68 THE CULTURAL LANDSCAPE
REASON FOR POSSIBLE STAGE 5: of AIDS). The impact of AIDS has been felt most stron:
INCREASED CONNECTIONS in sub-Saharan Africa, home to 23 million of the worl
34 million HIV-positive people (Figure 2-36).
. Learning Outcome 2.4.3
Describe the diffusion of AIDS. AIDS diffused from sub-Saharan Africa through re
cation diffusion, both by Africans and by visitors to
Several dozen "new" pandemics, such as HlNl (swine) rica returning to their home countries. AIDS entered t
flu and severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), have United States during the early 1980s through New Yo
emerged over the past three decades and have spread California, and Florida (Figure 2-37). Not by coinciden
through the process of relocation diffusion, discussed in the three leading U.S. airports for international arrivals
Chapter 1. Motor vehicles allow rural residents to have in these three states (Figure 2-38). Though AIDSdiffused
greater connections with urban areas and for urban resi- every state during the 1980s, these three states, plus Te:
dents to easily reach rural areas. Airplanes allow residents (a major port of entry by motor vehicle), accounted for h
of one country to easily connect with people in other of the country's new AIDScases in the peak year of 199.
countries. As they travel, people carry diseases with them
and are exposed to the diseases of others. The number of new AIDS cases dropped rapidly in 1
United States during the 1990s and in sub-Saharan Afr
The most lethal pandemic in recent years has been in the 2000s. The decline resulted from the rapid diffusi
AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome). World- of preventive methods and medicines such as AZT. 1
wide, 30 million people died of AIDS from the beginning rapid spread of these innovations is an example of exp;
of the epidemic through 2010, and 34 million were liv- sion diffusion rather than relocation diffusion.
ing with HIV (human immunodeficiency virus, the cause
Pause and Reflect 2.4.3
Have other pandemic diseases diffused rapidly in
recent years?
◄ FIGURE 2-36 DIFFUSION OF HIV/
AIDS Thehighestratesof HIVinfectiona
insub-SaharaAn fricaandRussia.
20' .
O' 120"
160'
PercentHIVpositiveamong
ages 15-49 years,1990
1.0 and above
0.1-0.9
Below0.1
nodata
PercentHIVpositiveamong I ·2,o&
ages15-49 vears,2012
40' 20' II' 20' 40' 6(1' 80' 100' 120' 110' 160' 180'
• 1.0andabove
0,1-09
Below0.1
nodata
Chapter 2: Population and Health 69
~muJ.atinAIDScases 10,000-49.999 eeIow1.ooo
• 100,000andabove 1,000--9,999
- 50,000-99,999
2i 01~0... :dt·
;1,>I.
-~l.•
-- .
NowAlDScasesper100,000population
• 60andabove 20-S9 1-9
10-19 Belowl
- ◄o-59
• FIGURE2-37 DIFFUSION OF HIV/AIDS IN THE UNITED STATES AIDSdiffusedfrom stateswith relativelyhigh immigrationrates,
suchasCalifornia,Florida,and NewYork.TheAIDSMemorialQuilt wasassembledasa memorialto peoplewho havediedofAIDS.
SanPlaocisao I ◄ FIGURE2-38 INTERNATIONALPASSENGER
ARRIVALSAT U.S. AIRPORTS2011 Because
i~ I AIDSarrivedin the UnitedStatesprimarilythroughair
travelers,the patternof diffusionof AIDSin
Figure2-37 closelymatchesthe distributionof
internationaal ir passengear rrivals.
NewYork
4.6
70 THE CULTURAL LANDSCAPE
Health Care health-care system. Lower IMRs are found in countries
with well-trained doctors and nurses, modern hospitals,
Learning Outcome 2.4.4 and large supplies of medicine.
Understand reasons for variations in health between
developed and developing countries. The global distribution of IMRs follows the pattern that
by now has become familiar. The IMR is 5 in developed
Health conditions vary around the world. Countries pos- countries and 80 in sub-Saharan Africa, meaning that 1 in
sess different resources to care for people who are sick. 12 babies die there before reaching their first birthday. Life
expectancy at birth measures the average number of years
INDICATORS OF HEALTH a newborn infant can expect to live at current mortality
levels (Figure 2-40). Like most of the mortality and fertil-
Two important indicators of health in a country are the ity rates discussed thus far, life expectancy is most favor-
infant mortality rate and life expectancy. The infant able in the wealthy countries of Europe and least favorable
mortality rate (IMR) is the annual number of deaths of in the poor countries of sub-Saharan Africa. Babies born
infants under one year of age, compared with total live today can expect to live to nearly 80 in Europe but only to
births (Figure 2-39). As is the case with the CBR and CDR, less than 60 in sub-Saharan Africa.
the !MR is usually expressed as the number of deaths
among infants per 1,000 births rather than as a percent- Pause and Reflect 2.4.4
age (per 100). In general, the !MR reflects a country's Why do men have lower life expectancies than
women in most countries?
◄ FIGURE 2-39 INFANT
IO' MORTALITY RATE (IMR} The highest
IMRsare insub-SaharanAfricaa,ndthe
60' lowestare inEuropeandSouthPacific.
PAC/f'IC d,,,: .. 20'
OCEAN !O'
... ~Ui
lO'
v"'['-< ( ATLANTIC
InfantMortalityRate ''""
per 1,000livebirths ta OCEAN
• 60 andaboVe IO" J 'Y✓
40-59
20-39 1t-' " " tiCr g 100" 1:,,- Uu- 150" I~
8e'ow20
nodata 100' !QI 60" "iJ' 'N' I)'
..,. CO' ◄ FIGURE 2-40 LIFE EXPECTANCY
PACIFIC .,. AT BIRTH Aswith IMRst,he highest
OCEAN lifeexpectancieasre insub-Saharan
Africa,andthelowestare inEurope
0' and SouthPacific.
160" ,, .,.
711'
LifeeKpectancayl ~.: .__./\
birthInyears . f!. PACIF'IC
• 80andab<Jve OCEAN
-75-79
✓ Eq,.'lto< 0'
10-74
60-69 ATI.ANT1C ,•~ li,io,
Below60 OCEAN
nodala
Tr~afC.-0,
'lJ#) ,,ooollln r -/ 411'
(I -t,ODO C,IXIOIOOffltlin
120' lOO' 110' Ii(!' •Y 1f1' 0' '/fl' 4l1 Ill' 81T 100' 110' 1111' 160' IIIO'
Chapter 2: Population and Health 71
PROVISION OF HEALTH CARE Developed
Developing
Even if they survive infancy, children remain at risk in de-
veloping countries. For example, 17 percent of children NorthAmerica
in developing countries are not immunized against mea- Europe
sles, compared to 7 percent in developed countries. More
than one-fourth of children lack measles immunization in SouthPacific
South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa (Figure 2-41).
Japan
Developed countries use part of their wealth to protect
people who, for various reasons, are unable to work. In Russia
these countries, some public assistance is offered to those
who are sick, elderly, poor, disabled, orphaned, veterans of LatinAmerical::::J:i:::::
wars, widows, unemployed, or single parents. Annual per
capita expenditure on health care exceeds $1,000 in Europe EastAsia
and $5,000 in the United States, compared to less than SouthwesAt sia
~100 in sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia (Figure 2-42).
& NorthAfrica
Expenditures on health care exceed 15 percent of total
government expenditures in Europe and North America SoutheasAt sia
compared to less than 5 percent in sub-Saharan Africa and CentraAl sia::::::::::::::
South Asia (Figure 2-43). Countries in Northern Europe,
including Denmark, Norway, and Sweden, typically pro- SouthAsia::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::=
vide the highest level of public-assistance payments. So
not only do developed countries spend more on health Sub-SaharaAnfrica
care, they spend a higher percentage of their wealth on
health care. 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Percent Not Immunized
A FIGURE 2-41 CHILDREN LACKING MEASLES IMMUNIZATION
Thelowestratesofimmunizationare insub-SaharanAfricaand SouthAsia.
◄ FIGURE 2-42 HEALTH CARE
- etf' EXPENDITURES Thelowestlevelsof per
capitahealthcareexpenditureare in
60'. C-0' sub-SaharanAfricaand SouthAsia.
40'
PACIFIC
OCEAN
"'
'°'Healthcareu,pend~ures
percapita
• S1,000andabove
S300-S999
S!00-S299
Below$100
nodala
10' ◄ FIGURE 2-43 GOVERNMENT
60' EXPENDITURES ON HEALTH CARE The
lowestlevelsof governmentexpendituresare
◄I)' PACIFIC inAfricaandAsia.
OCEAN
'l!J' 20'
I)'. 1,11)' 1211' '°'
160'
Governmeenxtpenditure
onhealthasapercentage 20'
ct totalgovernment
expenditures
• 1JO andabove 41)'
9.0-12.9
5.0-8.9
Below5.0
nodata
"'lllllllHlllllfllHll!IHI
72 THE CULTURALLANDSCAPE
MEDICAL SERVICES care (Figure 2-46). An exception to this pattern is the
United States, a developed country where private individ-
Learning Outcome 2.4.5 uals are required to pay an average of 55 percent of health
care, more closely resembling the pattern in developing
Understand reasons for variations in health between countries.
developed and developing countries.
Developed countries are hard-pressed to maintain their
Health conditions vary around the world. Countries pos- current levels of public assistance. In the past, rapid eco-
sess different resources to care for people who are sick. nomic growth permitted these states to finance generous
programs with little difficulty. But in recent years eco-
The high expenditure on health care in developed nomic growth has slowed, while the percentage of peo-
countries is reflected in medical facilities. Most countries ple needing public assistance has increased. Governments
in Europe have more than SOhospital beds per 10,000 peo- have faced a choice between reducing benefits and increas-
ple, compared to fewer than 20 in sub-Saharan Africa and ing taxes to pay for them. ln some of the poorest coun-
South and Southwest Asia (Figure 2-44). Europe has more
than 30 physicians per 10,000 population, compared to tries, threats to health and sustainability are not so much
fewer than 5 in sub-Saharan Africa (Figure 2-45).
financial as environmental. For a case in point, read the
In most developed countries, health care is a public following Sustainability and Inequality in Our Global Vil-
service that is available at little or no cost. Government lage feature.
programs pay more than 70 percent of health-care costs
in most European countries, and private individuals pay Pauseand Reflect 2.4.5
less than 30 percent. In developing countries, private in-
dividuals must pay more than half of the cost of health Why might levels of hospital beds and physicians
be lower in North America than in other developed
countries?
__..20' 0' 20' 40' W BO' 100' . ◄ FIGURE2-44 HOSPITALBEDS PER
10,000 PEOPLEThelowestratesare in sub-
-:• SaharanAfrica and SouthA5ia.
SO'
PACIFIC IU
OCEAN
t-icof~r
liospltalbedsper
10,000people PACIFIC
• 50andabove OCEAN
30-49 EQu.a'«~
10-29
Below10 ..,.. ,;
nodata '.o!IO""'
~- ""'0 '"l.OOG &,CCIOlUOl'lllllb'S
100' IO' 60' 40' 20' D' 20' w !0' 100' 120' 180' l!O'
G' 20' m, ◄ FIGURE2-45 PHYSICIANS PER 10,000
PEOPLEThelowestratesare in sub-Sahara,
Africa.
PACIFIC 20'
OCEAN
PACIFIC
2l}' OCEAN
Physicianpser Ee,..W O'
10,000pcpul1Uon ,_
2,o,)O ._.,._ y
300andabove
150-299 . • )hJIJ uoo-.
50-149
Belew50 120' 100' 80' 60' 4:1' 20' D' 2/1' <Ir 60' IO' ICC' 120' 140' 1"1' 180'
nodata
~--•- ---.- "'--~
.ff1ffflfflllflllllllffl-~
Chapter 2: Population and Health 73
\ ,1,e-
---1 ___ T<t0<ofC...,\_ _
~t+I-+ ~il~---t---+-----~,o,
PACIFIC I
OCEAN
·_j •, '-~'!!.,~
..., 141'1 12?' .\, I
• "t-
Plivatee<pendHure 2<1'· --I-~-----• '-°.'r--
" perctotoftotal
upandilurt on hulth ~-.-'-~·~°"'-~-•~P®~~ "' t /
/-"~ . .#IJ'. <!I'
EOandabove .,l,000
40-59.9 ,.
20-39.9 .,.
Below20
OOCfata
A FIGURE 2-46 PUBLICEXPENDITURESON HEALTH CARE AS A SHARE OF TOTAL HEALTH CARE
EXPENDITURESThehighestpercentageasrein Europe.
SUSTAINABILITAYND INEQUALITYIN OURGLOBALVILLAGE
Overpopulationin Sub-SaharanAfrica
Overpopuliltion-too many people for natural environment and partly from
the available resources-does not ap-
pear to be an immediate threat to the human acUons to modify U1e envi-
world, even in India, where the seven
billionth hum,m was said to have ronment through agriculture, indus-
been born on October 31, 2011 (Hgure
2-47). However, it does threaten areas try, and exploitation of raw materials.
within sub-Saharan Africa.
See for example, the image of Mali on
Sub-Saharan Africa was not clas-
sified in Key Issue 1 as one of the page 44.
world's population concentrations.
Geographers caution that the size, The track toward overpopula-
density, or clustering of population in
a region is not an indication of over- tion may already be irreversible in
population. Instead, overpopulation
is a relationship between population Africa. Rapid population growth has
and a region's level of resources. The
capacity of the land to sustain Lifede- led to the inability of the land to sus-
rives partly from characteristics of the
1 tain life in parts of the region. As the
land declines in quality, more effort is
A FIGURE 2-47 THE WORLD'S SEVEN needed to yield the same amount of
BILLIONTH HUMAN crops. This extends the working day
NargisKumarb, ornOctober31, 2011,to Vinitaand of women, who have the primary re-
Ajay Kumar,of Lucknow,India, was declaredthe sponsibility for growing food for their
world'ssevenbillionthpersonbyPlanlnternationcial. families. Women then regard having
nongovernmentoarlganizationforchildren'sw' elfare. another child as a means of securing
additional help in growing food.
CHECKIN:KEYISS4UE
Why Do Some RegionsFaceHealth Threats?
✓ The epidemiologic transition has four stagesof
distinctivediseases.
✓ A resurgenceof infectiousdiseasesmay signala
possiblestage 5 of the epidemiologictransition.
✓ The provisionof health carevariessharply
between developed and developing countries.
Illfftlflht,. "'IIQ11111
74 THE CULTURAL LANDSCAPE KEY ISSUE2
Summary and Review
1KEY ISSUE
Where Is the World's Population Distributed? Why Is Global Population Increasing?
Global population is concentrated in a few places. Human beings Virtually all the world's natural increase is concentrated in the
tend to avoid parts of Earth's surface that they consider to be too developing countries of Africa, Asia, and Latin America.
wet, too dry, too cold, or too mountainous.
LEARNINGOUTCOME2.2.1: Understand how to measure popula-
LEARNINGOUTCOME2.1.1: Describe regions where population is tion growth through the natural Increase rate.
clustered and where it is sparse.
• The natural increase rate is the percentage by which a popula-
• Two-thirds of the world's people live in four clusters-East tion grows in a year.
Asia, South Asia, Europe, and Southeast Asia.
LEARNINGOUTCOME2.2.2: Understand how to measure births
LEARNINGOUTCOME2.1.2: Define three types of density used in and deaths through CBR and CDR.
population geography.
• The CBR Is the total number of live births in a year for every
• Arithmetic density is used to describe where people live In 1,000 people alive. The CDR is the total number of deaths per
the world. Physiological density compares population to re- 1,000 people.
sources. Agricultural density measures economic efficiency of
food production. LEARNINGOUTCOME2.2.3: Understand how to read a population
pyramid.
THINKING GEOGRAPHICALL2Y.1: Scientists disagree about the ef-
fects of high density on human behavior. Some laboratory tests • A population pyramid displays the percentage of population
have shown that rats display evidence of increased aggressive- by age and gender. A pyramid with a broad base means a
ness, competition, and violence when very large numbers of country has a relatively high percentage of young children.
them are placed in a box. Does very high density cause humans
to behave especially aggressively or violently? THINKING GEOGRAPHICALLY2.2: Ylembers of the baby-boom
generation-people born between 1946 and 1964-constitute
GOOGLEEARTH2.1: Egypt's very high physiological and agricul- nearly one-third of the U.S. population. As they grow older, what
tural densities can be seen from the air. What do the brown and impact will baby boomers have on the American population in
green features represent? Would you expect to find most agricul- the years ahead?
ture in the brown area or the green area? Why?
GOOGLEEARTH2.2: Cemeteries such as this one in New Orleans
are unusual. People are buried above ground rather than in
graves. What physical features of New Orleans's site and situation
discussed in Google Earth 1.2 would account for this?
Key Terms 0oubling time (p. 501The number of yean needed to double a
population a,,umlng a comtant rate of natural incrcJse.
Agricultural density (p. 49· Th~ ratio of the number of faimer~ to the
total amount of land suitable for agrirnlture. Fcumcnc (p. -17)The portion of Earth's ,urface on:upied hy
Arithmcti<.:density (p. 48) The total number of people divided bf the pl!rmJnent human settlement.
total land area.
Lpidcmiologic tr,rnsition (p. 61J 0istintliw causes of death in each
Census /p. 45) ,\ complete enumeration or a population. stage of the demographic transition.
