nervous system is…  5 The sodium-potassium pump of neurones Chapter 10
A axon. pumps…
B neurone. A Na+ and K+ into the cell. Mid Semester Test 1
C dendron. B Na+ and K+ out of the cell.
D cell body. C Na+ into the cell and K+ out of the cell. Answers
D Na+ out of the cell and K+ into the cell.
 2 Which of the following statements is correct about
a resting neurone?  6 Saltatory conduction is a term applied to the
A It releases a lot of acetylcholine conduction of impulses…
B The membrane is very permeable to sodium A across electrical synapses.
ions B along myelinated nerve fibers.
C The membrane is equally permeable to sodium C in two directions at the same time.
and potassium ions D along the postsynaptic membrane from
D The membrane potential is more negative than dendrite to axon Hillock.
the threshold potential
 7 Which of the following is the most correct
 3 After an action potential has been achieved, the statement explaining the structure of the nodes of
resting potential is restored by … Ranvier?
A the opening of voltage-gated sodium channels. A Gaps in the cover of the nerve fiber
B the delay in the action of the sodium-potassium B Collection of nerves in the heart
pump. C Swelling along the nerve fiber
C an increase in the membrane’s permeability to D Covering of the nerve fiber
potassium and chloride ions.
D the opening of voltage-gated potassium  8 Neurotransmitters are released from synaptic
channels and the closing of voltage-gated vesicles into the …
sodium channels. A synaptic cleft.
B synaptic knob.
 4 Which statement about transmission of impulse C presynaptic neurone.
along an axon is incorrect? D postsynaptic neurone.
A The rate of transmission of a nerve impulse is
directly related to the diameter of the axon  9 Which part of a neurone relays signals from one
B The intensity of a stimulus is related to the neurone to another neurone or to an effector?
magnitude of the action potential A Axon
C The resting potential is maintained by B Dendrite
differential ion permeabilities and the sodium- C Axon Hillock
potassium pump D Synaptic terminal
D Once initiated, local depolarisations stimulate
a propagation of serial action potentials down 10 A single muscle cell is referred to as a …
the axon A myofibril.
B sarcolemma.
C muscle fiber.
D muscle neurone.

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 Coordination A secretory cell.
B endocrine cell.
11 During the contraction of a skeletal muscle fiber, C plasma cell.
calcium ions… D target cell.
A spread action potential through the T-tubules.
B transmit action potentials from the motor 14 Receptors for non-steroid hormones are located
neurone to the muscle fiber. in…
C bind with troponin, changing its shape so that A the nucleus.
the myosin-binding sites on actin are exposed. B the cytoplasm.
D break cross-bridges by acting as a cofactor in C the extracellular fluid.
the hydrolysis of ATP. D association with a cell’s plasma membrane.

12 Which of the following changes occurs when a 15 Steroid hormone-receptor complexes act in…
skeletal muscle fiber contracts? A the plasma membrane.
A The I bands shrink B the cytoplasm.
B The A bands shorten C the nucleus.
C The thin filaments contract D lysosomes.
Chapter 10 D The Z lines slide farther apart BAKTI SDN. BHD.

13 A cell that contains proteins enabling a hormone
EXAM to selectively bind to its plasma membrane is
CLONE known as a/an …

Mid Semester Test 1 Structured Questions
Instruction: Answer all the questions.
 1 Figure 1 shows the electric charges at the axon membrane during nerve impulse transmission.

