TRAVERSE

TRAVERSE
SURVEYING

STUDENT’S EDITION

NAFISAH BINTI HARUN
NORAYAHATI BINTI NGAGIMAN
CHE NORHAYATI BINTI MOHD SALLEH

TRAVERSE
SURVEYING

STUDENT’S EDITION

Published by :
Politeknik Sultan Azlan Shah
Behrang Stesen, Behrang
35950 Perak.
Tel :05-4544431
Faks:05-4544993
Email : http://www.psas.edu.my

First published 2022.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced stored in a retrievel
system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photo-
copying, recording or otherwise without premission of Sultan Azlan Shah Polytechnics.

PERPUSTAKAAN NEGARA MALAYSIA
Traverse Survey
eISBN 978-967-2409-53-3

Preface

Traverse Survey is a part of Surveying, which was originally wri�en to cater for diploma
students in Polytechnic and other ins�tu�ons of higher learning. It is wri�en for
students pursuing their cer�ficate and diploma courses, based on the syllabus
prescribed by the Ministry of Educa�on for polytechnic students at diploma level
na�onwide.

This edi�on consists of four (4) main units such as Principles of Electronic Distance
Measurement, EDM / Total Sta�on, TS, Main Components of Electronic Distance
Measurement, EDM / Total Sta�on, TS, Principles of Traversing and Traverse concept
in Survey Works. The contents of this book emphasize the basic calcula�on of basic
survey. The concepts in this book are explained in a clear and simple language.

We would like to thank each person that is involved in the produc�on of this e-book
and it is our hope that this e-book will serve its purpose in helping students to gain
be�er understanding of the course needed.

CONTENTS 1
1
Content
Preface 4
1.0 Explain the principles of using Total Sta�on. 11
13
1.1 Classify the basic principles and system of distance measurement 17
by electronic method. 22
1.1.1 Microwave System. 24
1.1.2 Electro Op�cal System. 25
25
1.2 List the main components of total sta�on and its func�on. 26
1.3 Explain method of horizontal and ver�cal reading by using both circles. 27
1.4 Explain temporary and permanent adjustment.
1.5 Explain Total Sta�on’s errors and effect. 29
1.6 Explain the latest development of EDM/Total Sta�on instrument. 30
1.7 Explain usage of Total Sta�on in Civil Engineering work. 33
2.0 Explain the basic principles of traversing. 33
2.1 Explain traverse concept in survey works 34
2.2 Define opened and closed traverse. 34
2.3 Define terms related to traverse survey. 39

a. Back Bearing 46
b. Fore Bearing 47
c. Face Le�
d. Face Right
e. Mean Bearing
f. Final Bearing
2.4 List types of instruments used in traversing.
2.5 Explain the procedures of traversing.
3.0 Explain bearing adjustment in survey works.
3.1 Define la�tude and departure.
3.2 Calculate error of closure and precision.
3.3 Compute balance by using Bowditch’s and Transit’s method.
3.4 Calculate traverse area using coordinate and Double Meridian Distance
method.
Exercise
Reference

1.0 Principles Of Using Total Sta�on

1.1 Basic principles Electronic Distance Measurement (EDM)

To obtain accuracy in surveying and speed up distance measurement, the electronic
distance measuring (EDM) method was introduced. Electronic distance measure-
ment (EDM) is a method of determining the length between two points using elec-
tromagne�c waves. EDM is commonly carried out with digital instruments called
theodolites. The distance is measured with the help of electro-magne�c waves such
as micro wave, infrared wave and other similar waves. The electronic distancemea-
suring equipment and a reflector are necessary to measure the distance. The wave
emi�ed from the electronic distance measuring equipment reaches the reflector and
return back to the electronic distance measuring equipment.

Then the distance is measured with the help of �me taken for the above process –
�me taken by the wave for the emission and return. The wave is travelling along the
x axis with a velocity of 299,792.5 ± 0.4 km/s (in vacuum). The frequency of the wave
is, the �me taken for one complete wavelength.