Crude birth rntc (CRR) (p. SO)The total numher of live births in a rear Fpidcmiology \p. 641 The branch of medical scknce conccrnccl with
for every 1,000 people altve in the :,ocietv the Incidence, distribution, and control of diseases th<1larc prevalent
among a population at a special time and arc produced by some
Crude death rate ((DR) (p SO\The total number of deaths ln a year for :,penal causes not generally pn:,ent in the affected local!ly.
every 1,000people alive in the society.
Industrial Revolulion (p. 56) A seriesof improvement\ in industrial
Demographic transition (p. 56) The process of change in a society':, technology that transformed the processof manufacturing goods.
population from a condition of high cruel~birth and cleath rates
and low rate ot natural increase lo a condition of low trude birth Infant mortality rate (l~fR) (p. 70 The total number of deaths in a
and death rate:,,low rate of natural increase, and higher total year among infants under one year of age for every 1,000 live births i~
population. J society.
Demography {p.44) The scientific study of population characteristics. Life expectancy (p. 65) The average number of years an individual
can be expected to live, given current social, economic, and medical
Dependency ratio (p. 54) The number of people under age 15 and over conditions. Lifeexpectancy at birth is the average number of year1a
age 64 compared to the number of people active m the labor force. newborn infant can expect to live.
Chapter 2: Po~ulatiol'1 and Health 75
--.:..:.K-EY~IS__S_U__E__3 -=,..,,,.....K-E-Y-IS-S-U'EI4
Why Does Population Growth Vary among Regions? Why Do Regions Face Health Threats?
The dem:ographic transition is a chang-e in a couatty's p0pulation. The epidemiologic transiti©n is a change i,n a society's distinctive
tyµes @fdhseases. Health care ls better in developed countries, but
LEARNINGOUTCOME2.3.1: De.scribe the four stages of the demo- even they are -threatened by infectious diseases diffused through
graphic transition. modern means of transportation.
• Stage 1 has high CB_Rand CDR and low NIR. In stage 2 the LEARNINGOUTCOME2.4.1: Summa1ize the four stages of the epi-
N!R rises because the CDR declines. In stage 3 the NIR moder- demi0logic transition.
ates because the CBR starts to decline. Stage 4 has low CBR,
CD""Ran, d NIR. • Stage 1 was character:ized by pestilence and famine, stage 2 by
pandemics, and stages 3 and 4 by degenerative.diseases.
LEARNINGOUTCOME2.3.2: Summarize two appro.aches to redu:c-
ing birth rates. LEARNINGOUTCOME2.4.2: Summarize the reasons for a stage 4
and possible stage 5 of the epjdemi0logic transition.
• The CBRcan be lowered either through education and health
care or through diffusion of contraception. • Evolution, p0verty, and increased «e:onnectiommay influence
the resurgence oJinfectious diseases.
LEARNINGOUTCOME2.3.3: Summarize Malthus's argument about
the relationship between population and resources. LEARNINGOUTCOME2.4.3: Describe the di'ffusion 0f AIDS.
• Malthus argued in 1798 that population would grow more LEARNINGOUTCOME2.4.4: Understand reasons for variations in
rapidly than resources. Recent experience shows that popula- health care between developed and developing countries.
tion has not grown as rapidly as Malthus forecast.
• Health care varies widely around the world because develop-
LEARNINGOUTCOME2.3.4: Summarize the possible stage 5 of the ing countrie.s generally lack resources to provide the same
demographic transition. level of health care as developed countries.
• Japan and some European countries may be in a possible LEARNINGOUTCOME2.4.5: Understand reasons for variations in
stage 5, characterized by a decline in population, because health between developed and developing countries.
CDR exceeds CBR.
THINKING GEOGRAPHICALLY2.4: Health-care indicators for the
THINKING GEOGRAPHICALLY2.3: Paul and Anne Ehrlich argue in United States do not always match those of other developed
The Population Explosion (l 990) that a baby born in a developed countries. What reasons might explain these differences?
country poses a graver threat to sustainability than a baby born
in a developing country because people in developed countries GOOGLEEARTH2.4: Several hundred thousand died, some from in-
place much higher demands on the world's supply of energy, fectious diseases, after an earthquake hit Haiti January 12, 2010,
food, and other limited resources. Do you agree with this view?
the date this Google
GOOGLEEARTH 2.3: Cape Verde, an example of a stage 2 country, Earth image was taken.
comprises 1O islands off the west coast of Africa. lf you zoom in on The roof of the cathe-
the largest island, is the population dispersed evenly through the dral in the capital Port
island or is it clustered in a settlement? au Prince collapsed.
What other evidence
of the earthquake can
be seen in images from
-=·'-""' January 2010?
MasteringGeography™
Medical revolution (p. 56) Medical technology invented in Europe Looking for additional review and test prep materials?
and North ,\merica that has Jiffosed to the poorer countiies in Latin Visit the Study Area in MasteringGeography™ to
America,Asia,and Africa.[mproved medical practices have eliminated enhance your geographic literacy, spatial reasoning
many of the traditional causesof death in poorer countries and skills, and understanding of this chapter's content by
enabled more people to live longer and healthier lives. accessing a variety of resources, including MapMaster'M
Natural increase rate (NfR)(p. 50)The percentagegrowth of a population interactive maps, videos, RSS feeds, flashcards, web
in a year,computed as the crude birth rateminus the crude death rate. links, self-study quizzes, and an eText version of The
Overpopulation (p. H) A situation in which the number of people in Cultural La~dscape.
an area exceeds the capacity of the environment to support lifeat a
decent standard of Jiving. www.masteringgeography.com
Pandemic (p. 64) Diseasethat occurs over a wide geographic area and Sex ratio (p. 54)The number of malesper 100female~in the population.
affectsa very high proportion of the population. Total fertility rate (TFR)(p. 52) The average number of chilclrena
woman will have throughout Iler childbearing year).
Physiological density (p. 48) The number of people per unit of area of Zero population growth (ZPG)(p. 57) Adecline of the total fertility
arable land, which is land suitable for agriculture. rate to the point where the natural increase rate equals zero.
Population pyramid (p. 54) Abar graph that represents the
distribution of population by age and sex.
Chapterr
Migration
Whyare these immigrantsliningup in Dubai?Page95 Whyare these peoplewatchinga parc~dein NewYork?
Page 100
1_KEY ISSUE _., 2KEY ISSUE
Where Are Where Do People
Migrants Migrate Within a
Distributed? Country?
..
A World of Migrants 79 MovingAcrossTownor Across
Peopleare onthe movearoundthe world.Whereare they head· Country 84
ing.and where are they comingfrom?
Some people are movinginto cities,whileothers are mo·
out of them.
76
.&.This tiny overcrowded boat is nearing Lampe-
dusa, Italy,havjngsailed across the Mediterranean
Sea from Tunisia.Geographers are interested in
why people would risk s11cha dangerous journey.
What pushed these people to set sail fromTunisia?
.. p. a9,oo What lured them to Italy,even though when they
got there 1he authorities sent them right back to
,.. Tunisia?
•I
~
., /
KEY ISSUE 3 KEY ISSUE4
Why Do People Why Do Migrants
Face Obstacles? --'J
Migrate?
I
Pushingand Pulling 92 Where~sthe WelcomeMat? 96
Ittakesa lot of motivationto pickupand moveto a newhome. Someimmigrantsare welcomedto theirnewhomes,but others
are toldto leave.
77
Introducing to plan:s of work or educc1tion and once a wed, lo shop
places ot worship, or recreation areas. Thc,e types of sho
term, repetith·e n cyclical mo\·emt<nh that rent: on a rt:t
Migration ular bam, such as daily, month I). or annually . .ire calle
circulation. College stmhmts dhplay another form of m
hility-s"asonal mobilitv-by moving to a dormitory ea
Diffusion was defined in Chapter 1 as a taJ and returning homt the following :.pnng.
The flow of migration always involves two-way conne
process by which a characteristic spreads tio1LS.Given two locations, A and B, somt people migra
from one area to another, and relocation :rom A to B, whik at the same tune othtrs migra·t frolT'
diffusion was the spread of a characteris- to A. Emigrationis migration from a location; immigrati
i,; migration to a location (figure 3-1)
tic through the bodily movement of people The differenct! between the m mber > mmigrants ar-
from one place to another. The changing Lhenumber of t:>m1granlsis the net migration. If the nu
scale generated by modern transportation bcr of Immigrants exceeds the number of emigrants. t
· et migration s positiw and tht ·cgion has net m-m.gr
systems, especially motor vehicle::; and air- tlon. If the number of emigrant~ exceeds the number
planes, makes relocation diffusion more immigrants, the net mlgrntion is negatl\·e, and thl regi
has ntt out-m gration.
feasible than in the past, when people had
When people migrate from one region to another, th
to rely on walking, animal power, or slow take with them tn their new home their l,rnguage, religio
ships. tthnicity, and other cultural trait,;, as wcl as th •ir met
ods of t;irming and other economic practices. At the sa11
The subject of this chapter h a specific type of relm:.ition time, they become connected with the cultural and ed
difh1,ion called migration, \\h1ch is a perm:ment move to nomil ,atterns of the nLw place of residence.
a new location. Geographers document wlwre people mi-
1• KEY ISSUE describes the distribution of where ij
gratl to and trom citross the space of l·arth.
\.figranon h a form of mobility which is a more gen- migration otTurs around the world. n,e United Sta
plays a ke} role in tht distribution of ~loba m.grati(
eral term covering all types of mO\ l:tnents from one place becau\c for more than two centuries, it has been t
to another. P1:ople display mobilit) in a variety of wc1ys, mmt important destlnatton for mi~rants.
such ,is by journeying ew y weekday trom their homes • KEYISSUE2 looks c1tthe local diversity of immigrat1
within countries. Some places and regions within co
tries attract n ·grants, when·a~ m1gr.mts move a\,
from other plaLLSand regiom.
• KEY ISSUE 3 summarizes the principal re,l\ons w
peopk migrate Geographers J Lespeciall} interested
why people migrate, became it profoundl) influenl
the places and regions that are the sources Jnd the d
tinatlons of rmgrants.
• KEY 4ISSUE discusses is~m·, that arise as a result
m1grat1on. In the glohaliLC1tim1 of world communl
tiom and transportation, il 1s easier than 111 the I'
to travel from one place to another, yet the abilit.
people to migrate i, more limited th,111m tht: past
legal obstacks and the hostility of people at the pl
of tlestinatton.
A FIGURE3-1 EMIGRATIONAND IMMIGRATION Thesepeopleare
emIg·atInIgron 1talyin 1907andimm1grat,rtgo theUnitedStatesT.heyare
disembarkinfrgomtheshipat EllisIslandm, NewYorkHarbort,hepnnc,pal
pointof entryintotheUnitedStatesduringthelatenineteentahndearly
tv,entlethcenturies.
78
Chapter 3: Migration 79
KEY ISSUE 1 • The distance that migrants typically move (discussed in
Key Issues 1 and 2)
Where Are Migrants
• The reasons migrants move (discussed in the first part
Distributed? of Key Issue 3)
■ Distance of Migration • The characteristics of migrants (discussed in the second
part of Key Issue 3)
■ U.S. Immigration Patterns
Geographer Wilbur Zelinsky identified a migra-
Refer to Figure 2-4 (ecumene) for a moment. These maps tion transition, which consists of changes in a soci-
show how the ecumene have changed as permanent ety comparable to those in the demographic transi-
human settlements have spread across Earth during the tion (Table 3-1). The migration transition is a change
past 7,000 years. This diffusion of human settlement from in the migration pattern in a society that results from
a small portion of Earth's land area to most of it resulted the social and economic changes that also produce the
from migration. To accomplish the spread across Earth, hu- demographic transition. According to the migration
mans have permanently changed their place of residence- transihon, international migration is primarily a phe-
where they sleep, store their possessions, and receive legal nomenon of countries in stage 2 of the demographic
documents. Geographers document from where people transition,· whereas internal migration is more impor-
migrate and to where they migrate. They also study the tant in stages 3 and 4.
reasons people migrate.
TABLE 3-1 COMPARISON Of DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION AND
Why would people make a perilous journey across MIGRATION TRANSITION
thousands of kilometers of ocean? Why did the pioneers
cross the Great Plains, the Rocky Mountains, or the Mo- Stage Demographic Transition Migration Transition
jave Desert to reach the American west coast? Why do peo- 1
ple continue to migrate by the millions today (Figure 3-2)? 2. Low NIR, high CBR, high High daily or seasonal
The hazards that many migrants have faced are a measure CDR mobility in search of food
of the strong lure of new locations and the desperate con- 3
ditions in their former homelands (Figure 3-3). Most peo- High NIR, high CBR, rapidly High international
ple migrate in search of three objectives: economic oppor- 4 declining CDR emigration and
tunity, cultural freedom, and environmental comfort. This interregional migration
chapter will study the reasons people migrate. from rural to urban areas
Geography has no comprehensive theory of migration, Declining NIR, rapidly High international
although an outline of migration "laws" written by nine- declining CBR, declining immigration and
teenth-century geographer E. G. Ravenstein is the basis CDR intraregional migration
for contemporary geographic migration studies. To un- from cities to suburbs
derstand where and why migration occurs, Ravenstein's
"laws" can be organized into three groups: Low NIR, low CBR, low CDR Same as stage 3
'f' FIGURE 3-3 IMMIGRATION TO THE UNITED STATES FROM IRELAND
The FamineMemorial in Dublin depicts painfully thin people emigrating from
Irelandduring the potato famine of the 1840s.
'f' FIGURE 3-2 IMMIGRATION TO THE UNITED STATESIN THE
TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY Theseimmigrantsare beingadministeredthe
oath to becomecitizensof the UnitedStates.
80 THE CULTURAL LANDSCAPE
Distance of Migration • Forced migration means that the migrant has t
compelled to move, especially by political or envi
Learning Outcome 3.1.1: mental factors.
Describe the difference between international and
internal migration. The distinction between forced and voluntary mi
tion is not clear-cut. Those who are migrating for
Ravenstein's laws for the distance that migrants travel to nomic reasons may feel forced by pressure inside th
their new homes: selves to migrate, such as to search for food or jobs,
• Most migrants relocate a short distance and remain they have not been explicitly compelled to migrate by
violent actions of other people.
within the same country.
• Long-distance migrants to other countries head for INTERNAL MIGRATION. A permanent move within
same country is internal migration. Consistent ,
major centers of economic activity. the distance-decay principle presented in Chapte:
the farther away a place is located, the less likely
INTERNATIONAL AND INTERNAL people will migrate to it. Thus, internal migrants are m
MIGRATION more numerous than international migrants.
Migration can be divided into international migration and Internal migration can be divided into two types:
internal migration (Figure 3-4):
• Interregional migration is movement from one ret
INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION. A permanent move of a country to another. Historically, the main typ
from one country to another is international migration. interregional migration has been from rural to ur
lnternational migration is further divided into two types: areas in search of jobs. In recent years, some develc
• Voluntary migration implies that the migrant has countries have seen migration from urban to envi:
mentally attractive rural areas.
chosen to move, especially for economic improvement
(Figure 3-5). • Intraregional migration is movement within one
ion. The main type of intraregional migration hast
within urban areas, from older cities to newer subu
Most people find migration within a country less t
matic than international migration because they
TFIGURE 3.4 INTERNATIONAL AND INTERNAL
MIGRATION Mexicohasinternationaml igrationinto the
countryfromCentraAl mericaandout of the countryto
the UnitedStatesM. exicoalsohasinternalmigration,
especiallyinterregionaml igrationto statesnearthe U.S.
borderandintraregionaml igrationinto MexicoCity.
J: To the
United tates
CAL~~ SONORA CHI ..-!.9...,-..t.---~~
-,-e-,,~-~,.{.l',•:,,~,I
BAJA1 V\ .,_~ ~
CALsIFuQeANf .:. \
AS - ~
L YUC.l;TAN/·
EAETAAO I,, FIGURE 3·5 INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION INTO MEXI
DALGO l~TANA Theseimmigrantsfrom Hondurasare travelingacrossMexico
top of the train becausetheydon't haveenoughmoneyto pay
A -9 their travel.
GUANAJUA
Migration MICHO
.. International
• Internainl terregional
• Internainl traregional
200 400Kilomtters
Chapter 3: Migration 81
familiar language, foods, broadcasts, literature, music, The global pattern reflects the importance of migra-
and other social customs after they move. Moves within tion from developing countries to developed countries.
a country also generally involve much shorter distances Asia, Latin America, and Africa have net out-migration,
than those in international migration. However, internal and North America, Europe, and Oceania have net in-
migration can involve long-distance moves in large coun- migration. Migrants from countries with relatively low in-
tries, such as in the United States and Russia. comes and high natural increase rates head for relatively
wealthy countries, where job prospects are brighter.
Pauseand Reflect 3.1.1
How many times have you moved? How many of The United States has more foreign-born residents than
these moves were international? any other country: approximately 43 million as of 2010,
and growing by around 1 million annually. Other devel-
INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION PATTERNS oped countries have higher rates of net in-migration, in-
cluding Australia and Canada, which are much less popu-
About 9 percent of the world's people are international lous than the United States (Figure 3-6). The highest rates
migrants-that is, they currently live in countries other can be found in petroleum-exporting countries of South-
than the ones in which they were born. On a global scale, west Asia, which attract immigrants primarily from poorer
the three largest flows of migrants are: countries in Asia to perform many of the dirty and danger-
• From Asia to Europe ous functions in the oil fields.