+50
Inside membrane voltage (mV) ILMU
0 BC

AnswersPENERBIT –50 E D
A
2 3 Time
–70 Figure 1 4 (msec)

01

(a) Define action potential and explain briefly how it is produced.
[2 marks]

(b) (i) Identify A shown in Figure 1.
[1 mark]

(ii) What is the membrane voltage value in 1(b)(i)?
[1 mark]

(c) Label A, B, C, D and E in Figure 1.
[5 marks]

(d) Explain why during D, no action potential is produced even when given a strong stimulus
and state its importance.
[3 marks]

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Coordination 

 2 Figure 2 shows a structure of the terminal end of a neurone.

A
B
C
ED
PENERBIT ILMU
BAKTI SDN. BHD. Figure 2 Chapter 10

(a) Name the structure shown in Figure 2. Mid Semester Test 1
[1 mark]

(b) Label components A, B, C, D and E.
[5 marks]

(c) (i) State the name of the voltage-gated channel in A.
[1 mark]

(ii) Explain how the voltage-gated channel in 2(c)(i) opens and what is the importance of
the ions that diffuse in through A.
[2 marks]

(d) State how structure E is released into C.
[1 mark]

(e) Explain the effect of cocaine on the transmission of impulse at the synapse.
[5 marks]

 3 Figure 3 shows a structure found in muscle fibers.

A

Z line M line Z line

BC Answers
Figure 3
[1 mark]
(a) State the functional unit of muscle contraction. [3 marks]
[1 mark]
(b) Label A, B and C. [2 marks]
[2 marks]
(c) (i) State the theory that is related to muscle contraction.
[3 marks]
(ii) Explain the theory stated in 3(c)(i).

(d) State two importance of calcium ions in muscle contraction.

(e) Explain what would happen if impulse transmission occurs continuously at the
neuromuscular junction.

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 Coordination
 4 Figure 4 shows two forms of phytochrome. EXAM CLONE

X

Far-redDarknessILMU BAKTI SDN. BHD.Red light
light

Chapter 10 Y

Mid Semester Test 1 Figure 4

(a) Identify phytochrome X and Y.
[2 marks]

(b) How does phytochrome trigger flowering in long-day plants?
[4 marks]

(c) (i) Define photoperiodism.
[1 mark]

(ii) State two types of flowering plants according to the photoperiod in which they flower.
[2 marks]

(d) In high altitude areas, the commercial planting of long-day plants uses artificial light at
night. Why?
[3 marks]

Essay Questions

Instruction: Answer all the questions.

 1 Describe what happens when a resting skeletal muscle is stimulated by a motor neurone.
EXAM CLONE [13 marks]

 2 Explain the mechanism of non-steroid hormones action.
[12 marks]

AnswersPENERBIT

176 07/12/2022 3:13 PM

C10 Matriculation Sem 2 BIO 5pp.indd 176

Semester Examination

Time: 2 hours
[80 marks]

Answers all questions.

 1 Figure 1 shows a type of natural selection.
BAKTI SDN. BHD.
Figure 1 [1 mark] Semester Examination
[3 marks]
(a) (i) Identify the type of natural selection shown in Figure 1. [2 marks]

(ii) Briefly explain the type of natural selection in 1(a)(i) by using a suitable example.

(b) Differentiate between natural and artificial selection.


 2 Figure 2 shows the effect of factor X and factor Y on the rate of enzymatic reaction.
ILMU
RatePENERBIT of reaction Rate of reaction Q

AB

PR Answers

Factor X Factor Y

Figure 2

(a) State factor X and factor Y.

[2 marks]

(b) What is point Q?

[1 mark]

(c) What happens to the active site of enzyme at point A to point B?

[1 mark]

(d) How do the kinetic energy of enzyme and substrate affect the reaction rate from point P to point Q?

[2 marks]

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Untitled-2 193 8/12/2022 5:10:58 PM

 Semester Examination

 3 Figure 3 represents two main stages in cellular respiration. Glucose

(a) Name the reaction that occurs at steps 2, 3 and 4 and

two by-products of the reaction.

[3 marks] 1 Glycolysis

(b) (i) Identify the step where the substrate level

phosphorylation occurs. BAKTI SDN. BHD. Pyruvate
2
[1 mark]
Compound X
(ii) State the number of ATP(s) produced from one

molecule of glucose.

[1 mark]

(c) State what happens to the hydrogen produced at step 6. 8 OAA
Malate (4C)
[2 marks]
Citrate (6C)
(d) Identify compound X.