λ = c/f

λ = Wavelength in meters
c = velocity in km/sec.
f = frequency hertz (one cycle per second)

Figure 1.0 : EDM Wave

01

As per Figure 1.0 shows a modulated electromagne�c wave being emi�ed from an
EDM instrument and being reflected and being reflected back to the instrument

Two main types of EDM are in common use
• Electromagne�c (Microwave) EDMs using microwave part of the spectrum
• Electro-op�cal (Light Wave) EDMs using visible part of the spectrum

1.1.1 Electromagne�c Microwave Instruments
• Electromagne�c EDMs, first developed in the 1950s, use high frequency radio

waves.
• The first genera�on of this equipment was very precise for measuring long

distances; however, it was too bulky and heavy for the prac�cing surveyor’s
needs.
• Wave frequency used in these tools is usually 10Ghz
• Distance range >100km in clear weather.
• Requires 2 device and 2 operator
• Communica�on devices between the main tools and remote devices is all
microwave equipment
• Tellurometer, geodimeter, makometer & others

Figure 1.1 : Microwave EDM

02

Microwave Distance Measurement as illustrated Figure 1.1, the sending (master)
instrument transmits a series of modulated radio waves to the receiving (remote)
instrument. The remote instrument interprets these signals and sends them back to
the master unit that measures the �me required for radio waves to make the round
trip. The distance is computed based on the velocity of the radio waves. Because this
velocity is affected by atmospheric condi�ons, correc�ons for temperature and baro-
metric pressure are applied according to the opera�ng instruc�ons provided with
the equipment.

Figure 1.2 : Op�cal EDM

1.1.2 Op�cal Light EDM
• Modern electro-op�cal EDMs are smaller, lighter, easier to use, and require

less power.
• Modern short-range instruments have ranges from 0.5 km to 5 km.
• Long range instruments, using coherent laser light, have ranges from 10m to

15 km.
• In general: long range: 10 – 20 km, medium range: 3 – 10 km and short range:

0.5 – 3 km.
• To use an electro-op�cal EDM, you set up the instrument at one end of the line

being measured and a reflector at the other end of the line.
• Less suscep�ble to atmospheric condi�ons.
• Less expensive: only a single transmi�er needed.
• Simpler instrument
• Uses a gallium arsenaid (GaAS) diode that emits emplitued-modulated infra

red.

04

• High frequency of modula�on is precisely controlled
• Distance range : >1km (single) and >3km(3/9 prism)
• Accuracy =± 10mm
• Limited line of sight, rain, fog, other airborne par�cles
1.2 Components of Total Sta�on and its func�on

Figure 1.3 : Total Sta�on
1.2.1 Introduc�on of Total Sta�on
A total sta�on is an op�cal surveying instrument that uses electronics to calculate
angles and distances. It combines the func�ons of a theodolite with that of a transit
level and electronic distance meter (EDM). It also has an integrated microprocessor,
electronic data collector, and storage system that allows measurements to be stored
on the device (which can be uploaded to a computer for further processing).
The important opera�ons that can be performed using a total sta�on can be listed as
follows:

a. Measurement of Distance
An essen�al component of the total sta�on is Electronic Distance Measuring
(EDM) which is responsible for the distance measurement.

04

b. The measuring range of the EDM can vary from 2.8km to 4.2km.
• A typical EDM is capable of measuring the distance with an accuracy
ranging between 5mm to 10mm per km of measurement.
• The EDM is equipped with an automa�c target recognizer. The
distance measured by the total sta�on is always the sloping distance
from the instrument sta�on to the object.

c. Measurement of Angle
• Another important opera�on performed by the total sta�on is the
measurement of angle.
• Usually, any suitable direc�on must be taken as the reference direc
�on for the measurement of the horizontal angles.
• While, in the case of the ver�cal angles, the ver�cally upward
direc�on i.e. the zenith is taken as the reference direc�on.

d. Processing of Data
• The processing of data in the total sta�on is done u�lizing the micro
processor that is inbuilt into it.
• The inbuilt microprocessor is capable of averaging the mul�ple
observa�ons taken.
• The microprocessor can compute the horizontal distance as well as
the loca�on coordinates (X, Y, Z).
• In the modern total sta�on, the microprocessor can apply even the
pressure correc�ons and the temperature correc�ons when the
temperature and the pressure values are provided.

e. Display of Output
• The output or the computed results are displayed in the total sta�on
u�lizing the electronic display unit.
• The display unit can display the computed horizontal distance,
ver�cal distance, horizontal and ver�cal angles, eleva�on
differences between points, and the loca�on coordinates of the
required points.

05

f. Electronic Record-Keeping (Electronic Book)
• The total sta�on is capable of storing the data in an electronic
book which is similar to a compact disc of the computer.
• Such an electronic book can store data ranging from 2000 points
to 4000 points.
• The data stored in the electronic book of the total sta�on can be
unloaded by the surveyor to a computer.