• From Asia to North America
• From Latin America to North America
Averageannualnetmigration
2000-2005(thousands)
Gain Loss
- above 100 Oto 20
- 20to100 -2010100
oto 20 -above 100
Annualnet migrationflows A FIGURE3-6 GLOBALMIGRATION PATTERNSThewidthof thearrowsshowstheamountof net
betweenregions migrationbetweenregionsof theworld.Countriews ith netin-migrationarein red,andthosewith net out-
migrationarein blue.
500,000people
~ 100,000people
- 10,000people
82 THE CULTURALLANDSCAPE
U.S. Immigration Patterns Hemisphere as slaves. During the eighteenth centu1
about 400,000 Africans were shipped as slaves to ti
Learning Outcome 3.1.2 13 colonies that later formed the United States, prim,
Identify the principal sources of immigrants during ily by the British. The importation of Africans as slav
the three main eras of U.S. immigration. was made illegal in 1808, but another 250,000 Africa
were brought to the United States during the next ha
The United States plays a special role in the study of in- century (see Chapter 7).
ternational migration. The world's third-most-populous
country is inhabited overwhelmingly by direct descen- Most of the Africans were forced to migrate to t:
dants of immigrants. About 75 million people migrated United States as slaves, whereas most Europeans were v1
to the United States between 1820 and 2010, including untary migrants-although harsh economic conditio
43 million who were alive in 2010. and persecution in Europe blurred the distinction betwe
forced and voluntary migration for many Europeans.
The United States has had three main eras of immigration:
• Colonial settlement in the seventeenth and eighteenth U.S. IMMIGRATION: MID-NINETEENTH
TO EARLY TWENTIETH CENTURY
centuries
• Mass European immigration in the late nineteenth and Between 1820 and 1920 approximately 32 million peo1
immigrated to the United States. Nearly 90 percent e
early twentieth centuries igrated from Europe. For European migrants, the Unit
• Asian and Latin American immigration in the late States offered a great opportunity for economic succe
Early migrants extolled the virtues of the country to frier
twentieth and early twenty-first centuries and relatives back in Europe, which encouraged still o·
ers to come.
U.S. IMMIGRATION: SEVENTEENTH AND
EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES Migration from Europe to the United States peaked
several points during the nineteenth and early twentif
Immigration to the American colonies and the newly in- centuries (Figure 3-7):
dependent United States came from two principal regions:
• Europe. About 2 million Europeans migrated to the • i840s and 1850s: Ireland and Germany. Annual im1
gration jumped from 20,000 to more than 200,0 1
American colonies and the newly independent United Three-fourths of all U.S. immigrants during those t
States prior to 1820. Permanent English colonies were decades came from Ireland and German¥, Desper
established along the Atlantic Coast, beginning with economic push factors compelled the Irish and C
Jamestown, Virginia, in 1607, and Plymouth, Massa- mans to cross the Atlantic. Germans also emigrated
chusetts, in 1620. Ninety percent of European immi- escape political unrest.
grants to the United States during this period came
from Great Britain. • 1870s: Ireland and Germany. Emigration from Ire!,
• Sub-Saharan Africa. Most African Americans are de- and Germany resumed following a temporary decl
scended from Africans forced to migrate to the Western during the U.S. Civil War (1861-1865).
• 1880s: Scandinavia. Immigration increased to 500,000
year. Increasing numbers of Scandinavians, especi;
10
• Europe
• Canada
•Asia
• LatinAmerica
Africa
Oceania
2
OL.._....,. __
1820 1830 1840 1850 1860 1870 1880 1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000
Year
A FIGURE3-7 IMMIGRATION TO THE UNITED STATES
Europeancsomprisemd orethan90percenot f immigrantsto theUnitedStatesduringthenineteenthcenturyS. incethe1980s.
LatinAmericanandAsiahavebeenthedominantsourceosf immigrants.
Chapter 3: Migration 83
Swedes and Norwegians, joined Germans and Irish in hundred thousand people who had entered the United
migrating to the United States. The Industrial Revo- States in previous years without legal documents.
lution had diffused to Scandinavia, triggering a rapid
population increase. Although the pattern of immigration to the United
States has changed from predominantly European to Asian
• 1905-1914: Southern and Eastern Europe. Immigrat- and Latin American, the reason for immigration remains
ion to the United States reached 1 million. Two-thirds the same. Rapid population growth has limited prospects
of all immigrants during this period came from South- for economic advancement at home. Europeans left when
ern and Eastern Europe, especially Italy, Russia, and their countries entered stage 2 of the demographic transi-
Austria-Hungary. The shift in the primary source of im- tion in the nineteenth century, and Latin Americans and
migrants coincided with the diffusion of the industrial Asians began to leave in large numbers in recent years after
Revolution to Southern and Eastern Europe, along with their countries entered stage 2. With poor conditions at
rapid population growth. home, immigrants were lured by economic opportunity
and social advancement in the United States.
Among European countries, Germany has sent the larg-
est number of immigrants to the United States, 7.2 million. The motives for immigrating to the country may be
Other major European sources include [taly, 5.4 million; similar, but the United States has changed over time. The
the United Kingdom, 5.3 million; Ireland, 4.8 million; and United States is no longer a sparsely settled, economically
Russia and the former Soviet Union, 4.1 million. About one- booming country with a large supply of unclaimed land.
fourth of Americans trace their ancestry to German immi- In 1912, New Mexico and Arizona were admitted as the
grants and one-eighth each to Irish and English immigrants. forty-seventh and forty-eighth states. Thus, for the first
time in its history, all the contiguous territory of the coun-
Note that frequent boundary changes in Europe make try was a "united" state (other than the District of Colum-
precise national counts impossible. For example, most Poles bia). This symbolic closing of the frontier coincided with
migrated to the United States at a time when Poland did the end of the peak period of emigration from Europe.
not exist as an independent country. Therefore, most were
counted as immigrants from Germany, Russia, or Austria.
Pause and Reflect 3.1.2 CHECK-IN: KEY ISSUE 1
In what stage of the demographic transition were
European countries when they sent the most Where Are Migrants Distributed?
immigrants to the United States? ✓ Migration can be international (voluntary
U.S. IMMIGRATION: LATE TWENTIETH TO or forced) or internal (interregional or
EARLY TWENTY·FIRST CENTURY intraregional).
✓ Migration to the United States has occurred
Immigration to the United States dropped sharply in the in three principal eras, with emigrants from
1930s and 1940s, during the Great Depression and World different combinations of countries and regions
War JI. The number of immigrants steadily increased be-
ginning in the 1950s and then surged to historically high - predominating during each era.
levels during the first decade of the twenty-first century.
- Over50,000
More than three-fourths of the recent U.S. immigrants 10,000-49,999
have emigrated from two regions: 4,000-9,999
Below4,000
• Asia. The leading sources of U.S. immigrants from Asia
are China, the Philippines, India, and Vietnam. A.FIGURE 3-8 DESTINATION OF IMMIGRANTS BY U.S. STATE
CaliforniaN, ewYorkF, loridaa,ndTexaasretheleadingdestinationfosr
• Latin America. Nearly one-half million emigrate to the immigrants.
United States annually from Latin America, more than
twice as many as during the entire nineteenth century.
Recent immigrants are not distributed uniformly
throughout the United States. More than one-half head
for California, Florida, New York, or Texas (Figure 3-8).
Officially, Mexico passed Germany in 2006 as the coun-
try that has sent to the United States the most immigrants
ever. Unofficially, because of the large number of unau-
thorized immigrants, Mexico probably became the leading
source during the 1980s. In the early 1990s, an unusually
large number of immigrants came from Mexico and other
Latin American countries as a result of the 1986 Immigra-
tion Reform and Control Act, which issued visas to several
84 THE CULTURAL LANDSCAPE
KEY ISSUE2 MIGRATION BETWEEN REGIONS OF THE
Where Do People UNITED STATES
Migrate within a
Country? An especially prominent example of large-scale inter-
nal migration is the opening of the American West. At
■ Interregional Migration the time of independence, the United States consisted of
■ Intraregional Migration long-established settlements concentrated on the Atlantic
Coast and a scattering of newer settlements in the terri-
Learning Outcome 3.2.1 tories west of the Appalachian Mountains. Through mass
Describethe history of interregional migration in the interregional migration, the interior of the continent was
United States. settled and developed.
Internal migration for most people is less disruptive than CHANGING CENTER OF POPULATION. The U.S. Census
international migration. Two main types of internal mi- Bureau computes the country's population center at the
gration are interregional (between regions of a country) time of each census. The population center is the average
and intraregional (within a region). location of everyone in the country, the "center of
population gravity." If the United States were a flat plane
Interregional Migration placed on top of a pin, and each individual weighed the
same, the population center would be the point where tbe
In the past, people migrated from one region of a country population distribution causes the flat plane to balance on
to another in search of better farmland. Lack of farmland the pin.
pushed many people from the more densely settled regions
of the country and lured them to the frontier, where land was The changing location of the population center graph-
abundant. Today, the principal type of interregional migra- ically demonstrates the march of the American people
tion is from rural areas to urban areas. Most jobs, especially across the North American continent over the past 200
in services, are clustered in urban areas (see Chapter 12). years (Figure 3-9). The center has consistently shifted
westward, although the rate of movement has varied in
different eras:
• 1790: Hugging the coast. This location reflects the fact
that virtually all colonial-era settlements were near the
Atlantic Coast. Few colonists ventured far from coastal
locations because they depended on shipping link~
with Europe to receive products and to export raw ma-
terials. The Appalachian Mountains also blocked west•
em development because of their steep slopes, thid
1950-2010 1900-1940 1850-1890 1800-1840 1790
MovingSouth. HuggingtheCoast.
FIiiingintheGreatPlains. Rushingto the Gold. Crossingthe Appalachians.
Pt, •ii'
OHIO r-"----'~..,,...~=-,I i5~y
WARE
N
A KANSAS • *Ml URI Loui■Yllle .R1thmood ATU.NTIC
2000 199•0 1981) OCEAN
N 2010• KENTUCKY
VIRGINIA Nor!ol~,
TENNESSEE 81
OKLAHOMA NORTH
95 \ ARKANSAS CAROLINA
60
A FIGURE3-9 CHANGING CENTEROF U.S. POPULATION Thepopulationcenteris theaveragelocationof
everyonien thecountryt,he"centerof populationgravity."If theUnitedStateswerea flat planeplacedontop
of a pin,andeachindividuawl eighedthesamet,hepopulationcenterwouldbethepointwherethepopulation
distributioncausestheflat planeto balanceon theheadof a pin.
Chapter 3: Migration 85
forests, and few gaps that allowed easy passage. The in the Northeast and Midwest believe that southern
jndigenous residents, commonly called "Indians," still states have stolen industries from them. In reality, some
occupied large areas and sometimes resisted the expan- industries have relocated from the Northeast and Mid-
sion of settlement. west, but most of the South's industrial growth comes
from newly established companies.
• 1800-1840: Crossingthe Appalachians. Transportation Interregional migration has slowed considerably in the
improvements, especially the building of canals, helped United States into the twenty-first century; net migration
to open the interior. Most important was the Erie Canal, between each pair of regions is now close to zero. Regional
which enabled people to travel inexpensively by boat differences in employment prospects have become less
between New York City and the Great Lakes. In 1840, dramatic (Figure 3-10). The severe recession that began in
the United States had 5,352 kilometers (3,326 miles) of 2008 discouraged people from migrating because of lim-
canals. Encouraged by the opportunity to obtain a large ited job prospects in all regions.
amount of land at a low price, people moved into for- Pause and Reflect 3.2.1
ested river valleys between the Appalachians and the What means of transportation were available to
Mississippi River.They cut down the trees and used the migrants crossingthe United States during the
wood to build homes, barns, and fences. different eras?
• 1850-1890: Rushing to the gold. The population cen- 500
ter shifted westward more rapidly during this period.
Rather than continuing to expand agriculture into the .t..FIGURE 3-10 RECENT INTERREGIONAL MIGRATION IN THE UNITED
next available westward land, mid-nineteenth-century
pioneers kept going all the way to California. The prin- STATES Figureshowaverageannuaml igration(inthousandsin) 1995(top)
cipal pull to California was the Gold Rush, beginning in and2010(bottom).
the late 1840s. Pioneers during this period also passed
over the Great Plains because of the physical environ-
ment. The region's dry climate, lack of trees, and tough
grassland sod convinced early explorers such as Zeb-
ulon Pike that the region was unfit for farming, and
maps at the time labeled the Great Plains as the Great
American Desert.
• 1900-1940: Filling in the Great Plains. The westward
movement of the U.S. population center slowed dur-
ing this period because emigration from Europe to the
East Coast offset most of the emigration from the East
Coast to the U.S. West. Also, immigrants began to fill
in the Great Plains that earlier generations had by-
passed. Advances in agricultural technology enabled
people to cultivate the area. Farmers used barbed wire
to reduce dependence on wood fencing, the steel plow
to cut the thick sod, and windmills and well-drilling
equipment to pump more water. The expansion of the
railroads encouraged settlement of the Great Plains.
The federal government gave large land grants to the
railroad companies, which financed construction of
their lines by selling portions to farmers. The extensive
rail network then permitted settlers to transport their
products to the large concentrations of customers in
East Coast cities.
• 1950-2010: Moving south. The population center re-
sumed a more vigorous westward migration. It also
moved southward, as Americans migrated to the South
for job opportunities and warmer climate. The rapid
growth of population and employment in the South
has aggravated interregional antagonism. Some people
1tRtllllllllHIIIH
86 THE CULTURAL LANDSCAPE
MIGRATION BETWEEN REGIONS IN THE
WORLD'S LARGEST COUNTRY
Learning Outcome 3.2.2
Describe interregional migration in Russia.
Long-distance interregional migration has been an important
means of opening new regions for economic development in
Russia.The population of Russia, the world's largest country
in land area, is highly clustered in the western, or Europe-
an, portion of the country. Much of the country, especially
east of the Ural Mountains, is extremely sparsely inhabited
(Figure 3-11). To open up the sparsely inhabited Asian por-
tion of Russia, interregional migration was important in the
former Soviet Union. Soviet policy encouraged factory con-
struction near raw materials rather than near existing popu-
lation concentrations (see Chapter 11). Not enough workers
lived nearby to fill all the jobs at the mines, factories, and -'. FIGURE 3-12 INTERREGIONAL MIGRATION: RUSSIA
construction sites established in these remote, resource-rich WhenRussiawas still constitutedasthe principalcomponentsof the S
regions. To build up an adequate labor force, the Soviet gov- Union,workersmigratedto Siberiato buildrail lines,includingthesein 19,
ernment had to stimulate interregional migration.
Soviet officials were especially eager to develop Russia's The collapse of the Soviet Union ended policies 1
Far North, which included much of Siberia, because it is encouraged interregional migration. In the transition
rich in natural resources-fossil fuels, minerals, and for- market-based economy, Russian government officials
ests. The Far North encompassed 45 percent of the Soviet longer dictate "optimal" locations for factories.
Union's land area but contained fewer than 2 percent of its
people. The Soviet government forced people to migrate
to the Far North to construct and operate steel mills, hy- Pause and Reflect 3.2.2
droelectric power stations, mines, and other enterprises.
In later years, the government encouraged, instead, volun- With Russia more closely linked economically to
tary migration to the Far North, including higher wages, Europe, which region of the country is most likely t,
more paid holidays, and earlier retirement. attract interregional migration?
The incentives failed to
pull as many migrants to
the Far North as Soviet of-
ficials desired. People were
reluctant because of the
region's harsh climate and
remoteness from popula-
tion clusters. Each year, as
many as half of the people
in the Far North migrated
back to other regions of -N,i;aao.~rfl.ll\rupa•ilov:,)
the country and had to be RUSSIA ' l(OJne:1'.iatMi)
replaced by other immi-
grants, especially young Sooo)
Okhotsk
males willing to work in
the region for a short pe-
riod. One method the So-
viet government used
was to send a brigade of
young volunteers, known
as Komsomol, during
school vacations to help
construct projects, such as .'- FIGURE 3-11 POPULATIONDISTRIBUTION:RUSSIA Russia'psopulationis
railroads (Figure 3-12 ). clusteredinthe westof thecountryn, earesto Europe.
Chapter 3: Migration 87
SUSTAINABILITAYND INEQUALITYIN OURGLOBALVILLAGE
Trailof Tears
Like many other people, Native ~ FIGURE 3-13 TRAIL OF TEARS SCULPTURE ThissculptureinChattanoogaT,ennessee,
Americans also mlgrated west in the commemoratethse startofthepaththatthe Cherokewe ereforcedtotaketo relocatetoIndian
nineteenth centmy. But their mi- Territor(yOklahomain) 1838.
gration was forced rather than vol-
untary. This inequality was written Americans were estimated to have route became known as the Trail of
in law, when the Indian Removal been uprooted, many of whom died Tears; parts of it are preserved as a
Act of 1830 authorized the U.S. in the long trek to the west. The National Historic Trail (Figure 3-14).