[1 mark] 7 3
Fumarate (5C) α-ketoglutarate (5C)
(e) (i) Identify the reduced co-enzyme produced in step 1 Krebs
6 Cycle
that will enter the electron transport system.

[1 mark]

(ii) State the reaction involved. Succinate (4C)
5 Succinyl CoA (4C)
[1 mark] 4

(f) State the role of NAD+ in the Krebs cycle.

Semester Examination [2 marks]

(g) How many molecules of ATP are produced in the Krebs Figure 3

cycle from one molecule of glucose?

[1 mark]

 4 Figure 4 shows carbon fixation pathways in a plant. X
(a) Name the type of plant that uses both cycles D and E.
ILMU F Oxaloacetate
[1 mark]
(b) Name the substances labelled F, G and X. Pyruvate Cycle D Y

[3 marks] G
(c) Name the enzymes which catalyse the fixation of X in

both cycles.
[2 marks]

(d) State the function of Y.
[1 mark]

(e) How will hot and dry conditions negatively affect the
function of RuBP in plants without cycle D?
[2 marks]
AnswersPENERBIT X

RuBP

Cycle E

194 Sugar
Figure 4
C11••SemExam Matriculation Sem 2 BIO 4pp.indd 194
07/12/2022 3:15 PM

Semester Examination 

 5 Figure 5 shows the chemical reaction of carbon dioxide transport in blood.

Cell CO2 + H2O M
J + O2

Erythrocytes
PENERBIT ILMU
BAKTI SDN. BHD. CO2 + H2O I II L
III

HCO3− H− + Hb O2
K

H2CO3 HbO2

Figure 5

(a) State the advantages of the following erythrocyte characteristics that are related to their functions.

(i) Generate ATPs through anaerobic metabolism.

[1 mark]

(ii) The biconcave shape. Semester Examination

[1 mark]

(b) What are J, K, L and M in Figure 5?

[4 marks]

(c) What happens to HCO3– after undergoing process I?

[1 mark]

(d) State the importance of processes II and III.

[2 marks]

 6 Figure 6 shows the structure of a heart involved in the initiation of heartbeat.

C Answers
D

E

Figure 6

(a) Identify C, D and E.

(b) State the functions of C and D. [3 marks]
[2 marks]
(c) Give one importance of C. [1 mark]
[1 mark]
(d) Why is the wall of the left ventricle thicker than the wall of the right ventricle?
195
C11••SemExam Matriculation Sem 2 BIO 4pp.indd 195
07/12/2022 3:15 PM

 Semester Examination Y
 7 Figure 7 shows a human nephron.

X

BAKTI SDN. BHD.
Semester Examination Figure 7

(a) (i) Identify structures X and Y in Figure 7.
[2 marks]

(ii) State one molecule that will be reabsorbed at Y.
[1 mark]

(b) Why is glucose not found in the urine of a healthy person?
[1 mark]

(c) What are the effects on urine formation if a person accidently drank a lot of sea water while swimming?
[3 marks]

 8 Figure 8 shows the structure of a unit of skeletal muscle fibre.

A

Z line Z line
ILMU
M line

BC
Figure 8

(a) (i) Identify structures B and C in Figure 8.
(ii) Explain what would happen to A if Ca2+ are released into the sarcoplasm.
(b) (i) Name the structure that is attached to the Z line.
(ii) Explain the role of Ca2+ and the structure stated in 8(b)(i) in muscle contraction.
(c) Explain the mechanism of hormone action for estrogen.
AnswersPENERBIT [2 marks]
[3 marks]
[1 mark]
[4 marks]
[4 marks]

 9 Explain how the activated helper T cell stimulate an immune response against cells that are infected by a
virus that causes flu.
[9 marks]