1.2.2 Components of Total Sta�on and its func�on

Carry Handle

Objec�ve Lens

Horizontal /
Ver�cal
Clamp

Control Panel
Leveling Screws
Base Plate
Figure 1.4 : Front view of Total Sta�on (Nikon)

06

Carry Handle Alidade
Eyeplece Ver�cal

Clamp and Slow
Mo�on Knob

Control Horizontal
Panel Knob
Base
Plate Leveling Screws

Figure 1.5 : Back view of Total Sta�on (Nikon)

1) Targe�ng Sight 3) Place Ba�ery
2) Objec�ve Lens 4) Ver�cal Angle

Adjustment Bu�ons.

10) Display Window 5) Horizontal Angle
Adjustment Angle
9) Power Switch On/ Off
8) Nivo Se�er Screw 6) Smooth Horizontal
Screw Driver

7) Horizontal Angle
Locking Screw

Figure 1.5 : Back view of Total Sta�on (Nikon)

07

11) Sight Adjus�ng Screw 13) Turner Lens Viewfinder
12) Point Adjus�ng Screw 14) Ver�calangle
Locking Screw
15) Smooth Ver�cal
Screw Drive

16) Nivo Tube

Figure 1.7 : Side View of Total Station (Topcon)
1.2.3 Func�on of Total Sta�on

Carry Handle:
It is for easy and save movement of the instrument from one posi�on to another.

Op�cal Sight/Alidade/Targe�ng Sight:
It is to roughly align the instrument towards the target.

Objec�ve Lens:
It catches the object being sighted and magnifies the object.

Eyepiece:
It is located at the viewing end of the telescope, it can be turned to bring the crosshairs
into focus.

Focusing Knob:
It is to focus the target when seeing it from the eyepiece.

08

Ver�cal angle adjustment bu�ons :
Ver�cal angle adjustment bu�ons are used to reset the ver�cal angle.

Ver�cal and Horizontal Clamps :
They are to lock the instrument towards a certain point. When engaged they restrict
the movement of Telescope on their respec�ve axis.

Ver�cal and Horizontal Tangent Screws :
They are used to move the crosshairs on their respec�ve axis when seen through they
eyepiece.

Sight adjus�ng screw :
Sight adjus�ng screw is used to adjust the point of sight that shot right direc�on.

Leveling Screws :
It allows adjustments to be made to ensure the instrument is level.

Nivo tube :
Nivo tube used to determine the erectness of tool.

Base Plate/tribrach :
It is the area to which the instrument level a�aches on the tripod.

Tripod :
A tripod is a three-legged stand, important in providing the founda�on for auto levels
and other leveling instruments. It is usually made up of Aluminum for the sake
lightness.

09

Figure 1.8 : Tripod Stand

1.2.4 Advantage and Disadvantage of Total Sta�on

Advantages of total sta�on:
• This instrument can be quickly setup on a tripod using laser plate.
• They are programmed with the field computa�on onboard to calculate the
area of a field.
• It depicts a pictorial view of land and plots.
• This instrument has no error in recording and wri�ng.
• It provides accurate measurement in addi�on to various tradi�onal survey
instruments.
• Data can be saved and transferred to a PC.
• It has a built in database.

Disadvantages of total sta�on:
• The instrument is more expensive than other tradi�onal survey
instruments.
• Examining and checking the work while surveying can be a problem for
the surveyor.
• Total environment surveying requires addi�onal environmentally friendly
surveyors as it is not easy to work with this instrument.
• To verify the survey work totally, it is essen�al to come back again to the
workplace and put together an image using the proper so�ware program.

10

1.3 Method of horizontal and ver�cal reading by using both circle

1.3.1 Horizontal Angle Measurement
1. The concept of measuring the horizontal and ver�cal circles is simple in
either the tradi�onal theodolite or the modern electronic theodolite. The
following procedures should be used to measure the horizontal angles
between three sta�ons A, B and C [Refer Figure 1.9].
2. Setup the theodolite and center the instrument on sta�on B. The
theodolite instrument has two faces; “Face le�” or “Face right”.
3. Star�ng from the face le�, the telescope is pointed at sta�on A. The
horizontal reading is then noted. E.g. 25° 30’ 00”.
4. The instrument is then turned in a clockwise direc�on to point at sta�on
C. Again the horizontal reading is noted. E.g. 145° 50’ 00”.
5. The horizontal angle α can be calculated, by finding the difference
between the two horizontal readings,

i.e., C – A = 145°50’00’ – 25°30’00”
α = 120°20’00”

6. Change the face of the theodolite instrument. Whilst poin�ng at sta�on C
the horizontal reading is again recorded. E.g. 325°50’00”.