Army to remove five [ndian tribes
from their land in the southeastern
United States and move them to
Indian Territory (now the state of
Oklahoma). The Choctaw were
forced to emigrate from Mississippi
in 1831, Lhe Seminole from Florida
in 1832, the Creek from Alabama
in 1834, the Chickasaw from Mis-
sissippi in 1837, and the Chero-
kee from Georgia in 1838 (rigure
3-13). The five removals opened
up 100,000 square kilometers (25
million acres) of land for whites
to settle and relocated the tribes
to land that was too clry to sustain
their traditional ways of obtaining
food. Approximately 46,000 Native
---. UNORGANIZED MISSOURI 01S Cherokee
TERRITORY Traiol fTe
.r
CHEROK/:E
A
N MEXICO
Routesof IndianRemoval
- Cherokee Gulf of Mexico
- Chickasaw
- Choctaw o· 100 !OOfl.lles
100 200Ki6D('lle1~
Creek
- Semioole
• Tribalands(datecedell)
Rese1Vations
~ rf__~ 9S'W 90'W 65'\V
J,. FIGURE 3-14 TRAIL OF TEARS
Thesearetheroutesthat theCherokeeC, hickasawC,hoctawC, reeka, ndSeminolteribestookwhenthey
wereforcedto migrateinthe earlynineteenthcentury.
~1I1IIIIHUII: Ill II II ii'
iI:
Ii \
88 THE CULTURAL LANDSCAPE
MIGRATION BETWEEN REGIONS IN Canada. Net out-migration is being recorded in provinc(
OTHER LARGE COUNTRIES from Manitoba eastward (Figure 3-16).
Learning Outcome 3.2.3 CHINA. An estimated 100 million people have emigratf
Describe interregional migration in Canada, China, from rural areas in the interior of the country {Figure3-1i
and Brazil. They are headed for the large urban areas along the ea
coast, where jobs are most plentiful, especially in factorit
The world's largest countries in land area other than Russia, The government once severely limited the ability of Chine
and the United States are Canada, China, and Brazil. Gov- people to make interregional moves, but restrictions ha·
ernment policies encourage interregional migration in been lifted in recent years.
Brazil and discourage it in China.
BRAZIL Most Brazilians live in a string of large citi
CANADA. As in the United States, Canada has had near the Atlantic Coast. Sao Paulo and Rio de Janei
significant interregional migration from east to west for have become two of the world's largest cities. In contra
more than a century {Figure 3-15). The three westernmost Brazil's tropical interior is very sparsely inhabited.
provinces-Alberta, British Columbia, and Saskatchewan- increase the attractiveness of the interior, the governm€
are the destinations for most interregional migrants within moved its capital in 1960 from Rio to a newly built c
called Brasilia, situated 1,000 kilometers (600 miles) frc
the Atlantic Coast. Development of Brazil's interior I
altered historic migration patterns. The coastal areas n,
have net out-migration, whereas the interior areas h,
net in-migration (Figure 3-18).
From above, Brasilia's design resembles an airpla
with government buildings located at the center of
city and housing arranged along the "wings" (Figure 3-1
Thousands of people have migrated to Brasflia in sea
of jobs. In a country with rapid population growth, m,
people will migrate where they think they can find (
ployment. Many of these workers could not afford he
ing in Brasilia and were living instead in hastily erec
shacks on the outskirts of the city.
Pause and Reflect 3.2.3
In what ways are interregional migration in China
and Brazil similar?
A FIGURE 3-15 INTERREGIONAL MIGRATION: CANADA IN 1900 T FIGURE 3-16 INTERREGIONAL MIGRATION: CANADA
Populationhasbeenincreasingmorerapidlyin the westof Canadae, sp1
DawsonCity,in Canada'sYukonTerritoryw, asthe destinationin 1900for many AlbertaandSaskatchewan.
immigrantslookingfor gold.
~f:~1~s:fe -......_NU_NAVUT
. - I'- l '• • ••~~r•
IRmSK • ,- -----1-- f" ~\.Jr-'~~,- .... ~EWFOUNllLAND
'
COWM&IA ,_ 1~1 C,\NADA \ \ -,..--;; ~AND LA8RAOOII
/•
·/ ~•, ~l8ERT~ • .,- ....?. ~
•I ~. _r( ~-•\'-
,,._,
.. MANITOBA ~.
'. ~QUEBEC ~._},- -' .-,..Ra-,es-o-lne1--lnterp-,
~
(
.l',c1a • ~ ,~/.~../ Ii,I • PRINCE migrationbetween
EDWARII JUIJ1,2009and
If ISWD
-'\, ., Q~ June30, 2010(%)
'9- ~i Kutu asoandabo,e
- ·,#, - ll, NOVSACGTIA 0.0-5.0
' tiEW ,11" - -5.o--0.0
UNITEDSTATES •-1CK •-s.oanraelow
"" '00 .... Sparseplyopula
1 m «'llblffln
Chapter 3: Migration 89
200 ,., She;wan
200 .OO~Tomlt1tr1 Ji~!\l_
al, ,
> Dalian
ngBaotou. ._.,,. n_ .va.,ta1
Da
dao
Volumeof flow Net percent migration
- 2,000,000--3,000,000 Over10.0gain
- 1,000,000--1,999,999 5.0--10.g0ain
- 500,000--999,999 0.1-4.9 gain
- 300,000--499,999 0.0--5.l0oss
- 180,000-299,999 Ove5r .0loss
A FIGURE3-17 INTERREGIONAL MIGRATION: CHINA Migrantsare
headingeastwardtowardsthe majorcities.
200 .aF. IGURE3-19 INTERREGIONAL MIGRATION: BRAZIL'S CAPITAL From
:too 400l(llom1:ters
the air,Brasilialookslikean airplaneT. hecity wasbuilt beginningin 1960to
Populationgrowlh luremigrantsfromthe country'slargecoastalcities.
2000-2010 (%)
INCREASE
- 1.6and above
1.5and below
DECREASE
0.08andbelow
• O09andabove
.aF. IGURE 3-18 INTERREGIONAL MIGRATION: BRAZIL Populationis
growingmorerapidlyin the interiorof the country.
90 THE CULTURAL LANDSCAPE
Intraregional Migration
Learning Outcome 3.2.4
Explain differences among the three forms of
intraregional migration.
Interregional migration attracts considerable attention,
but far more people move within the same region, which is
intraregional migration. Worldwide, the most prominent
type of intraregional migration is from rural areas to urban
areas. In the United States, the principal intraregional
migration is from cities to suburbs.
MIGRATION FROM RURALTO URBAN AREAS .a.FIGURE 3-21 INTRAREGIONAL MIGRATION: RURAL TO URBAN
Migration from rural (or nonmetropolitan) areas to urban Housingfor poorruralmigrantsis constructedon hillsin the suburbsof Lima,
(or metropolitan) areas began in the 1800s in Europe and Peru.
North America as part of the Industrial Revolution (see
Chapter 11). The percentage of people living in urban in agriculture and are pulled to the cities by the prospect of
areas in the United States, for example, increased from work in factories or in service industries (Figure 3-21).
5 percent in 1800 to SO percent in I 920 and 80 percent
in 2010. MIGRATION FROM URBAN TO
SUBURBAN AREAS
In recent years, urbanization has diffused to develop-
ing countries of Asia, Latin America, and Africa. Between Most intraregional migration in developed countries is from
1950 and 2010, the percentage living in urban areas in- cities out to surrounding suburbs. The population of most
creased from 40 percent to 80 percent in Latin America, cities in developed countries has declined since the mid-
from 15 percent to 45 percent in Asia, and from 10 percent twentieth century, while suburbs have grown rapidly. Nearly
to 40 percent in sub-Saharan Africa. Worldwide, more than twice as many Americans migrate from cities to suburbs each
20 million people are estimated to migrate each year from year as migrate from suburbs to cities (Hgure 3-22). Compa-
rural to urban areas (Figure 3-20). rable patterns are found in Canada and Europe.
As with interregional migrants, most people who move The major reason for the large-scale migration to the sub,
from rural to urban areas seek economic advancement. urbs is not related to employment, as is the case with othe,
They are pushed from rural areas by declining opportunities forms of migration. For most people, migration to suburb!
does not coincide with changing jobs. Instead, people an
pulled by a suburban lifestyle. Suburbs offer the opportunit1
From city
to suburb
"l•.,.4,895,000 •
~~......
• ' •
•
. .,,,_I•Fromsuburbto ,~ -448,000
nonmetropolitan },-· -• From
• 473,000 OOM'lel/opol~
.... 711,000
From nonmetropohtanto suburb •to c,ty •
501,000
" ~;,;l• Fromc,ty
to nonmetropohtan
I
.a.FIGURE 3-20 INTRAREGIONAL MIGRATION: CHINA Thesemigrants • FIGURE3-22 INTRAREGIONAML IGRATIONU: NITEDSTATESThis
figureshowsmigrationbetweencities,suburbsa,ndnonmetropolitaanreasir
fromruralto urbanareaswithinChinaarewaitingfor trainsto takethemback 2010.
to thecountrysideduringholidays.
Chapter 3: Migration 91
With modern communica-
tions and transportation systems,
no location in a developed coun-
try is truly isolated, either eco-
nomically or socially. Computers,
NetMigration2007-2008 tablets, and smart phones enable
(as% of 2007population) us to work anywhere and still
have access to an international
network. We can buy most prod-
ucts online and have them deliv-
0.01-0.49 ered within a few days. We can
Out-migration follow the fortunes of our favor-
0.01-0.49 ite teams on television anywhere
- 0.50-0.99 in the country, thanks to satellite
- 1.0-1.99 dishes and webcast.s.
• 2.0 andbelow
Intraregional migration has
Nochange slowed during the early twenty-
0.00 first century as a result of the se-
.aF. IGURE3-23 NET MIGRATIONBY COUNTY Ruralcountiesexperiencednet in-migrationin RockyMountain vere recession (Figure 3-24). In-
traregional migrants, who move
andsouthernstatesandnet out-migrationin GreatPlainsstates.
primarily for lifestyle reasons
to live in a detached house rather than an apartment, sur- rather than for jobs, found that they couldn't get loans to
rounded by a private yard where children can play safely. buy new homes and couldn't find buyers for their old homes.
A garage or driveway on the property guarantees space to
park cars at no extra charge. Suburban schools tend to be Pause and Reflect 3.2.3
more modern, better equipped, and safer than those in cit- What changes in communications and transportation
ies. Cars and trains enable people to Jivein suburbs yet have might make counterurbanization easier or harder?
access to jobs, shops, and recreational facilities throughout
the urban area (see Chapter 13).
As a result of suburbanization, the territory occupied by
urban areas has rapidly expanded. To accommodate subur- "'22
ban growth, farms on the periphery of urban areas are con-
verted to housing and commercial developments, where e·C;;
new roads, sewers, and other services must be built.
., 20
MIGRATION FROM URBAN TO RURAL AREAS
g-1s
Developed countries witnessed a new migration trend dur- 8.
ing the late twentieth century. For the first time, more
people immigrated into rural areas than emigrated out of 0., 16
514
C.,:
~ 12
&'.
10
them. Net migration from urban to rural areas is called 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
counterurbanization. Year
The boundary where suburbs end and the countryside A. FIGURE3-24 PERCENTAGE OF AMERICANS MOVING IN A YEAR
begins cannot be precisely defined. Counterurbanization re- The percentagehas declinedfrom 20 percentin the 1980sto 12 percentin
sults in part from very rapid expansion of suburbs. But most the201Os.
counterurbanization represents genuine migration from cit- CHECKIN:KEYISSU2E
ies and suburbs to small towns and rural communities.
As with suburbanization, people move from urban to Where Do People Migrate Within a
rural areas for lifestyle reasons. Some are lured to rural areas Country?
by the prospect of swapping the frantic pace of urban life
for the opportunity to live on a farm, where they can own ✓ Migration between regions is important within
horses or grow vegetables. Others move to farms but do the United States, as well as within other large
not earn their living from agriculture; instead, they work in countries.
nearby factories, small-town shops, or other services. In the
United States, evidence of counterurbanization can be seen ✓ Migration within countries takes several forms,
primarily in the Rocky Mountain states. Rural counties in including rural to urban, urban to suburban,
states such as Colorado, Idaho, Utah, and Wyoming have and urban to rural.
experienced net in-migration (Figure 3-23).
,nnlllllllHII 0HI. 1' 11111:
! •ll IJ
92 THE CULTURAL LANDSCAPE
KEY ISSUE 3 Forced political migration now occurs because of
litical conflict. The United Nations High Commisi
for Refugees (UNHCR) recognizes three groups of fo1
Why Do People political migrants:
Migrate?
• A refugee has been forced to migrate to another cc
■ Reasons for Migrating try to avoid the effects of armed conflict, situation
generalized violence, violations of human rights
other disasters and cannot return for fear of pers,
tion because of race, religion, nationality, member:
in a social group, or political opinion.
■ Migrating to Find Work • An internally displaced person (IDP) has been fo
■ Characteristics of Migrants to migrate for similar political reasons as a refugee
has not migrated across an international border.
Learning Outcome 3.3.1 • An asylum seeker is someone who has migrate1
another country in the hope of being recognized
Provide examples of political, environmental, and refugee.
economic push and pull factors. The United Nations counted 10.6 million refugees,
million IDPs, and 838,000 asylum seekers in 2010 1
People decide to migrate because of push factors and pull ure 3-25). The UNHCR also found that 198,000 refu
factors: and Z.9 million !DPs had returned to their home
• A push factor induces people to move out of their pres- 2010.
The largest number of refugees in 2010 was force
ent location. migrate from Afghanistan and Iraq because of the
• A pull factor induces people to move into a new tinuing wars there. Countries bordering Afghanistan
location. Iraq, including Pakistan, Iran, and Syria, received the r
As migration for most people is a major step not taken refugees.
lightly, both push and pull factors typically play a role. To
migrate, people view their current place of residence so ENVIRONMENTAL PUSH AND PULL FACT(
negatively that they feel pushed away, and they view an-
other place so attractively that they feel pulled toward it. People sometimes migrate for environmental reai
We can identify three major kinds of push and pull fac- pulled toward physically attractive regions and pu
tors: economic, political, and environmental. Usually, one from hazardous ones. In this age of improved commu1
of the three factors emerges as most important, although tions and transportation systems, people can live in i
ranking the relative importance of the three factors can be ronmentally attractive areas that are relatively remote
difficult and even controversial. still not feel too isolated from employment, shopping,
entertainment opportunities.
Attractive environments for migrants include m
I REASONS FOR MIGRATING tains, seasides, and warm climates. Proximity to the R
Mountains lures Americans to the state of Colo1
ii Ravenstein's laws help geographers make generalizations and the Alps pull French people to eastern France. ~
about where and how far people migrate. The laws also migrants are shocked to find polluted air and conge:
11 sum up the reasons why people migrate:
in these areas. The southern coast of England, the 1
• Most people migrate for economic reasons. terranean coast of France, and the coasts of Florida a1
• Political and environmental factors also induce migra- migrants, especially retirees, who enjoy swimming
tion, although not as frequently as economic factors. lying on the beach. Of all elderly people who migrate
one U.S. state to another, one-third select Florida as
destination. Regions with warm winters, such as sout
POLITICAL PUSH AND PULL FACTORS Spain and the southwestern United States, attract mig
from harsher climates.
Political factors can be especially compelling push factors, Migrants are also pushed from their homes by ad
forcing people to emigrate from a country. Slavery was physical conditions. Water-either too much or to,
once an important political push factor. Millions of people tie-poses the most common environmental threat. ~
were shipped to other countries as slaves or as prisoners, people are forced to move by water-related dis,
especially from sub-Saharan Africa to North America and because they live in a vulnerable area, such as a flood
Latin America, during the eighteenth and early nineteenth (Figure 3-26). The floodplain of a river is the area
centuries (see Chapter 7). ject to flooding during a specific number of years, 1
Chapter 3: Migration 93
<O"-~---+
I----,--~..,..2.,0.0-0-~ -',000Miin
2.000 ,,oookllomelen
1110• 8(1' 6(1' 40' 20' O' 20' 100' 1,0' 140' 16f.f 180'
Jr,.FIGURE 3-25 POLITICAL FACTORS: REFUGEES AND IDPS Thelargestnumbersof refugeesoriginatedin
SouthwesAt siaandsub-SaharaAn frica.
on historical trends. People living in the "100-year flood- adapted to dry lands but effective only at low population
plain," for example, can expect flooding on average once densities (see Chapter 10).
every century. Many people are unaware that they live in
a floodplain, and even people who do know often choose The capacity of the Sahel to sustain human life-never
to live there anyway. very high-has declined recently because of population
growth and several years of unusually low rainfall. Con-
A lack of water pushes others from their land (Fig- sequently, many of these nomads have been forced to
ure 3-27). Hundreds of thousands have been forced to move into cities and rural camps, where they survive on
move from the Sahel region of northern Africa because food donated by the government and international relief
of drought conditions. The people of the Sahel have tra- organizations.
ditionally been pastoral nomads, a form of agriculture
A FIGURE 3-26 FLOODING Floodingof theMississippRiiverin 2011 Jr,.FIGURE 3-27 DROUGHT ThismaninAbala,Nigeri,sexplainingthathis
inundatedfarmsin the floodplain. animalshavediedbecausoef drought.