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Answers

PENERBIT ILMU1 Biodiversity 4 Amoeba sp. is autotrophic whereas flowers of Monocotyledoneae are Mid Semester Test 1
BAKTI SDN. BHD. Euglena sp. is heterotrophic. Amoeba three or multiples of three whereas
Quick Check 1.1 sp. does not undergo photosynthesis the number of sepals and petals in the Answers
whereas Euglena sp. undergoes flowers of Dicotyledoneae are four or
1 Prokaryotes and eukaryotes. photosynthesis. Amoeba sp. uses five or multiples of four or five.
2 Saprophytic, photosynthetic, holozoic. pseudopodium for movement 3 Embryo sac
3 Kingdom Protista, Kingdom Fungi, whereas Euglena sp. uses flagella for 4 Sepals, petals, stamens, carpels
movement.
Kingdom Plantae, Kingdom Animalia. Quick Check 1.7
4 Genus: Oryza; Species: sativa Quick Check 1.5
1 Adult sponge is sessile whereas
Quick Check 1.2 1 Fungi is not a plant because Fungi sponge larvae can swim because they
does not have chlorophyll to carry out have flagella.
1 The nucleus of prokaryotes is not photosynthesis. The cell wall of Fungi
enclosed by a nuclear membrane is made up of chitin whereas the cell 2 Dimorphism is the existence of two
whereas the nucleus of eukaryotes is wall of plants is made up of cellulose. different forms of individuals within
enclosed by a nuclear membrane. a species. An example is Obelia sp.
2 Hyphae are long, branched and which has the medusa and polyp
2 Based on shape, Bacteria are threadlike filaments that surround the forms in its life cycle.
classified into coccus, bacillus, plasma membrane of the fungal cells.
spirillum and vibrio. Mycelium is an interwoven mass of 3 An organism that has both male and
hyphae. female reproductive organs in one
3 The cell wall of gram-negative individual. Phylum Platyhelminthes.
bacteria has less peptidoglycan and 3 Saccharomyces sp.
is covered with an outer membrane 4 The algae provide the fungus with 4 Threaten the coral reef.
that contains lipopolysaccharides.
The lipopolysaccharides are toxic organic compounds by carrying Summative Practice 1
and can cause fever and shock. The photosynthesis. The hyphae of the Objective Questions
outer membrane can also impede the fungus allow gases exchange, protects 1 C 2 C 3 C 4 D 5 A
entry of antibiotics and thus, gram- the algae as well as retains water and 6 A 7 D 8 B 9 D 10 A
negative bacteria are more resistant to minerals. The fungus also secretes 11 C 12 A 13 C 14 B 15 C
antibiotics. acids to facilitate the uptake of
minerals. Structured Questions
4 Spherical/coccus 1 (a) Domain Bacteria
Quick Check 1.6 (b) Does not have a true nucleus/
Quick Check 1.4
1 If the sporophyte generation or the membrane-bounded organelles.
1 Algae are autotrophs which means capsule is present, then the generation (c) The bacterial cell wall contains
they can undergo photosynthesis like of Polytrichum sp. is female. If the
plants because they have chlorophyll. sporophyte generation or the capsule peptidoglycan whereas the plant
Protozoa are heterotrophs because is absent, then the generation of cell wall contains cellulose.
they do not have chlorophyll to Polytrichum sp. is male. (d) (i) Hans Christian Gram//
undergo photosynthesis and they
can move using flagella, cilia or 2 The vascular bundles of Christian Gram//Gram
pseudopodia. Monocotyledoneae have no cambium (ii) Gram-positive bacteria and
whereas the vascular bundles of
2 Green algae is Phylum Chlorophyta Dicotyledoneae have cambium. The Gram-negative bacteria
and brown algae is Phylum number of sepals and petals in the (e) The cell wall of Gram-positive
Phaeophyta.
bacteria has a large amount of
3 Carotenoids in dinoflagellates. peptidoglycan whereas the cell
wall of Gram-negative bacteria