7. Turn the instrument in a clockwise manner and point at sta�on A. Record
the horizontal reading. E.g. 205°30’00”. This �me the readings must be
subtracted in the correct order,

i.e., C – A = 325°50’00” – 205° 30’00”
α = 120°20’00”

11

Figure 1.9: Horizontal angle measurements

Ver�cal Angle Measurement
A ver�cal angle is the angle measured ver�cally from a horizontal plane of reference
[Refer Figure 1.10].

1. When the telescope is pointed in the horizontal plane (level), the reading
of the ver�cal angle is zero (0°).

2. When the telescope is pointed up [elevated], then the ver�cal angle
increases from zero and the reading is a posi�ve (+ve) ver�cal angle
[known as angle of eleva�on]. The reading increase from 0° to +90° when
the telescope is pointed straight up.

3. If the telescope is depressed [pointed down], then the angle reading will
increase in numerical value. The depressed telescope reading indicates
that it is below the horizontal plane and the reading is a nega�ve (–ve)
ver�cal angle or [known as angle of depression]. These numerical values
increase from 0° to –90° when the telescope is pointed straight down.

12

Figure 1.10: Ver�cal angle reading

1.4 Temporary and Permanent Adjustment
Adjustment of a total sta�on means the opera�on of �ghtening or loosening of
moveable parts to prepare the instrument for accurate measurement. It also includes
other opera�ons meant for this purpose. There are two types of adjustments for a total
sta�on :

a. Temporary Adjustment
b. Permanent Adjustment.

1.4.1 Temporary adjustment
These are required for each se�ng up of the instrument and includes following,

a) Se�ng up
b) Levelling
c) Elimina�on of Parallax

13

a. Se�ng up
It includes fixing the instrument and approximate levelling by leg adjustment

i. Fixing the instrument over tripod
• The clamp screw of the instrument is released.
• The total sta�on is held in the right hand. It is fixed on the tripod by
turning round the lower part with the le� hand and it is firmly
screwed over the tripod.

Centering Screw

Figure 1.11: Centering screw

ii. Leg adjustment
• The instrument is placed at a convenient height with the tripod legs
spread well apart and so adjusted that the tripod head is as nearly
horizontal as can be judged by the eye

Focussing on the
survey point

Focussing on the
re�cle

Figure 1.12: Focusing on the survey point

14

Figure 1.13 : Bubble adjustment procedure

• Fix any two legs of the tripod firmly into the ground and move the third leg un�l
the main bubble is approximately in the centre.

• The third leg is than pushed into the ground.

Firmly fixed Equal spacing

Figure 1.14 : Fixed tripod leg into the ground

b. Levelling
• The clamp is loosened and the upper plate is turned un�l the
longitudinal axis of the plate level is parallel to a line joining any two
levelling screws, say A and B.
• The two foot screws are turned uniformly towards each other or away
from each other un�l the plate bubble is central.
• The telescope is rotated through 90o so that it lies over the third foot
screw.
• The third screw is turned un�l the plate bubble is central.
• The telescope is rotated through 900 to its original posi�on and the above
procedure is repeated �ll the bubble remains central in both the posi�ons.

15

• The telescope is now rotated through 1800. The bubble should remain central if
the instrument is in proper adjustment.

Figure 1.15 : Total Sta�on Levelling Process
c. Elimina�on of Parallax
It is consists of focussing the eyepiece and objec�ve of the level.

a. Focussing the eyepiece
The opera�on is done to make the cross-hairs appear dis�nct and clearly
visible.

b. Focussing the objec�ve
This opera�on is done to bring the image of the object in the plane of the
cross-hairs.

Figure 1.16 : Focussing the eyepiece & Focussing the objec�ve

16

1.4.2 Permanent adjustment
These adjustments are carried out once and will not alter unless it is being roughly
handled or tampered with. There are certain basic requirements for a theodolite that
must be established par�cularly when using it. The basic requirements are as follows:

a. The ver�cal axis of a theodolite should be truly ver�cal.
b. The line of sight should be perpendicular to the horizontal axis.
c. The horizontal axis should be truly horizontal.
d. The cross hairs should be truly ver�cal and horizontal.
e. The ver�cal circle should be at zero when the line of sight is horizontal.

For this study it is appropriate to know only the basic requirements for permanent
adjustments. The steps in carrying out the adjustments should be handled by the quali-
fied person at the laboratory.

1.5 Total Sta�on’s errors and effect.

1.5.1 Errors
A discrepancy is defined as the difference between two or more measured values of
the same quan�ty. However, measurements are never exact and there will always be a
degree of variance regardless of the survey instrument or method used. These
variances are known as errors and will need to be reduced or eliminated to maintain
specific survey standards.