,qqnt1 ·ff!II.HIHlflflIlfft!t
94 THE CULTURAL LANDSCAPE
120
Migrating to Find Work 100 - Immigration
Learning Outcome 3.3.2 80
Summarize the flows of migrant workers in Europe
and Asia. 60
ECONOMIC PUSH AND PULL FACTORS ..Cl)
Most people migrate for economic reasons. People often 'ti
emigrate from places that have few job opportunities and
immigrate to places where jobs seem to be available. Be- C 40
cause of economic restructuring, job prospects often vary :", '
from one country to another and within regions of the 20
same country. 0
f:.
The United States and Canada have been especially
prominent destinations for economic migrants. Many -20 1995 2000 2005 2010
European immigrants to North America in the nine- Year
teenth century truly expected to find streets paved with -40
gold. While not literally so gilded, the United States and
Canada did offer Europeans prospects for economic ad- -60
vancement. This same perception of economic plenty 1990
now lures people to the United States and Canada from
Latin America and Asia. .t..FIGURE 3-28 ECONOMIC MIGRATION: IRELAND Withfewjob
prospectsI,relandhistoricallhyadnetout-migrationuntilthe 1990sT. hesevE
The relative attractiveness of a region can shift with recessionofthe earlytwenty-firsctenturyhasbroughtnetout-migrationbac
economic change. Ireland was a place of net out-migration
through most of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. to Ireland.
Dire economic conditions produced net out-migration in
excess of 200,000 a year during the 1850s. The pattern re- EUROPE'S MIGRANT WORKERS
versed during the 1990s, as economic prosperity made Ire-
land a destination for immigrants, especially from Eastern Of the world's 16 countries with the highest per capita
Europe. However, the collapse of Ireland's economy as part come, 14 are in Northern and Western Europe. As a rest
of the severe global recession starting in 2008 brought a the region attracts immigrants from poorer regions loca1
net out-migration to Europe (Figure 3-28). the south and east. These immigrants serve a useful role
Europe, taking low-status and low-skill jobs that local n
dents won't accept. In cities such as Berlin, Brussels, Pai
and Zurich, immigrants provide essential services, su
as driving buses, collecting garbage, repairing streets, a
washing dishes (Figure 3-29).
Although relatively low paid by European standards, i
migrants earn far more than they would at home. By letti
their people work elsewhere, poorer countries reduce th
own unemployment problems. Immigrants also help tr.
native countries by sending a large percentage of their ea
ings back home to their families. The injection of foreign c
rency then stimulates the local economy.
Pause and Reflect 3.3.1
I What would it take for Ireland to once again have
ii net in-migration?
I
It is sometimes difficult to distinguish between mi-
grants seeking economic opportunities and refugees
fleeing from government persecution. The distinction
between economic migrants and refugees is important be-
cause the United States, Canada, and European countries
treat the two groups differently. Economic migrants are
generally not admitted unless they possess special skills
or have a close relative alieady there, and even then they
must compete with similar applicants from other coun-
tries. However, refugees receive special priority in admis-
sion to other countries.
People unable to migrate permanently to a new coun-
try for employment opportunities may be allowed to mi-
grate temporarily. Prominent forms of temporary work are .t..FIGURE 3-29 IMMIGRANTS IN EUROPE ImmigranftromNorthAfric
found in Europe and Asia. deans thestreetsinParis.
Chapter 3: Migration 95
◄ FIGURE 3-30 PERCENTAGE OF IMMIGRANTS IN
EUROPE LuxembouragndSwitzerlanhdavethe highest
percentageos fimmigrants.
Percentforeign born countries, especially Vietnamese, who are will-
• 10.0andabove ing to work in China's rapidly expanding fac-
5.0-9.9 tories. Immigration from abroad pales in com-
Below5.0 parison to internal migration within China.
nodata • Southwest Asia. The wealthy oil-producing
countries of Southwest Asia have been major
destinations for people from poorer countries
in the region, such as Egypt and Yemen. During
the late twentieth century, most immigrants ar-
rived from South and Southeast Asia, including
India, Pakistan, the Philippines, and Thailand
(Figure 3-31). Working conditions for immi-
grants have been considered poor in some of
these countries. The Philippine government
determined in 2011 that only two countries
Germany and other wealthy European countries oper- in Southwest Asia-Israel and Oman-were
ated a guest worker program mainly during the 1960s and "safe" for their Filipino migrants, and the others lacked
1970s. Immigrants from poorer countries were allowed adequate protection for workers' rights. For their part, oil-
to immigrate temporarily to obtain jobs. They were pro- producing countries fear that the increasing numbers of
tected by minimum-wage laws, labor union contracts, and guest workers will spark political unrest and abandonment
other support programs. The guest worker program was in- of traditional Islamic customs.
tended to be temporary. After a few years, the guest work- Pause and Reflect 3.3.2
ers were expected to return home.
Why are street cleaning and construction jobs
The first guest worker programs involved emigration attractive for immigrants to Europe and Southwest
from Southern European countries such as Italy, Portugal, Asia?
and Spain. Northern European countries were then much
wealthier and more economically developed and offered
many more job opportunities. Turkey and North Africa CHECK-IN: • EY ISSUE 3
replaced Southern Europe as the leading sources. Today,
most immigrants in search of work in Europe come from Why Do People Migrate?
Eastern Europe, such as Poland and Romania.
The term "guest worker" is no longer used in Europe, ✓ People migrate for a combination of political,
and the government programs no longer exist. Many im- environmental, and economic push and pull
migrants who arrived originally under the guest worker factors.
program have remained permanently. They, along with ✓ Most people migrate in search of work.
their children and grandchildren, have become citizens
of the host country. The foreign-born population exceeds
40 percent in Luxembourg and 20 percent in Switzerland.
Among the most populous European countries, Spain has
the highest share of foreign-born population (Figure 3-30).
In Europe as a whole, though, the percentage of foreign-
born residents is only one-half that of North America.
ASIA'S MIGRANT WORKERS .& FIGURE 3-31 IMMIGRANTISNSOUTHWEST ASIA Theseimmigrants
in Dubaihavelinedupto get constructiojnobs.
Asia is both a major source and a major destination for
migrants in search of work:
• China. Approximately 40 million Chinese currently live
in other countries, including 30 million in Southeast
Asia,5 million in North America, and 2million in Europe.
Chinese comprise three-fourths of the population
in Singapore and one-fourth in Malaysia. Most migrants
were from southeastern China. China's booming econ•
omy is now attracting immigrants from neighboring
96 THE CULTURAL LANOSCAF>E
KEY ISSUE4 Controlling Migration
Why Do Migrants Face Most countries have adopted selective immigration {
cies that admit some types of immigrants but not otJ-
Obstacles? The two reasons that most visas are granted are for spe,
employment placement and family reunification.
■ Controlling Migration
■ Unauthorized Immigration U.S. QUOTA LAWS
■ Attitudes toward Immigrants
The era of unrestricted immigration to the United S1
Learning Outcome 3.4.1 ended when Congress passed the Quota Act in 1921
Identify the types of immigrants who are given the National Origins Act in 1924. These laws establi:
preference to enter the United States. quotas, or maximum limits on the number of people
could immigrate to the United States during a one-yea
An environmental or political feature that hinders migra- riod. Key modifications in the U.S. quotas have incluc
tion is an intervening obstacle. The principal obstacle tra-
ditionally faced by migrants to other countries was envi- • 1924: For each country that had native-born per
ronmental: the long, arduous, and expensive passage over already living in the United States, 2 percent of
land or by sea. Think of the cramped and unsanitary con- number (based on the 1910 census) could immi:
ditions endured by eighteenth- and nineteenth-century each year. This ensured that most immigrants w
immigrants to the United States who had to sail across the come from Europe.
Atlantic or Pacific Ocean in tiny ships. Or the mountains
and deserts that European pioneers and displaced Native • 1965: Quotas for individual countries were replaced
Americans were forced to cross in their westward migra- hemisphere quotas (170,000 from the Eastern H
tion across the North American continent. sphere and 120,000 from the Western Hemisphere
Transportation improvements that have promoted glo- • 1978: A global quota of 290,000 was set, includi
balization, such as motor vehicles and airplanes, have di- maximum of 20,000 per country.
minished the importance of environmental features as in-
tervening obstacles. Today, the major obstacles faced by • 1990: The global quota was raised to 700,000.
most immigrants are political. A migrant needs a passport
to legally emigrate from a country and a visa to legally im- Because the number of applicants for admissic
migrate to a new country (Figure 3-32). the United States far exceeds the quotas, Congress h,
preferences:
A.FIGURE3-32 PASSPORTCONTROL BackupattheborderfromTijuana,
Mexico(right)intotheUnitedStatesat SanDiego. • Family reunification. Approximately three-fourt:
immigrants are admitted to reunify families, prin
spouses or unmarried children of people already I
in the United States. The typical wait for a spot
gain entry is currently about five years.
• Skilled workers. Exceptionally talented professi
receive most of the remainder of the quota.
• Diversity. A few immigrants are admitted by I•
under a diversity category for people from cou
that historically sent few people to the United St,
The quota does not apply to refugees, who are adr
if they are judged genuine refugees. Also admitted wi
limit are spouses, children, and parents of U.S. cit
The number of immigrants can vary sharply from y
year, primarily because numbers in these two grou
unpredictable.
Other countries charge that by giving prefere,
skilled workers, immigration policies in the United
and Europe contribute to a brain drain, which is a
scale emigration by talented people. Scientists, res
ers, doctors, and other professionals migrate to cm
where they can make better use of their abilities.
Asians have made especially good use of the pri
set by the U.S. quota laws. Many well-educated Asian
the United States under the preference for skilled w
Once admitted, they can bring in relatives under the l
reunification provisions of the quota. Eventually,
Chapter 3: Migration 97
immigrants can bring in a wider range of other relatives relatives or members of the same nationality previously
from Asia, through a process of chain migration, which migrated there.
Is the migration of people to a specific location because
CONTEMPORARYGEOGRAPHICTOOLS
ClaimingEllisIsland
Twelve mi11ion immigrants to the part of their state, not New York. The of Environmental Protection (NJDEP)
United States between 1892 and 1954 claim was partly a matter of pride officials using Geographic Informa-
were processed at Ellis Island, situated on the part of New Jersey officials tion System (GfS). NJDEP officials
in New York Harbor (Figure 3-33). to stand up to their more glamorous scanned into an image file an 1857
Incorporated as part of the Statue of neighbor. After all, Ellis Island was U.S. coast map that was considered
Liberty National Monument in 1965, only 400 meters (1,300 feet) from the to be the most reliable map from that
Ellis Island was restored and reopened New Jersey shoreline, yet tourists- era. The image file of the old map
in 1990 as a museum of immigration. like immigrants a century ago-are was brought into ArcView, and then
Before building the immigration cen- transported by ferry to Lower Man- the low waterline shown on the 1857
ter, the U.S. government used Ellis hattan more than a mile away. More map was edited and depicted using
Island as a fort and powder magazine practically, the sales tax collected by a series of dots. The perimeter of the
beginning in 1808. the Ellis Island museum gift shop current island was mapped using
was going to New York rather than global positioning system (GPS)
An 1834 agrecmen t approved by to New Jersey. surveying.
the U.S. Congress gave Elli5 Island
to New York State and gave the sub- After decades of dispute, New Jer- After ruling in favor of New Jersey's
merged lands surrounding the island sey took the case to the U.S. Supreme claim, tl1e Supreme Court directed
to New Jersey. When the agreement Court. ln 1998, the Supreme Court the NJDEP to delineate the precise
was signed, Ellis Island was only 1.1 ruled 6-3 that New York owned the boundary between the two states,
hectares (2.75 c1crcs),but beginning original island but that New Jersey again using GIS. Overlaying the 1857
in the 1890s, the U.S. government owned the rest. New York's jurisdic- low waterline onto the current map
enlarged the island, eventually to tion was set as the low waterline of idenlified New York's territory, and
10.6 hectares (27.5 acres). the original island. Critical evidence the rest of the current island was de-
in the decision was a series of maps termined to belong to New Jersey.
New Jersey state officials claimed prepared by New Jersey Department
that the 10.6-hectare Ellis Island was
-' FIGURE3-33 ELLISISLANDEllisIslandis in theforegroundJ,erseyCity,NewJerseyis, to theleft,and
ManhattanN, ewYorkistotherear.
. lllllllffllllBIH
98 THE CULTURALLANDSCAPE
Unauthorized Immigration less than S years. A similar survey in 2000 showed
reverse distribution: 32 percent had been in the Unitf
Learning Outcome 3.4.2 States for less than S years, compared to only 16 perce1
Describe the population characteristics of for more than 15 years.
unauthorized immigrants to the United States.
• Labor force. Approximately 8 million unauthorized ir:
The number of people allowed to immigrate into the migrants are employed in the United States, accoun
United States is at a historically high level, but the num- ing for around S percent of the total U.S. civilian lab
ber who wi.sh to come is even higher. Many who cannot force. Unauthorized immigrants were much more like
legally enter the United States immigrate illegally. Those than the average American to be employed in constru
who do so are entering without proper documents and tion and hospitality (food service and lodging) jobs ar
thus are called unauthorized immigrants. less likely to be in white-collar jobs such as educatio
health care, and finance.
CHARACTERISTICS OF UNAUTHORIZED
• Distribution. California and Texas have the larg1
IMMIGRANTS number of unauthorized immigrants. Nevada has t'
largest percentage.
The Pew Hispanic Center estimated that there were 11.2
million unauthorized immigrants living in the United MEXICO'S BORDER WITH THE UNITED
States in 2010. The number increased rapidly during the STATES
first years of the twenty-first century (Figure 3-34). After
hitting a peak in 2007, the figure declined because these- The U.S.-Mexico border is 3,141 kilometers (1,951 mil
vere recession that started in 2008 reduced job opportuni- long (Figure 3-35). Rural areas and small towns are guarc
ties in the United States. by only a handful of agents (Figure3-36). Crossing the bon
on foot legally is possible in several places (Figure 3-37). El
Other information about unauthorized immigrants, where, the border runs mostly through sparsely inhabited
according to Pew Hispanic Center: gions. The United States has constructed a barrier coveri
approximately one-fourth of the border (Figure 3-38). SevE
• Source country. Approximately 58 percent of unauthor- large urban areas are situated on the border, including ~
ized immigrants emigrate from Mexico. The remainder Diego, California, and Tijuana, Mexico, at the western c
are about evenly divided between other Latin American and Brownsville, Texas, and Matamoros, Mexico, at thee,
countries and other regions of the world. em end. Driving across the border in the urban areas can
• Children. The 11.2 million unauthorized immigrants fraught with heavy traffic and delays (Figures 3-32 and 3-:
included 1 million children. In addition, while living in
the United States, unauthorized immigrants have given A joint U.S.-Mexican International Boundary ,
birth to approximately 4.5 million babies, who are legal
citizens of the United States. Water Commission is responsible for keeping official m,
• Years in the United States. The duration of residency in on the basis of a series of nineteenth-century treaties. ·
the United States has been increasing for unauthorized commission is also responsible for marking the border
immigrants. In a 2010 Pew survey, 35 percent of maintaining 276 six-foot-tall iron monuments erectec
unauthorized adult immigrants had resided in the the late nineteenth century, as well as 440 fifteen-inch-
United States for 15 years or more, 28 percent for 10 to markers added in the 1970s. Actually locating the bord«
14 years, 22 percent for 5 to 9 years, and 15 percent for difficult in some remote areas.
12 From the United States, the view to the south may sc
straightforward. Millions of Mexicans are trying to cross
10 border by any means, legal or otherwise, in search of
ployment, family reunification, and a better way of lif
., 8 the United States.
C The view from Mexico is more complex. Along its nc
em border with the United States, Mexico is the soum
~6 unauthorized emigrants. At the same time, along its soutl
border with Guatemala, Mexico is the destination for rn
i thorized immigrants. When talking with its neighbor tc
north, Mexicans urge understanding and sympathy fo,
4 -Total plight of the immigrants. When talking with its neighb«
the south, Mexicans urge stronger security along the bo1
2 - FromMexico
- Fromothecr ountries Along the Mexican-Guatemalan border, the Sucl
0 River is sometimes only ankle deep. Immigrants from c
2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 Latin American countries, especially El Salvador and I
duras, travel through Guatemala without need of a pas:
Year in order to cross into Mexico. Although a passport is ne·
4 FIGURE3-34 NUMBEROF UNAUTHORIZEDIMMIGRANTSTO THE
UNITEDSTATESMostunauthorizedimmigrantsin the UnitedStatesare from
Mexico.
.,. FIGURE3-35 U.S.-MEXICO BORDER
&senada~ • Alamogordo
€l 0 ~~- ' =r.::-.•"'""_.'.iJQ,.~..~.,,,,,.=ot":":W~r.:@l)}NUEuWs MEXICO
Cansba..d
PACIFIC0 Gullo( ®
@
OCEAN BAJA Ca/ifomia
CALIFORNIA
eMEXICO .=
1
eDelRlo
@ CHIHUAHUA
Cludad~~
l:, Ojlna
~~-T~ic ,.
8
COAHU~,
• Chihuahtl3
.A.FIGURE3-38 U.S.-MEXICO BORDER:FENCE AfenceseparatesTecate,
Mexico(right),fromTecateC, alifornia.