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 Answers

Mid Semester Test 1 has lesser peptidoglycan. The 3 (a) (i) sporangium BAKTI SDN. BHD. to escape from predators. Their body
cell wall of Gram-positive (ii) anteridia/anteridium segmentation or metamerism allows
bacteria is not covered by an ILMU (iii) archegonia/archegonium specialisation of functions. They have
outer membrane whereas the (b) This plant has vascular tissues, highly developed sensory organs
AnswersPENERBIT cell wall of Gram-negative to alert them to any changes in the
bacteria is covered by an outer cuticles, true roots, true stems environment. Metamorphosis reduces
lipopolysaccharide membrane. and true leaves. intraspecific competition because
(f) The gram-negative bacteria are (c) This plant is a seedless plant and larvae and adults utilise different
more pathogenic because the its sexual reproduction depends food sources. They have a short life
outer membrane can impede on water as a medium. cycle so that they can reproduce
the entry of antibiotics, making (d) Prothallus faster. Some have wings so that they
them more resistant towards (e) Phylum Pterophyta/Lycophyta can fly to find food, find mates to
antibiotics. reproduce and defend themselves
2 (a) Organism A: Kingdom Protista Essay Questions from predators.
Organism B: Kingdom Fungi 1 The sexual reproductive structure for
Organism C: Kingdom Plantae 2 Ecology
(b) Both are photoautotrophs/carry gymnosperms is the cone whereas
out photosynthesis/contain the sexual reproductive structure for Quick Check 2.1
chlorophyll. angiosperms is the flower. The cone
Both have cell walls consisting of parts in gymnosperms are arranged 1 Littoral zone. The photosynthesis rate
cellulose. in spirals whereas the flower parts in is greatest in this zone because light
Both store food as starch. angiosperms are arranged in whorls. penetration is abundant and receives
Both are eukaryotic. The ovules of gymnosperms are not nutrients from the surrounding land.
enclosed in the ovary whereas the
[Any two answers] ovules of angiosperms are enclosed 2 Sunlight reaches all the way to the
(c) The cell wall of organism B in the ovary. Gymnosperms have bottom of the lake.
naked seeds whereas the seeds
contains chitin whereas the cell of angiosperms are enclosed in 3 It is located in the tropical or equator
wall of organism C contains the pericarp. The xylem tissue of region. It receives a large amount of
cellulose. gymnosperms does not contain vessel rain throughout the year. It also has
(d) The reproductive organ of elements whereas the xylem tissue of high humidity.
organism C is flower whereas angiosperms contains vessel elements.
the reproductive organ of The phloem tissue of gymnosperms 4 Dipterocarp/Tualang/Jati/Cengal/
gymnosperms is cone. Organism does not contain companion cells Meranti
C undergoes double fertilisation whereas the phloem tissue of
whereas gymnosperms do not angiosperms contains companion 5 The emergents are exposed to direct
undergo double fertilization. cells. Double fertilisation does not sunlight, warmest temperature, lowest
The seeds of organism C occur in gymnosperms but occurs in humidities and strongest winds.
have endosperm whereas the the angiosperms. The gymnosperms
seeds of gymnosperms do not are pollinated by the wind whereas the Quick Check 2.2
have endosperm. The seeds angiosperms are pollinated by several
of organism C are enclosed agents such as insects and humans. 1 Energy is lesser when transferred from
within an ovary whereas the 2 The exoskeleton of the arthropods is one trophic level to another because
seeds of gymnosperms are tough because it contains chitin which energy is lost through transpiration,
unprotected. The pollinating protects the arthropods from predators respiration and excretion. Only a
agents of organism C vary and prevents dehydration. They have a small quantity of energy is left in the
whereas the pollinating agent of trachea system to facilitate respiration. fifth trophic level which is insufficient
gymnosperms is wind. They have jointed appendages that to support the next trophic level.
(e) Organism B converts organic facilitate efficient movement. Their
substances into inorganic appendages also have antagonistic 2 (a) Paddy plant Rat Flea
substances. striated muscles that allow various Leptosomonas sp.
movements for feeding, breeding and
(b) Primary consumer: Rat;
Secondary consumer: Flea;
Tertiary consumer: Leptosomonas
sp.

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PENERBIT
ILMU
BAKTI SDN. BHD.