Even when carefully following established surveying procedures, observa�ons may s�ll
contain errors. Errors, by defini�on, are the difference between a measured value and
its true value. The true value of a measurement is determined by taking the mean value
of a series of repeated measurements. Surveyors must possess skill in instrument
opera�on and knowledge of surveying methods to minimize the amount of error in
each measurement.

17

1.5.2 Types of Errors
There are two types of errors, systema�c and random. It is important for the surveyor
to understand the difference between the two errors in order to minimize them.

a. Blunders
A blunder (or gross error) is a significant, unpredictable mistake caused by
human error that o�en leads to large discrepancies. Blunders are typically
the result of carelessness, miscommunica�on, fa�gue, or poor judgment.

Examples of common blunders are:
• Improperly leveling the surveying instrument.
• Se�ng up the instrument or target over the wrong control point.
• Incorrectly entering a control point number in the data collector.
• Transposing numbers or misplacing the decimal point.

All blunders must be found and eliminated prior to submi�ng a survey for
inclusion in the project mapping. The surveyor must remain alert and con
stantly examine measurements to eliminate these mistakes. Blunders can
be detected and eliminated by reac�ng to “out-of-tolerance” messages by
the data collector when they occur. They can also be detected by carefully
examining a plot of the collected survey points while in the office.

b. Systema�c Errors
Systema�c errors are caused by the surveying equipment, observa�on
measurement condi�ons, these errors will have the same magnitude and
direc�on (posi�ve or nega�ve). Because systema�c errors are repe��ve
and tend to accumulate in a series of measurements, they are also
referred to as cumula�ve errors.

18

Although some systema�c errors are difficult to detect, the surveyor must
recognize the condi�ons that cause such errors. The following list includes
several examples of systema�c errors:
• Using incorrect temperature and/or pressure observa�ons.
• Not applying curvature and refrac�on constants.
• Using incorrect instrument heights and/or target heights.
• Using an incorrect prism offset.
• Using an imperfectly adjusted instrument.

The effect of these errors can be minimized by:
• Properly leveling the survey instrument and targets.
• Entering the appropriate environmental correc�on factors in the data

collector.
• Entering the correct instrument heights, targets heights, and prism offset

in the data
• collector.
• Periodically calibra�ng the surveying equipment.

If appropriate correc�ons are not made, these errors can accumulate and cause
significant discrepancies between measured values. By keeping equipment in
proper working order and following established surveying procedures, many of
the systema�c errors can be eliminated.

c. Random Errors
Random (or accidental) errors are not directly related to the condi�ons or
circumstances of the observa�on. For a single measurement or a series of
measurements, it is the error remaining a�er all possible systema�c errors and
blunders have been eliminated. As the name implies, random errors are unpre
dictable and are o�en caused by factors beyond the control of the surveyor.
Their occurrence, magnitude, and direc�on (posi�ve or nega�ve) predicted.
some degree, in every measurement. Errors of this type are compensa�ng and
tend to at par�ally cancel themselves mathema�cally. Because the magnitude

19

is also a ma�er of chance they will remain, to some degree, in every measure
ment.

Misclosures (or residuals) are the difference in a measurement or a series of
measurements from an established value. Random errors account for the misclo
sure when systema�c errors have been corrected and blunders have been
removed. Misclosures are computed when adjus�ng level loops, traverses, and
GPS networks.

Random errors conform to the laws of probability and are therefore
equally distributed throughout the survey. Because of their random nature, cor
rec�on factors cannot be computed and applied as they are with some systemat
ic errors. However, they can be es�mated using a procedure based on the laws of
probability known as the least-squares method of adjustment. This method
computes the most probable adjusted values and the precision of the survey.
The least-squares method may also reveal the presence of large blunders.

1.5.3 Sources Error
Sources of error in total sta�on surveying is iden�fied as following: –

a. Instrument Error
b. Personal Error
c. Natural Error

a. Instrument Error
This error is occure due to some faulty in the instruments. There are many types of
error cause by the instrumental faulty.

20

b. Personal Error
The error is happening due to manipula�on, error in reading and sigh�ng, due to Paral-
lax and Mistakes in reading and recording. The following list includes several examples
of personal error:
• Instrument not set up exactly over point
• Bubbles not cantered perfectly
• Improper use of clamps and tangent screws
• Poor focusing
• Overly careful sights
• Careless plumbing and placement of rod.

c. Natural Error
Natural error is not due to human error or instrumental error. Although, instrumental
error seems to be natural error but it is already men�oned in the first category. While
conduc�ng theodolite surveying a natural condi�on should be considered.