A FIGURE3-37 U.S.-MEXICOBORDER:PEDESTRIANCROSSING
PedestriancsrossfromNuevaProgresoM, exico(foregroundt)o, ProgresoT,exas.
to cross the border from Guatemala into Mexico, the Mexi-
can government estimates that 2 million people a year do
so illegally. Some migrate illegally from Guatemala to Mex-
ico for higher-paying jobs in tropical fruit plantations. For
most, the ultimate destination is the United States.
Pause and Reflect 3.4.2 A FIGURE3-39 U-S.-MEXICOBORDERU: RBANCONGESTIONVehicleasre
backeduptryingto movefromMatamorosM, exico(right)t,o BrownsvilTlee,xas.
Which border crossing between Mexico and the
United States shown here does the border crossing 99
between Mexico and Guatemala most resemble?
~f ·fffH-l_f11111HHfHft'1N1:fttl
__________________________.......,.....
100 THE CULTURAL LANDSCAPE
group of U.S. immigrants-show similar gender changes
Attitudes toward Immigrants As recently as the late l 980s, males constituted 85 percen1
of the Mexican migrants arriving in the United States with
out proper documents, according to U.S. census and im
Learning Outcome 3.4.3 migration service estimates. But since the 19~0s, womer
Describe characteristics of immigrants to the have accounted for about half of the unauthorized immi
United States. grants from Mexico.
The increased female migration to the United State
Americans and Europeans share mixed views about partly reflects the changing role of women in Mexican so
immigration. They recognize that immigrants play an ciety. In the past, rural Mexican women were obliged t,
important economic role in their countries, but key features marry at a young age and to remain in the village to care fa
of immigration trouble Americans and Europeans. In the children. Now some Mexican women are migrating to th
United States, the principal concern relates to unauthorized United States to join husbands or brothers already in th
immigration. In Europe, the principal concern relates to United States, but most are seeking jobs. At the same timt
cultural diversity. women feel increased pressure to get jobs in the Unite,
States because of poor economic conditions in Mexico.
CHARACTERISTICS OF MIGRANTS AGE AND EDUCATION OF MIGRANTS
Ravenstein noted distinctive gender and family-status Ravenstein also believed that most long-distance migran·
patterns in his migration theories: were young adults seeking work rather than children c
• Most long-distance migrants are male. elderly people. For the most part, this pattern continm
• Most long-distance migrants are adult individuals for the United States:
rather than families with children. • About 40 percent of immigrants are young adul
between the ages of 25 and 39, compared to abo1
GENDER OF MIGRANTS 23 percent of the entire U.S. population.
Ravenstein theorized that males were more likely than fe- • Immigrants are less likely to be elderly people; on
males to migrate long distances to other countries because 5 percent of immigrants are over age 65, compared
searching for work was the main reason for international 12 percent of the entire U.S. population.
migration, and males were much more likely than females
to be employed (Figure 3-40). This held true for U.S. immi- • Children under 15 comprise 16 percent of immigran1
grants during the nineteenth and much of the twentieth compared to 21 percent for the total U.S. populatio
centuries, when about 55 percent were male. But the gender With the increase in women migrating to the Unit,
pattern reversed in the 1990s, and in the twenty-first cen- States, more children are coming with their mothe
tury women constitute about 55 percent of U.S.immigrants. (Figure 3-41).
Mexicans who come to the United States without au- • Recent immigrants to the United States have attend
thorized immigration documents-currently the largest school for fewer years and arc less likely to have hi:
school diplomas than are U.S. citizens. The typil
II
I
I
_.,FIGURE 3-40 EMIGRANTFSROMMEXICOM: ALEDAYLABORERS • FIGURE 3-41 EMIGRANTFSROMMEXICOW: OMENANDCHILD
OaylaborerfsromMexicohavecrossetdheborderintoSanDiegoC, aliforniato, AT A PARADEIN NEWYORK ChildrenwhohaveemigratedfromMexic
lookfor temporarwy ork. displaytheMexicanflagata LatinosUnidosparadeinBrooklynN, ewYork.
Chapter 3: Migration 101
unauthorized Mexican immigrant has attended school • Unauthorized immigrant is the term preferred by aca-
for four years, less than the average American but a year demic observers, including the authoritative Pew His-
more than the average Mexican. panic Center, as a neutral term.
IMMIGRATION CONCERNS IN THE • Undocumented immigrant is the term preferred by groups
UNITED STATES that advocate for more rights for these individuals.
Americans are divided concerning whether unauthorized • Illegalalien is the term preferred by groups who favor
migration helps or hurts the country (Figure 3-42). This am- tougher restrictions and enforcement of immigration
bivalence extends to specific elements of immigration Jaw: laws.
Opposition to immigration into the United States pre-
• Border patrols. Americans would like more effective
border patrols so that fewer unauthorized immigrants dates the current era of most immigrants coming from
can get into the country, but they don't want to see Latin America and Asia. Hostility intensified when Ital-
money spent to build more fences along the border. ians, Russians, Poles, and other Southern and Eastern
The U.S. Department of Homeland Security has stepped Europeans poured into the United States beginning in
up enforcement, including deportation of a record the late nineteenth century. Earlier European immigrants,
390,000 unauthorized immigrants in 2010. mostly from Northern and Western Europe, had con-
verted the forests and prairies of the vast North American
• Workplace. Most Americans recognize that unauthor- interior into productive farms and had helped to extend
ized immigrants take jobs that no one else wants, so U.S. control across the continent. By the early twentieth
they support some type of work-related program to century, most Americans saw the frontier as closed and
make them legal, and they oppose raids on workplaces thought that therefore entry into the country should be
in attempts to round up unauthorized immigrants. closed as well.
Most Americans support a path to U.S. citizenship for
unauthorized immigrants. A government study in 1911 reflected popular atti-
tudes when it concluded that immigrants from South-
• Civil rights. Americans favor letting law enforcement ern and Eastern Europe were racially inferior, "inclined
officials stop and verify the legal status of anyone they toward violent crime," resisted assimilation, and "drove
suspect of being an unauthorized immigrant. On the old-stock citizens out of some lines of work." A century
other hand, they fear that enforcement efforts that later, many Americans have similar reactions to the ar-
identify and deport unauthorized immigrants could rival of large numbers of immigrants from Latin America
violate the civil rights of U.S. citizens. and Asia.
• Local initiatives. Polls show that most Americans be- Pause and Reflect 3.4.3
lieve that enforcement of unauthorized immigration is In what ways are reactions to immigrants today
a federal government responsibility and do not support similar to those of a century ago?
the use of local law enforcement officials to find un-
authorized immigrants. On the other hand, residents ... FIGURE3-42 IMMIGRATION CONTROVERY IN THE UNITED
of some states along the Mexican border favor stronger STATES Demonstrationssupponing(left)tighterimmigrationcontrolsand
enforcement of authorized immigration. (right)morerightsforimmigrants.
The strongest state initiative has been Arizona's 2010
law that obligated local law enforcement officials, when
practicable, to determine a person's immigration status.
Under the Arizona law, foreigners are required to carry at
all times documents proving they are in the country le-
gally and to produce those documents upon request of a
local law enforcement official. In 2012, the U.S. Supreme
Court struck down several provisions of the law.
Although it docs not share a border with Mexico,
Alabama enacted a similar measure in 2011. The Alabama
law also prohibited or restricted unauthorized immigrants
from attending public schools and colleges. On the other
hand, Texas, which has the longest border with Mexico,
has not enacted harsh anti-immigrant laws, and more than
100 localities across the country have passed resolutions
supporting more rights for unauthorized immigrants-a
movement known as "Sanctuary City."
Controversy even extends to what to call the group of
immigrants:
102 THE CULTURAL LANDSCAPE
IMMIGRATION CONCERNS IN EUROPE • From Northern Europe, especially the United Kingdom
and Germany, to attractive climates in Southern Europe,
especially in Spain.
Learning Outcome 3.4.4 During the twentieth century, the largest flows within
Compare American and European attitudes toward Europe were south to north, especially from Greece, Italy,
Immigrants. Portugal, and Spain to France and Germany.
Attitudes toward immigration are also ambivalent in While migration within Europe has become easier and
Europe. Europeans have more rights than ever before to more common, it has become more difficult for non-
migrate elsewhere within Europe, whereas non-Europeans Europeans to immigrate to a European country. During
face more restrictions than in the past. the twentieth century, large numbers of Turks and North
Africans migrated to Europe. Germany's Turkish population
remains the largest group of non-Europeans in Europe.
SOURCES OF EUROPEAN IMMIGRATION. Agreements OPPONENTS OF IMMIGRATION. Most European countries
among European countries, especially the 1985 Schengen are now in stage 4 of the demographic transition (very low
Treaty, give a citizen of one European country the right to or negative NIR) and have economies capable of meeting
hold a job, live permanently, and own property elsewhere. the needs of their people. The safety valve of emigration
The removal of migration restrictions for Europeans has is no longer needed. To the contrary, population growth
set off large-scale migration flows within the region. The in Europe is fueled by immigration from other regions, a
principal flows are from the poorer countries of Europe to trend that many Europeans dislike.
the richer ones, where job opportunities have been greater.
Hostility to immigrants has become a central plank in
In recent years the largest flows within Europe have in- the platform of political parties in many European coun-
cluded (Figure 3-43): tries. These parties blame immigrants for crime, unemploy-
ment, and high welfare costs. Above all, the anti-immigra-
• From Southeastern Europe, especially Romania, as well tion parties fear that long-standing cultural traditions of
as Bulgaria, Albania, and Serbia, especia!Jy to Italy and the host country are threatened by immigrants who ad-
Spain. here to different religions, speak different languages, and
practice different food and other cultural habits. From the
• From Eastern Europe, especially Poland, as well as standpoint of these parties, immigrants represent a threat
Russia and Ukraine, especially to Germany, the United
Kingdom, and Ireland.
◄ FIGURE3-43 MIGRATION
FLOWS WITHIN EUROPE The
largestflowsarefrom Polandto
Germanyandfrom Romaniato Spain
Migration
+- Morethan50,000
- 10,000--50,000
- Destination
country
From From From From
Latin America Morocco Algeria South Asia
Chapter 3: Migration 103
to the centuries-old cultural traditions of the host coun-
try (Figure 3-44).
The severe global recession of the early twenty-first
century has reduced the number of immigrants to the
United States and Europe. With high unemployment
and limited job opportunities in the principal destina-
tion countries, potential migrants have much less in-
centive to risk the uncertainties and expenses of inter-
national migration. Countries such as Ireland, Portugal,
and Spain that had become destinations during the late
twentieth century once again have net out-migration.
Pause and Reflect 3.4.4
How are attitudes towards immigrants similar in
the United States and Europe?
EUROPEANSAS EMIGRANTST. he inhospitable climate
for immigrants in Europe is especially ironic because
Europe was the source of most of the world's emigrants, ....... , ~~--,._--.. __ ..,L ___ ~.....
.especially during the nineteenth century. Application of
new technologies spawned by the Industrial Revolution-
in areas such as public health, medicine, and food-
produced a rapid decline in the CDR and pushed much
of Europe into stage 2 of the demographic transition
(high NIR). As the population increased, many Europeans
found limited opportunities for economic advancement.
Migration to the United States, Canada, Australia, and
other regions of the world served as a safety valve,
draining off some of that increase.
The emigration of 65 million Europeans has
profoundly changed world culture. As do all migrants,
Europeans brought their cultural heritage to their new
homes. Because of migration, Inda-European languages
are now spoken by half of the world's people (as
discussed in Chapter 5), and Europe's most prevalent
religion, Christianity, has the world's largest number of
adherents (see Chapter 6). European art, music, literature,
philosophy, and ethics have also diffused throughout the A FIGURE3-44 IMMIGRATION CONTROVERY IN FRANCE Demonstrations
world.
supporting(top) morerights for immigrantsand (bottom)tighter immigration
Regions that were sparsely inhabited prior to Euro- controls.
pean immigration, such as North America and Australia,
have become closely integrated into Europe's cultural tra-
ditions. Distinctive European political structures and eco-
nomic systems have also diffused to these regions. Euro- CHECK-IN:KEY ISSUE4
peans also planted the seeds of conflict by migrating to
regions with large indigenous populations, especially in Why Do Migrants Face Obstacles?
Africa and Asia. They frequently imposed political domi-
nation on existing populations and injected their cultural ✓ Immigration is tightly controlled by most
values with little regard for local traditions. Economies in countries.
Africa and Asia became based on raising crops and extract- ✓ The United States has more than 11 million
ing resources for export to Europe rather than on growing unauthorized immigrants, mostly from Mexico.
crops for local consumption and using resources to build
local industry. Many of today's conflicts in former Euro- ✓ Americans and Europeans are divided on how
pean colonies result from past practices by European im- to regard immigrants, especially unauthorized
migrants, such as drawing arbitrary boundary lines and ones.
discriminating among different local ethnic groups.
llff1t II
104 THE Cl!JLTURAL LANDSCAPE
Summary and Review
1KEY ISSUE KEY ISSUE2
Where Are Migrants Distributed? Where Do People Migrate Within a Country?
On a global scale, the largest flows of migrants are frnm Asia to Historically, frionntetrierersgioonfallargme icgorautniotrnieswsauschesapsecRiaulslsyia,imCpaonratd4
fauope and from Asia and Latin America to the United States. settling fue
The United States receives by far the largest number oJ migrants.
United States, China, and Brazil. The most important intraret
LEARNING OUTCOME 3.1.1: Describe the difference between in-
ternational and internal migration. mi'gtatlon trends are from rural to urban areas within devev
• Migration can be international (between countries, either countries and from cities to suburbs within developed countri
voluntary or forced) or internal (within a country, either in-
terregional or intraregional). LEARNINGOUTCOME3.2.1: Describe the history of interregion\
gration in the United States.
LEARNING OUTCOME3.1.2: Identify the principal sornces of im-
migrants during the three main eras of U.S. immigration. • Migration within the United States has primarily occurred
east to west, though at varying rates. Recently, interregiof\
• The United StateS' has had three main eras of immigration. gration has also occurred from north to south.
The principal source of immigrants has shifted from Europe
during the first two eras to Latin America and Asia during the LEARNINGOUTCOME3.2.2:Describe interregional migration in JI
third (current) era.
• The world's largest country has a distinctive pattern of ir
THINKING GEOGRAPHICALLY3.1: What is the impact of emigra- gional migration, a legacy of the era of Communist rule.
tion on the place from which migrants depart?
LEARNING OUTCOME3.2.3: Describe interregional migrati
GOOGLE EARTH 3.1: The Lower East Side Tenement Museum, Canada, China, and Brazil.
at 103 Orchard St. in New Yo.rkCity, shows what life was like
for European immigrants. Which of the three principal eras bf • Canada, China, and Brazil also have unequal populatio
immigration to the United States does the Tenement Museum tributions. Canadians have been migrating from east to
describe? Chinese have been migrating from the rural interior t
large coastal cities, and Brazilians from the large coastal
to the interior.
LEARNINGOUTCOME3.2.4:Explain differences among the three
of intraregional migration.
• Three intraregional migration patterns are from rural to
areas, from urban to suburban areas, and from urban to rural
THINKING GEOGRAPHICALLY3.2: In recent years, has your
munity seen net in-migration or net out-migration? What f.
explain your commu
net migration?
GOOGLEEARTH3.2: The
ner Pass, through the
Nevada Mountains, was,
the most difficult obstac
early immigrants to the
What is now the pri
route through the area?
Key Terms from Southern anti Eastern Europe or from N()rlh Africa. in ~ear<
higher-paying job.
Asylum ~eeker (p. 92) Someone who has migrated to another country Immigration (p. 78) yfigration to a new location.
in the hope of being r~cognizcdas a refugee.
Brain drain (p. 96) Large-scaleemigration by talented people. Internal migration (p. 80) Permanent movement within a parti
Chain migration Ip. 97) Migwtion of people to a specific location LOUntry.
because relarives or members of the same nationality pr1:viously Internally displaced person (IDP)(p. 92) Someone who has bet
migrated th0re. forced to migrate for similar political reasons as a refugee but ha
Circulation (p. 78) Short-term, repetitive, or cyclical movements that migrated across an international border.
recur on a regular basis.
Counterurbanization (p. 91) Net migr.ition from urban to rural ar<casin lnternalional migration (p. 80) Permanent movement from on
more developed countries. country to another.
Emigration (p. 78) Migration from a location. Interregional migration (p. 80) Permanent movement from on
Floodplain (p. 92) The area subject to flooding during a given number of a country to another.
of years, according to historical trends.
Forced migration (p. 80) Permanent movement, usually compelled by Intervening obstacle (p. 96) An enviromncntal or cultural feat
cultural factors. the landscape that hinders migration.
Guest worker (p. 95) A term once used for a worker who migrateJ to
the developed countries of Northern and Western Europe, usually Intraregional migration (p. 80) Permanent movement within
region of a country.
Migration {p.78) A form of relocation diffusion involving a perr
move to a new location.
Chapter 3: Migrati0n ~05
_K_Ev_1s_s__u___E__3 .,.......-..:..z-..,...,.,.,..,.J,...K._.E.Y-..I.S.SUE4
· liy Do People Migrate? Why Do Migrants Face Obstacles?