Otherwise the following are the error cause for the natural error.
• Error due equal atmosphere temperature which expand the various parts

unequally.
• Error due unequal refracted
• Error due to high wind producing vibra�on
• Error due to unequal se�lement of the tripod
Natural error cannot be eliminated, we should take the observa�on when the situa�on
is favorable.

21

1.6 Latest development of Total Sta�on instrument.
1.6.1 Robo�c Total Sta�on
Robo�c Total Sta�on or Robo�c Tachometry System (RTS) widely used for surveying
purpose and solu�on. From surveyor to archeologist, professional used RTS to solve
many problems in collec�ng data such as to mapping the land use, archeology excava-
�on site or used in construc�on field. Latest technology adopted in modern total
sta�on is servo motors to drive both the horizontal and ver�cal mo�on of the instru-
ments. This technology designed special to search automa�cally for prism target
known as Automa�c Target Recogni�on (ATR). Robo�c total sta�ons allow the operator
to control the instrument from a distance via remote control. This eliminates the need
for an assistant staff member as the operator holds the reflector and controls the total
sta�on from the observed point.
Manufacturers such as Leica Geosystem, TOPCON Instrument, Trimble and Geodimeter
have designed an instrument with automa�c target recogni�on (ATR). This technology
u�lizes an infrared light bundle sent co-axially through the telescope. Usually, RTS will
be used in precise measurement applica�on such as deforma�on monitoring or dimen-
sional surveying for industrial. Both applica�ons needed high precision instrument and
accuracy

22

Geodimeter 640 Topcon GTS 800 Leica TCRA1103 & RCS1100
Robo�c Setup

Figure 1.17 : Robo�c Total Sta�on

1.6.2 Reflectorless Total Sta�on
Reflectorless total sta�ons can measure distances to any object that is reasonably light
in color, to a few hundred meters.

Topcon GPT 2005 Sokkia Set 4110 Leica TCR307

Figure 1.18 : Reflectorless Total Sta�on

23

1.6.3 3D Laser Scanning
3D laser scanning surveys collect data points from a building or structure remotely and
at a speed and level of detail that conven�onal survey techniques cannot match. It is a
non-invasive technology that captures a set of data points (the point cloud) and maps
them on a grid coordinate of x, y and z.

Figure 1.19: Trimble TX5 3D Laser Scanner
1.7 Usage of Total Sta�on in Civil Engineering work.
Total sta�on is a most accurate surveying instrument mainly used for :
• preparing an engineering map in which engineering works are shown in

detail such as roads, railways, bridges, irriga�on canals, dams, and so on.

Figure 1.20: Engineering Map
• prepare contour maps which help to determine the capacity of the reservoir, to

find the best possible transporta�on routes and so on.

24

• plan and execute engineering projects like bridges, buildings, irriga�on canal,
and so on. This field uses highest applica�on of surveying in civil engineering.

• set out and transfer details from map to realis�c view to ground
• Detail survey i.e., data collec�on.
• Control Survey (Traverse).
• Height measurement (Remove eleva�on measurement- REM).
• Resec�on.
• Area calcula�ons,
• Missing line measurement (MLM).

2.0 Basic principles of traversing

2.1 Traverse concept in survey works

Traverse is a series of measured lines connected by measured angles. A traverse is a
chain of straight lines to be use as a basis for the measurement of detail. The straight
line between two consecu�ve traverse sta�ons is called a traverse leg. The angle at any
key sta�on between two consecu�ve traverse legs is known as a traverse angle.

The survey procedure known as traversing is fundamental to much survey measure-
ment. The procedure consists of using a variety of instrument combina�ons to create
polar vectors in space, that is 'lines' with a magnitude (distance) and direc�on (bear-
ing). These vectors are generally con�guous and create a polygon that conforms to vari-
ous mathema�cal and geometrical rules (which can be used to check the fieldwork and
computa�ons). The equipment used generally consists of something to determine
direc�on like a compass or theodolite, and something to determine distance like a tape
or Electromagne�c Distance Meter (EDM).

A traverse, in general, is to locate the features already exis�ng in the area to be survey
or in accordance with predetermined measurements. Travers is classifica�on as both
closed and open.

25

2.2 Opened and closed traverse
2.2.1 Closed Traverse

(a)

(b)
Figure 1.21 : Examples of closed traverses
Closed traverse begins on a point of known posi�on and closes to another point of
known posi�on (o�en a closed loop on the ini�al point). (Figure 1.19 (a)) When closing
to a different point of known posi�on, it is called a connec�ng traverse. (Figure 1.19 (b))
A closed traverse is employed for loca�ng the boundaries of lakes and woods across
which �e lines cannot be measured, for area determina�on, control for mapping, and
for surveying moderately large area.

26

2.2.2 Open Traverse

Figure 1.22: Examples of open traverses

Open traverse begins at a known point and goes to another point whose loca�on is
uncertain. This point cannot be checked for error except by another traverse. It is
employed for surveying long narrow strips of country. E.g.: the path, a highway, railway,
canal, pipeline, coastline, transmission line, etc.

2.3 Terms related to traverse survey

Terms Table 1.0: Term in traverse survey

Descrip�on

Fore Bearing Bearing measured in the direc�on of progress of the survey
BBaacckk BBeeaarriinngg
Bearing measured opposite to the direc�on of survey
Face Le� If the face of the ver�cal circle is to the le� of the observer, the
observa�on of the angle is known as Face le� observa�on

Face Right If the face of the ver�cal circle is to the right of the observer, the
observa�on of the angle is known as Face right observa�on

Mean Bearing Average of the observa�on from the le� and right circles.
Final Bearing Last adjustment a�er ‘c’ correc�on.

27

2.3.1 Booking And Correc�on

Table 1.1: Booking and Correc�on Form

Sta�on BEARING / ANGLE Average From Final To Final
Face Le� Face Right Stn. Bearing Stn Distance

Datum PA 6033 245 30 00 2 245 30 00 1 55.764
from

BKL BKL

1 245 30 00 65 30 00 118 47 00 2 118 47 00 3 64.319

2 BKL C - 14

3 118 47 00 298 47 00

118 46 46

2 298 47 00 118 47 00 230 25 30 3 230 25 00 4 59.802

3 PKT C - 28

4 230 25 40 50 25 20

230 25 02

3 50 25 30 230 25 30 269 15 40 4 269 15 00 5 65.049

4 PKT C - 42

5 269 15 40 89 15 40

269 14 58

4 89 15 40 269 15 40 300 09 20 5 300 08 30 1 67.236

5 PKT C - 56

1 300 09 10 120 09 30

300 08 24

5 120 09 20 300 09 20 65 31 10 1 65 30 00 2 Refer

1 BKL C – 01 10 space 1

2 65 31 10 245 31 10

65 35 00

Line 1-2 reading = 65° 31’ 10”

Surposed reading = 65° 30’ 00”

Misclosure = + 01’ 10” for each sta�on of 2,3,4,5 and 1

Error = - 14” per sta�on

28

2.3.2 Standard Order Survey

Traverse survey divide to 4 standard orders. It is used for decided the field procedure
and ensure the required survey equipment and for ensure the survey accuracy before
start the fieldwork of survey. The different classes of traverse have different accuracy.

Each Standard class survey has the accuracy value. Generally, the have four types:
1. General order Traverse
2. First order survey
3. Second order survey
4. Third order survey

Table 1.2: The criteria of standard order survey

Class Linear Observa�on Observa�on Plo�ed Closer error Crossing
misclosure Distance Bearing Bearing observa�on

Standard 1:25000 0.001m 1” 10” 1’15”@ 10ps 2

1 1:8000 0.001m 1”/10” 10” 1’15” @10ps 2

2 1:4000 0.001m 10”/20” 30” 2’30”@ 20ps 2

3 1:3000 0.01m 1” 1” 1’@ 40ps 1

*ps = per sta�on

If rela�ve accuracy is sa�sfactory, i.e., if rela�ve accuracy meets

Rural land 1:5000

Suburban 1:7500

Urban 1:10000

x
List types of instruments used in traversing are :
a. Total Sta�on
b. Prism
c. Tripod
d. Mini Pole

29

2.5 Traversing procedures
The following steps are required to establish a traverse:

i. Reconnaissance
Preliminary field inspec�on of the en�re area to be covered is known as reconnais-
sance. During the reconnaissance, the surveyor goes to the en�re area and decides the
best plan of working. If a map of the area is available, it would be help in planning the
survey work. Reconnaissance the following:

a) Examina�on of the area to be surveyed
b) Selec�on of suitable posi�ons for traverse sta�ons
c) Insuring the indivisibility of traverse sta�ons
d) Deciding method of traversing and instruments o be employed.
e) Collec�on of miscellaneous informa�on related to traversing such as:

- Ransport facili�es
- Availability of food and water for the survey party
- Camping ground or stay arrangements
- Availability of labour

ii. Selec�on of traverse sta�ons
While selec�ng a traverse sta�ons, the following points must be taken into account:

a) As far as possible, the survey work should be based upon the basic principle of
surveying. i.e., working from the whole to the part.