Migration is induced by a combination of push aAd pull factors. Mi1¥mts have difficulty g~tting gerrntssion to enter other
People feel compellea (pushed) to emigrate from a l0cation co:untties, and they face hostilit}i from local citizens once they
for po1itlca1, enviwnmental, and ecenomi<: reasons. Similarly, arriwe. Immigration law.srestrict the numbe,r of immigrants who
people are i1,1duced(pulled) to immigTate becaus:eof the p01iticail, can legally enter the United States. In Europe and Southwest Asia,
environmental, and economic attractiveness of a new location. temporary workers migrate to perform menial jobs.
LEARNINGOUTCOME3.3,1: Provide examples of poJ!ti:cal, envi- LEARNINGOUTCOME3.4.1: ldentify the types of immigrants who
ronmental. and economic push anci pull factors. are given preference to enter the Unj.ted States.
People migrate because of a combination of _push and pull • Immigration is tight1}' contrelled by most countries. The
factors. These facto-rs may be political, environmental, and United States gives preference t0 immigrants with family
economic. Most people migrate for economjc push and pull members already in the country and to those who have spe-
reason-s. cial job skills.
LEARNINGOUTCOME 3.3,2: Summarize tne flows of migrant LEARNINGOUTCOME3.4.2: Describe the population eharacteris-
workers in Europe and Asia. tics of unautho•rized immigrants to the United States.
• People migra'te for temporary work, especially from develop- • The United States has more than 11 million unau~horized im-
ing countries to developed countries, where they take jobs migrants, who are in the country without proper documents.
that are not desired by local residents. Most have emigrated from Mexico.
THINKING GEOGRAPHICALLY3.3: What factors motivated your LEARNING OUTCOME3.4.3: Describe characteristks of immi-
family or your ancestors to migrate? grants to the United States.
GOOGLEEARTH3.3: This is Gulfport, Mississippi, on August 29, • [n the past, most immigrants were males, but now an incFeas-
2005, just after Hurri<:ane Katrina hit. Set the time slider for July ing share of immigrants to the United States are women and
11, 2005. What evjde,nce of flood damage can be seen in the children.
August 29 image?
LEARNINGOUTCOME3.4.4: Compare American and European at-
titudes toward immigrants.
• Americans and Europeans have divided and ambivalent at-
titudes toward the large number of immigrants, especially
those arriving without proper documentation.
THINKING GEOGRAPHICALL3Y.4: Should the United States admit
more or fewer immigrants for family reunification, or for job
skills, or by random lottery?
GOOGLE EARTH 3.4: Ger-
rard Street is the center of
Chinatown in London,
England. Why do you lhink
the street has been closed
to vehicular traffic?
Migratio·n transition (JJ. 79) A change in the migration pattern in a MasteringGeographyTM
society that results from industrialization, population growth, and
other social and economic changes that also produce the demographic Looking for additional review and test prep materials?
transition. Visit the Study Area in MasteringGeography™ to
enhance your geographic literacy, spatial reasoning
Mobillty (p. 78) All types of movement behveen location. skills, and understanding of this chapter's content by
accessing a variety of resources, including MapMaster'"
Net migration (p. 78) The difference between the level of immigration interactive maps, videos, RSS feeds, flashcards, web
and the level of ernigralton. links, self-study quizzes, and an eText version of
TheCulturalLandscape.
f>ull factor (p. 92) A factor that induces people lo move to a new www.masteringgeography.com
loCi!lion.
Push factor (p. 92) A factor that induces people to leave old residences.
Quotas (p. 96) In reference to migration, laws lhat place maximum limits
on Lhenwnber of people who can immigrateto a country each year.
Refugees (p. 92.) People who are forced to migrate from their home coun-
try and cannot return for fearof persecutionbecauseof their race, reli-
gion, nationality, membershipin a social group, or political opinion.
Unauthorized in1migrants (p. 98) People who enter a country without
proper documents to do so.
Voluntary migration (p. 80) Permanent movement undertaken by
choice.
lfflUIBlllIlfIfl
...,.
C
p
e
Whyis the maninthe middlewearinga sweaterto work? Whyare these peopleposingfor the camera?Page117
Page109
1KEY ISSUE KEY ISSUE2
Where Are Folk Where Are Folk
and Popular and Popular
Leisure Activities Material Culture
Distributed? Distributed?
What We Do ForFunp. 109 Cokeor Pepsi?p. 116
Musicand sports can be folk or popular.The differences We all need food, clothing,and shelter.Howwe providef1
betweenthem involvegeography. these needssaysa lot about oursociety'sculture.
106
£. Thesedancers from Indiaare perfotming a
Kathakalidaoce drama onthe streets of New
Yorkc1spart of a dancefestival.Thedrama de,
picts storie.sof Hindugods Ramaand Kdshna.
Audiences in New Yorkcan admire the cos-
tumes and the technicalskillsof the perform-
ers, but popular culture in the United States
does not relate easilyto the meaning of folk
culture like this.
KEY ISSUE 3 KEYISSUE4
Why Is Accessto Why Do Folk
and Popular
Folk and Popular Culture Face
Culture Unequal? Sustainability
Challenges?
Accessingthe World,if You Don'tThrowAway That
Canp. 126
Culturep. 132
WatchingTVis the world'smost popularleisureactivity.What
about people who can't afford a TV?Or those who prefer Therelentlesspushofpopularculturecanthreaten the survival
FacebookT, wittera, ndYouTube? of folkculture-and the well-beingof the entire planet.
107
·• ....:..-. ~~-~ ·1
Introducing
Folk and Popular
Culture
Culture can be divided into two types: .aF. IGURE4-2 POPULARCULTUREInpopularculturej,ewelryispurcha!
• Folk culture ls traditionally practiced primarily by
in a store,includingthis branchin Milan,Italy,ofTiffany& Co,a U.S.-owne
small, homogeneous groups living in isolated rural companythat hasnearly200storesaroundtheworld.
areas (Figure 4-1).
• Popular culture is found in large, l1eterogeneous so- mlAt a global scale, popular culture is becoming
cieties that share certain habits despite differences in
other personal characteristics (Figure 4-2). dominant-at least for people with the income to have
Geographers focus on where folk and popular cultures cess to it-threatening the survival of unique folk culttj
are located in space. Each cultural element has a distinc-
tive origin, diffusion, and distribution. Geographers ob- The disappearance of local folk culture reduces local I
serve that folk culture and popular culture typically differ
in their patterns of origin, diffusion, and distribution. versity in the world and the intellectual stimulation tt,
The region covered by a folk culture Is typically much arises from differences in backgrounds.
smaller than that covered by a popular culture. The reason
why the distributions are different is connection or lack of The dominance of popular culture can also threa
it. A group's distinctive culture derives from experiencing the quality of the environment. Culture and the physl
local social and physical conditions in a place that is iso- environment are interrelated. Each cultural group tal
lated from other groups. Even groups living in close prox- particular elements from the environment into its cult!
imity to one another may adopt different folk cultures be- and in turn constructs landKapes (what geographers
cause of limited connections. "built environments") that modify nature in di'>tinc
Landscapes dominated by folk culture change rela- ways. Some of these landscapes are sustainable, ancl SOJ
tively little over time. In contrast, popular culture is based are not. Polk culture derived from local natural elemel
on rapid simultaneous global connections through com- may be more sustainable in the protection and enhan
munications systems, transportation networks, and other ment of the environment. Popular culture is less likely
modern technology. Rapid diffusion facilitates frequent reflect concern for the sustainability of physical col}
changes in popular culture. Thus, folk culture is more
likely to vary from place to place at a given time, whereas tions ancl is more likely to modify the environment in I
popular culture is more likely to vary from time to time at
a given place. cordance with global values.
.aF. IGURE4-1 FOLKCULTURETheGadabapeopleof easternIndiawear 1• KEY ISSUE describes where leisure and recreation
jewelrythat reflectslocalfolkculture,includinglarge,heavyneckringsthat are ements of folk culture and popular culture are dist~
not removeduntildeath. uted. Art, music, and sports are used as examples. Co
108 pared to folk culture, popular culture is more likely
originate at a specific time and place and to diffuse o
a wider region.
• 2KEY ISSUE looks at the distribution of folk and po
lar material culture, including food, shelter, and clo
ing. Popular culture is more likely to vary over tir1
and folk culture between places.
• 3KEY ISSUE explains reasons why folk culture a
popular culture have different distributions. Especia
critical in understanding differences is uneven access
media, especially electronics.
4• KEY ISSUE looks at sustainability concerns rai
by globalization of popular culture. The diffosio
popular culture threatens the maintenance of lo
diversity in folk customs.
-~
~•' I ~~}F.--,~~•,~
-·
'
KEY ISSUE 1
Where Are Folk A FIGURE4-4 LEISURE Womenplaysoccerin DodomaT,anzania.
and Popular Leisure
behavior? To answer this question, habit must be distin-
Activities Distributed? guished from custom:
■ Characteristics of Folk and • A habit is a repetitive act that a particular individual
Popular Culture performs, such as wearing jeans to dass every day.
■ Origin and Diffusion of Folk • A custom is a repetitive act of a group, performed to the
and Popular Music extent that it becomes characteristic of the group, such
as many students typically wearing jeans to class.
■ Origin and Diffusion of Folk
and Popular Sports Unlike custom, habit does not imply that the act has
been adopted by most of the society's population. A cus-
Culture was defined in Chapter 1 as the body of material tom is therefore a habit that has been widely adopted by a
traits, customary beliefs, and social forms that together group of people (Figure 4-5).
constitute the distinct tradition of a group of people. Ge-
ographers are interested in all three components of the A collection of social customs produces a group's mate-
definition of culture: rial culture; for example, jeans typically represent American
informality and a badge of youth. ln this chapter, c11stom
• Chapter 4 focuses on the first part of this definition may be used to denote a specific element of material cul-
(material traits)-the visible elements that a group pos- ture, such as wearing jeans, whereas culture refers to a
sesses and leaves behind for the future. group's entire collection of customs.
• Chapters 5 and 6 examine two important components A consideration of culture follows logically from the dis-
of a group's beliefs and values-language and religion. cussion of migration in Chapter 3. Two locations have simi-
lar cultural beliefs, objects, and institutions because people
• Chapters 7 and 8 look at the social forms (ethnicity and bring along their culture when they migrate. Differences
political institutions) that maintain values and protect emerge when two groups have limited interaction. For ex-
the artifacts. ample, a group living in one mountainous area may have lit-
tle connection with a group living in another mountainous
Two elements of culture are emphasized in this chapter: area, such as in the Himalayas, described on the next page.
• Daily necessities: Food, clothing, and shelter. All people
must consume food, wear clothing, and find shelter,
but different cultural groups do so in distinctive ways
(Figure 4-3).
• Leisure activities: Arts and recreation. Each cultural
group has its own definition of meaningful art and
stimulating recreation (Figure 4-4).
Geographers search for where these various elements of
culture are found in the world and for reasons why the
observed distributions occur. How does culture influence
T FIGURE4-3 MATERIALCULTURERootsarebeingcookednearGhanzBi, otswana.
2.. .;.i.';'.';•. . \'.
' _,.,.-' --,-~ - ·--·i.('•'• >-, ~ FIGURE4-5 HABIT AND CUSTOM As CEOof FiatandChryslerS, ergio
,~.:·f•;
I,
·r- :,·._-:,'.•,';.. .
~ ,y~~'/;:;f~; ~,c _:- - -
, -.."F'DC-.;:;"" • Marchionnehada habitof wearingblacksweaterse,venwhenmeetingother
1
executjyews hoadheredto thecustomof wearingsuitsandties.
~----i:..;•. -· .,;( :-~;\ 109
-UUHI HH,IIJII IHI-
110 THE CULTURAL LANDSCAPE
Characteristics of Folk objects in large quantities (iPods, T-shirts, pizzas). Many
and Popular Culture these objects help people enjoy leisure time, which has 1
creased as a result of the widespread change in the Jal·
Learning Outcome 4.1.1 force from predominantly agricultural work to predor
Compare the origin, diffusion, and distribution of nantly service and manufacturing jobs.
folk and popular culture.
DIFFUSION
Each social custom has a unique spatial distribution, but
in general, distribution is more extensive for popular cul- Compared to popular culture, folk culture is transm
ture than for folk culture. Two basic factors help explain ted from one location to another more slowly and
the different spatial distributions of popular and folk a smaller scale, primarily through relocation diffusi
cultures-the process of origin and the pattern of diffusion. (migration). The spread of popular culture, such as pc
ular music, typically follows the process of hierarc
ORIGIN cal diffusion, diffusing rapidly and extensively fr<
hearths or nodes of innovation with the help of modt
Culture originates at a hearth, a center of innovation. Folk communications.
culture often has anonymous hearths, originating from
anonymous sources, at unknown dates, through unidenti- The diffusion of American popular music worldwi
fied originators. It may also have multiple hearths, origi- began in earnest during the 1940s, when the Arn:
nating independently in isolated locations. Forces Radio Network broadcast music to American s
diers and to citizens of countries where American for,
In contrast, popular culture is most often a product were stationed or fighting during World War II. In the 1
of developed countries, especially in North America and twentieth century, western dance music diffused rapi1
Europe. Popular culture is typically traceable to a specific from the United States to Europe, especially Detro
person or corporation in a particular place, whereas folk techno music and Chicago's house music (Figure 4-
culture typically has an unknown point of origin. For Techno music was heavily influenced by soul, gospel, a
example, popular music as we know it today originated ultimately African folk music. House music was heavily
around 1900. At that time, the main popular musical en- f\uenced by hip-hop that emerged in New York and otl
tertainment in North America and Europe was the vari- urban areas, which in turn diffused from funk, jazz, a
ety show, called the music hall in the United Kingdom again ultimately African folk music.
and vaudeville in the United States. To provide songs for
music halls and vaudeville, a music industry was devel- DISTRIBUTION
oped in a district of New York that became known as Tin
Pan Alley (Figure 4-6). Popular culture is distributed widely across many co1
tries, with little regard for physical factors. The distributi
Popular music and other elements of popular culture, is influenced by the ability of people to access the mater
such as food and clothing, arise from a combination of ad- The principal obstacle to access is lack of income to p
vances in industrial technology and increased leisure time. chase the material.
Industrial technology permits the uniform reproduction of
A combination of local physical and cultural factors
-,, FIGURE 4-6 ORIGIN OF POPULAR MUSIC Shopssuchasthis onein fluences the distinctive distributions of folk culture.
NewYorkCity'sTinPanAlleysoldpopularmusicin recordsandsheetmusicin example, in a study of artistic customs in the Himal,
the earlytwentiethcentury. Mountains, geographers P. Karan and Cotton Mather
vealed that distinctive views of the physical environm
emerge among neighboring cultural groups that are i
lated. The study area, a narrow corridor of 2,500 kilome1
(1,500 miles) in the Himalaya Mountains of Bhut
Nepal, northern India, and southern Tibet (China), c
tains four religious groups: Tibetan Buddhists in the n01
Hindus in the south, Muslims in the west, and South<
Asian animists in the east (Figure 4-8). Despite their spa
proximity, limited interaction among these groups I
duces distinctive folk customs.
Through their choices of subjects of paintings, e,
group reveals how its culture mirrors the religions and
dividual views of the group's environment:
• Buddhists.In the northern region Buddhists paint i
alized divine figures, such as monks and saints. Sc
of these figures are depicted as bizarre or terrifyi
perhaps reflecting the inhospitable environment.
Chapter 4: Folk and Popular Culture 111
• FIGURE 4-7 DIFFUSION OF WESTERN DANCE MUSIC Populardancemusicoriginatedin theWestern
Hemispheraenddiffusedto EuropeandAsiaduringthe 1980s.
. ~~""l !I
,., ~
l~ 39DMlfJ1 8uddhis1 -~
Islamic
,le ljlii"""'"'"' Animist ANIMIST
Hindu
CHINA
(Tibet)
lNDI P
N lnterme~1azteone
bet11eeBnuddhisat ndHindu
• FIGURE 4-8 DISTRIBUTION OF FOLK CULTURE Distinctfolk painting
traditionsaredistributedwithin the Himalayasasa resultof isolationof
culturalgroups.
• Hindus. In the southern region Hindus create scenes eastern region of the study area, paint symbols and de-
from everyday life and familiar local scenes. Their paint- signs that derive from their religion rather than from
ings sometimes portray a deity in a domestic scene and the local environment.
frequently represent the region's violent and extreme
climatic conditions. The distribution of artistic subjects in the Himalayas shows
how folk customs are influenced by cultural institutions
• Muslims.In the western portion Muslims show the re- such as religion and by environmental processes such as cli-
gion's beautiful plants and flowers because the Muslim mate, landforms, and vegetation. These groups display simi-
faith prohibits displaying animate objects in art. In con- lar unlquen~ss in their dance, music, architecture, and crafts.
trast with the paintings from the Buddhist and Hindu
regions, these paintings do not depict harsh climatic Pauseand Reflect 4.1.1
conditions.
What geographic factors account for the diversity of
• Animists. Animists from Myanmar (Burma) and else- cultures in the Himalayas?
where in Southeast A~ia, who have migrated to the
I II IIIRIIII
1_12 THECULTURALLANDSCAPE
Origin and Diffusion of Folk
and Popular Music
Learning Outcome 4.1.2
Compare the characteristicsof folk and popular music.
Every culture in human history has had some tradition of
music, argues music researcher Daniel Levitan. As music is
a part of both folk and popular culture traditions, it can be
used to illustrate the differences in the origin, diffusion,
and distribution of folk and popular culture.
FOLK MUSIC .AFIGURE 4-9 VIETNAMESE FOLK MUSIC SingersperformQuanHok
songsas partofthe annualLimFestivalw, hichisheldannuallyon the 13th
According to a Chinese legend, music was invented in to the 15thdayof the firstlunarmonth.QuanHofolkmusicdates backmo
2697 s.c., when the Emperor Huang Ti sent Ling Lun to than 500yearsand isrecognizedbyUNESCaOs partof humanity'sintangit
cut bamboo poles that would produce a sound matching heritage.
the call of the phoenix bird. In reality, folk songs usually
originate anonymously and are transmitted orally. A song
may be modified from one generation to the next as con- POPULAR MUSIC
ditions change, but the content is most often derived from In contrast to folk music, popular music is written by i
events in daily life that are familiar to the majority of the cific individuals for the purpose of being sold to or J
people. As people migra_te,folk music travels with them as formed in front of a large number of people. It freque1
part of the diffusion of folk culture. displays a high degree of technical skill through manip1
tion of sophisticated electronic equipment.
Folk songs may tell a story or convey information about
life-cycle events, such as birth, death, and marriage, or en- As with other elements of popular culture, popular 1
vironmental features, such as agriculture and climate. For sicians have more connections with performers of si
example, in Vietnam, where most people are subsistence lar styles, regardless of where in the world they happer
farmers, information about agricultural technology was live, than they do with performers of different styles v
traditionally conveyed through folk songs. The following happen to live in the same community. The Landscap•
folk song provides advice about the difference between Music project illustrates this point by depicting pop1
seeds planted in summer and seeds planted in winter: music as a world map, with different types of popular m1
Ma chiem ba thang khong gia represented as countries and musicians as places within
Ma mt'tathangn16i cft la'khong non1 countries (figure 4-10). "Countries" that are closer toe
This song can be translated as follows: other have relatively similar mw,ical styles. The most imJ
While seedlings for the summer crop are not old tant musicians in each style are represented on the "wo
ji when they are three months of age, map; the larger the size of the type, the more important
Seedlings for the winter crop are certainly not young
musician. Zooming in on a portion of the map reveals
111 when they are one-and-a-half months old. important musicians within individual "countries."
In the past, according to Richard Florida, Chari,
I The song hardly sounds lyrical to a Western ear. But when Mellander, and Kevin Stolarick, musicians clustered in·
English-language folk songs appear in cold print, similar ticular communities according to shared interest in :
themes emerge, even if the specific information conveyed cific styles, such as Tin Pan Alley in New York, Dixie!
about the environment differs. jazz in New Orleans, country in Nashville, and Motow:
Festivals throughout Vietnam feature music in locally Detroit. Now with the globalization of popular music, .
meaningful environmental settings, such as hillsides or on sicians are less tied to the culture of particular places
water. Singers in traditional dothes sing about elements of instead increasingly cluster in communities where o•
daily life in the local village, such as the trees, flowers, and creative artists reside, regardless of the particular style
water source (Figure 4-9). the United States, New York and Los Angeles attract
Pauseand Reflect4.1.2 largest number of musicians so they can be near sou
of employment and cultural activities that attract a v
What type of music do you like? Where does it fit in variety of artists, not just performers of a specific typ
the popular music maps? music. Nashville is also a leading center for musicians
pecially those performing country and gospel; it has
1From John Blacking and Joann W. Kealiinohomoku, eds., Tlie Performing largest concentrations of musicians, when the numbE
Arts:Musica11dDance(The Hague: Movton, 1979), 144. Reprinted by permis- musicians there is compared to a much smaller popula·
sion of the publisher. than in New York and Los Angeles.
--....~- Chapter 4: Folk and Popular Culture 113
--=--=-;~=-'-:--." - ..._..... ◄ FIGURE4·10 THELANDSCAPEOF
-= ~~ :.: ~~-:;.:.~--::::: MUSIC Themapshowsrelationsamong
musiciansM. usicianswhosestylesare
closelyrelatedaredepictedasinhabiting
the sameregion.Musicianswhosestyles
are unrelatedareshownas inhabiting
regionsthat arenotadjacento each
other.Themapwascreatedby YifanHu,a
researcheart AT&TLabs.
Popular mus1c1ans are also increasingly attracted to a Connections between popular musicians are depicted in
handful of large clusters in order to have better access to a transit map. Subway "lines" represent styles of popular
agencies that book live performances, which have become music, and "interchanges" represent individuals who cross
increasingly important compared to recordings. Nearly all over between two styles. For example, Kanye West is placed
of the music festivals that attract the highest attendance at the interchange between hip-hop and soul, and Jimi
are in Europe and the United States. Hendrix. at the interchange between rock and blues and
country (Figure 4-11).
Tltetot1~,
~M"on'\ ~·
Otf•-tcldltla:
~•f11ntlll'I
'TM~lt11tMrs
.,,.,.TM'ptat:OM
ni.f.-.,rToo•
lltcMlltl
Pf01'•uor
e 'l°<t"' ◄ FIGURE4-11 LONDONSUBWAY
.... MAP OF POPULARMUSIC Thismap
showingrelationshipsamongmusical
"'""'MAYOR Of LONDON stylesis designedlb look likethe mapof
the LondonUnderground(subway)system.
Transportfor London
114 THE CULTURAL LANDSCAPE
Origin and Diffusion of Folk association in 1863 to standardize the rules and to or
and Popular Sports nize professional leagues. Organization of the sport int
formal structure in the United Kingdom marks the tra1
Learning Outcome 4.1.3 tion of football from folk to popular culture.
Describe how sports have been transformed from The word socceroriginated after 1863, when suppor
folk to popular culture. of the game formed the Football Association. Associat
was shortened to assoc, which ultimately became twi:
Many sports originated as isolated folk customs and were around into the word soccer.The terms soccerand a
diffused like other folk culture, through the migration of in- ciation football also helped to distinguish the game fl
dividuals. The contemporary diffusion of organized sports, rugby football, which permits both kicking and carryin
however, displays the characteristics of popular culture. the ball. Rugby originated in 1823, when a football pl;
at Rugby School (in Rugby, England) picked up the
ORIGIN AND DIFFUSION OF POPULAR and ran with it.
SPORTS
Beginning in the late 1800s, the British exportec
Soccer, the world's most popular sport-known in most of sociation football around the world, first to contine
the world as football-originated as a folk custom in Eng- Europe and then to other countries. For example:
land during the eleventh century. It was transformed into a
part of global popular culture beginning in the nineteenth • The Netherlands. Dutch students returning from s
century. ies in the United Kingdom were the first to play foo
in continental Europe in the late 1870s.
ORIGIN OF SOCCER: FOLKCULTURE.Aswith other folk
customs, soccer's origin is obscure. The earliest documented • Spain. Miners in Bilbao adopted the sport in 1893,
contest took place in England in the eleventh century. seeing it played by English engineers working ther
According to football historians, after the Danish invasion
of England between 1018 and 1042, workers excavating a • Russia. The English manager of a textile factory
building site encountered a Danish soldier's head, which Moscow organized a team at the factory in 1887 an
they began to kick. "Kick the Dane's head" was imitated vertised in London for workers who could play foo•
by boys, one of whom got the idea of using an inflated After the Russian Revolution in 1917, both the fa,
cow bladder. and its football team were absorbed into the S
Electric Trade Union. The team, renamed the Mo
Early football games resembled mob scenes. A large Dynamo, became the country's most famous foe
number of people from two villages would gather to kick team.
the ball. The winning side was the one that kicked the
ball into the center of the rival village. In the twelfth cen- British citizens further diffused the game throughm;
tury, the game--by then commonly called football-was worldwide British Empire. In the twentieth century
confined to smaller vacant areas, and the rules became cer, like other sports, was further diffused by new cor
standardized. Because football disrupted village life, King nication systems, especially radio and TV.
Henry IIbanned the game from England in the late twelfth
century. It was not legalized again until 1603, by King The global popularity of soccer is seen in the 1
James I. At this point, football was an English folk custom Cup, in which national soccer teams compete everJ
rather than a global popular custom. years, including in South Africa in 2010 and Brazil in
Thanks to TV, each final breaks the record for the
DIFFUSION OF SOCCER: POPULAR CULTURE.The spectators of any event in world history (Figure 4-12
transformation of football from an English folk custom
to global popular culture began in the 1800s. Football OLYMPICSPORTS. To be included in the Summer Oly1
and other recreation clubs were founded in the United a sport must be widely practiced in at least 75 countri
Kingdom, frequently by churches, to provide factory on fow continents (50 countries for women). The
workers with organized recreation during leisure hours. Summer Olympics features competition in 28 sports: a1
Sport became a subject that was taught in school. aquatics, athletics, badminton, basketball, boxing, can
kayaking, cycling, equestrian, fencing, field hockey, fc
Increasing leisure time permitted people not only to (soccer), golf, gymnastics, handball, judo, modern pt
participate in sporting events but also to view them. With Ion, rowing, rugby, sailing, shooting, table tennis, taekv
higher incomes, spectators paid to see first-class events. tennis, triathlon, volleyball, weightlifting, and w1
To meet public demand, football clubs began to hire pro- (Figure 4-13). The two leading team sports in the
fessional players. Several British football clubs formed an States-American football and baseball-are not inclu
Pause and Reflect 4.3.1
Are there any Olympic sports in which the Unite
States does not even field a team?
Chapter 4: Folk and Popular Culture 11S
• Australia rules football is a
sport distinct from soccer and
the football played in North
America. Distinctive forms of
football developed in Austra-
PflCIFIC lia, as well as the United States
and Canada, as a result of lack
iji:.E-- OCEA-N--,- of interaction among sporting
/I nations during the nineteenth
century.
160' 140' 120'
WorldCupqualHlers Despite the diversity in dis-
(qualllledfor llnal round)
- 15yearsandabove I--T"'l"Cd~T tribution of sports across Earth's
10-14 years ..,.,,,.,...._J. surface and the anonymous ori-
gin of some games, organized
1-9 years 2,~ I ~.~Miln spectator sports today are part
•2A-co of popular culture. The common
Neveqr ualified 1
C. Hostcountry ~I •.~1<11t;meJrs
20' I,, s!,40' 60' 100' 1~ 140' 160' 180'
A FIGURE4-12 GLOBALSPORTSW: ORLD CUP Most countriesin Europe element in professional sports is
andLatinAmericahavequalifiedfor theWorldCupfinals.Assoccerdiffuses the willingness of people throughout the world to pay for
worldwideq, ualificationhas increasedin otherregions. the privilege of viewing, in person or on TV, events played
by professional athletes.
CHECK-IN:KEY ISSUE 1
Where Are Folk and Popular Leisure
Activities Distributed?
./ Folk culture and popular culture have distinctive
patterns of origin, diffusion, and distribution.
✓ Folk leisure activities typically have anonymous
origins, diffuse through relocation diffusion,
and have limited distribution.
✓ Popular leisure activities typically originate with
identifiable individuals or corporations, diffuse
rapidly through hierarchical diffusion, and have
widespread distribution.
A FIGURE4-13 GLOBALSPORTSO: LYMPICSAthletesfromTurkey(in
bluegear)andthe UnitedStates{in redgear)competein women'staekwondo
at the2012SummerOlympicGamesin London,UnitedKingdom.
SURVIVING FOLK SPORTS A FIGURE4-14CRICKETBoysplaycricketinKatni,India.
Most other sports have diffused less than soccer. Cultural
groups still have their own preferred sports, which are often
unintelligible to people elsewhere. Consider the following:
• Cricket is popular primarily in the United Kingdom
and former British colonies, especially in South Asia,
the South Pacific, and Caribbean islands (Figure 4-14).
• Wushu, martial arts that combine forms such as kicking
and jumping with combat such as striking and wres-
tling, are China's most popular sports.
• Baseball, once confined to North America, became
popular in Japan after it was introduced by American
soldiers who occupied the country after World War II.
116 THECULTURALLANDSCAPE
KEY ISSUE 2
Where Are Folk
and Popular Material
Culture Distributed?
■ Folk and Popular Clothing
■ Folk and Popular Food Preferences
■ Distribution of Folk and Popular
Housing
■ U.S. Housing
Learning Outcome 4.2.1
Compare reasons for distribution of clothing styles in
folk and popular culture.
Material culture includes the three most important neces- ~ FIGURE4-15 DUTCHWOODEN SHOES A manwearingwooden
sities of life-clothing, food, and shelter. As is the case with bikeson a floodedstreet in Stel!endamN, etherlands.
leisure, material elements of folk culture typically have un-
known or multiple origins among groups living in rela- In arctic climates, fur-lined boots protect against th1
tive isolation, and they diffuse slowly to other locations and snowshoes permit walking on soft, deep snow
through the process of relocation diffusion. out sinking in. People living in warm and humid cl
may not need any footwear if heavy rainfall anc
Popular clothing, food, and shelter vary more in time spent in water discourage such use. Cultural factor!
than in place. They originate through the invention of a as religious beliefs, can also influence clothing prefe
particular person or corporation, and they diffuse rapidly (Figure 4-16).
across Earth to locations with a variety of physical con-
ditions. Access depends on an individual having a suf- Increased travel and the diffusion of media h,
ficiently high level of income to acquire the material posed North Americans and Europeans to other fa
possessions associated with popular culture. dress, just as people in other parts of the world hav,
into contact with Western dress. The poncho from
Some regional differences in food, clothing, and shel- America, the dashiki of the Yoruba people of ~
ter persist in popular culture, but differences are much less and the Aleut parka have been adopted by peop
than in the past. Go to any recently built neighborhood where in the world. The continued use of folk co
on the outskirts of an American city from Portland, Maine, in some parts of the globe may persist not because
to Portland, Oregon: The houses look the same, the people tinctive environmental conditions or traditional c
wear jeans, and the same chains deliver pizza. values but to preserve past memories or to attract
(Figure 4-17).
Folk and Popular Clothing
Wearing' traditional clothing in countries dor
People living in folk cultures have traditionally worn cloth- by popular culture can be controversial, and cor
ing in part in response to distinctive agricultural practices so can wearing popular clothing in countries dor
and climatic conditions. In popular culture, clothing pref- by folk-style clothing. Especially difficult has been
erences generally reflect occupations rather than particular existence of the loose-fitting combination body c,
environments. head covering, and veil traditionally worn by we
Southwest Asia and North Africa with casual West€
FOLK CLOTHING PREFERENCES popular women's clothing, such as open-necked
tight-fitting slacks, and revealing skirts.
People wear distinctive folk clothing for a variety of en-
vironmental and cultural reasons. The folk custom in the The loose-fitting combination garment, known
Netherlands of wearing wooden shoes may appear quaint, riety of names, including burqa and chador, is 1
but it still has practical uses in a wet climate (Figure 4-15).
Chapter 4: Folk and Popular Culture 117
worn by women following traditional folk customs in
Southwest Asia and North Africa. Women in these coun-
tries are discouraged from adopting Western-style blouses,
skirts, and slacks. Meanwhile, men in the region may pre-
fer to wear Western-style suits, especially if they occupy
positions of leadership in business or government.
On the other hand, European countries, including
France and Belgium, prohibit women from wearing the
burqa in public. Some leaders in these countries have
argued that traditi.onal clothing that completely hides
the face and body represents unacceptable treatment of
women as second-class citizens.
Pause and Reflect 4.2.1
Can you think of other restrictions on clothing styles
in developed countries, perhaps in schools?
RAPID DIFFUSION OF POPULAR
CLOTHING STYLES
Individual clothing habits reveal how popular culture can
be distributed across the landscape with little regard for
distinctive physical features. Instead, popular clothing
habits reflect:
• Occupation. A lawyer or business executive, for exam-
ple, tends to wear a dark suit, light shirt or blouse, and
necktie or scarf, whereas a factory worker wears jeans
and a work shirt. A lawyer in New York is more likely
to dress like a lawyer in California than like a factory
worker in New York.
• Income. Women's clothes, in particular, change in fash-
ion from one year to the next. The color, shape, and
design of dresses change to imitate pieces created by
clothing designers. For social purposes, people with suf-
ficient income may update their wardrobe frequently
with the latest fashions.
~ FIGURE4-16 TRADITIONAL CLOTHES, MUSLIMS ANO JEWS Devout Improved communications have permitted the rapid
MuslimwomenandJewishmenwearmodesbt lackclothesi,ncludinghead diffusion of clothing styles from one region of Earth to
coverings(t.op)FrenchwomenweartraditionaMl uslimburqato protestheFrench another. Original designs for women's dresses, created in
governmentb'sanonwearingtheburqain public(.bottom)Jewishboysin Israel. Paris, Milan, London, or New York, are reproduced in large
quantities at factories in Asia and sold for relatively low
T FIGURE 4-17 POSING FORTOURISTS, PERU Thesewomenin CuzcoP, eru, prices in North American and European chain stores. Speed
dressedin traditionalcostumesa,reposingfortouristsasawayto makemoney. is essential in manufacturing copies of designer dresses be-
cause fashion tastes change quickly.
rn the past, years could elapse from the time an origi-
nal dress was displayed to the time that inexpensive re-
productions were available in the stores. Now the time lag
is only a few weeks because of the diffusion of electronic
communications. Buyers from the major retail chains can
view fashions electronically and place orders. Sketches,
patterns, and specifications can be sent instantly from Eu-
ropean fashion centers to American corporate headquar-
ters and then on to Asian factories.
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