b) Number of sta�ons is a minimum
c) Length of traverse lines is as long as possible to reduce the effect of centering

errors.
d) Sta�ons are according to the requirement of the work and they are also useful

for picking up details.
e) Sta�ons are intervisible
f) Sta�ons are selected on firm and level ground
g) The ground condi�ons between the sta�ons are suitable for linear

measurements

30

h) The line of sight should be at least 1 m above the ground surface to reduce the
effect of shimmering due to refrac�on
iii. Marking sta�ons
A�er finalizing the loca�ons of traverse sta�ons, their posi�ons are marked should be
of permanent nature as for as possible so that the sta�ons can be used in future, if
required. For ordinary traverse, a peg with a tack on its top, is driven almost flush with
ground (Fig. 1.24 (a))

Nail

Wooden peg

Figure 1.23 (a) : Wooden Peg
If the traverse sta�ons are to be permanently fixed, the sta�ons mark of concrete block
wit steel bolt indica�ng the centre of block, should be (fig: 1.24(i)). The sta�on mark is
etched on the bolt. In the mountainous area, the sta�ons mark usually cut in the
nature solid rocks, a�er marking the sta�ons, their distances from at the least three
permanent reference points around the sta�on should be measured and recorded
marking sketch to relocate the sta�ons at a later stage (fig: 1.24(ii)).

31

Bolt Bolt
Concrete Solid
rock
block

(i) (ii)

Figure 1.24 (i) (ii) Permanent marking

iv. Loca�ng details
In traversing, the details can be located by any method. The angles and distances
should preferably be measured from the traverse sta�ons to avoid the errors in mea-
surement of distance along the traverse lines.

v. Mark distance
Distance between traverse sta�ons are measured directly by chaining which is a more
reliable method except in rough ground. Each distance must be measured independent
de�ly by a 30-meter chain and 20-meter chain separately. Both chains are tested regu-
larly against standard tapes. When be�er accuracy is required, steel tape are used for
measuring the traverse legs. In case, measurements by two chains differ by more than
1 in 1000 in between two sta�ons, the line must be premeasured by both of chain.

The distances given by a 20-meter chain serves only a check on measurement. The
distances measured by a 30 meter, chain is only used in computa�on. The means of
distances measured by long and short chains should never accept for computa�on.

32

3.0 Adjustment in Survey Works

3.1 La�tude and Departure

By defini�on, la�tude is the north/south rectangular component of line. The differen�-

ate direc�on, north is considered plus, whereas south is considered minus. Similarly,

departure is the east/west re rectangular component of line. The differen�ate direc-

�on, east is considered plus, whereas west is considered minus. When working with

azimuths. The plus/minus designa�on is directly given by the appropriate trigonomet-

ric func�on:

Latitude ∆y = distance (H) cos α

Departure ∆x = distance (H) sin α

Where α is the bearing or azimuth of the traverse course, and distance (H) is the
horizontal distance of the traverse course.

La�tudes (lats) and departures (deps) can be used to calculate the precision of a
traverse by no�ng the plus/minus closure of both la�tudes and departures. If the
survey has been perfectly performed (angle and distance), the plus la�tudes will equal
the minus la�tudes, and the plus departures will equal the minus departures.

Figure 1.25 : La�tude and departure quadrant
The figure 1.26 is the summary value of La�tudes (lats) and departures (deps) depends
to the value of bearing line.

33

3.2 Error of Closure and Precision
If you begin a traverse at one point and walk around the complete traverse and return
back to the original point that you started, you will have walked as far north (+) as you
have walked south (-) and as far east (+) as you have walked west (-). This means that
for a closed traverse the sum of la�tudes should equal to zero (i.e., the northerly
la�tudes (+) plus the southerly la�tudes (-) add up to zero). Similarly, the sum of depar-
tures should equal zero (i.e., the easterly departures (+) plus the westerly departures (-)
add up to zero). However, when the la�tude and departures are calculated and
summed, the result will never be exactly zero (unless you are really good – you’re not).
Therefore, a measure of error in closed-traverse is the error of closure defined as

The precision of the measurement is also defined as

3.3 Balancing La�tudes and Departures
The following processes are only valid if the traverse closes within an acceptable
tolerance. It is possible to distribute the misclosure of the traverse throughout the
network to compensate for the accumula�on of random errors. It is important that the
process is understood, because sta�s�cally it is based on the assump�on that the
misclosure is caused by random error in the distance measurement (angular misclosure
having already been eliminated). The process cannot be used to eliminate mistakes, all
that happens is that the blunder is distributed throughout the traverse instead of being
isolated in one or two lines. This only makes a bad job worse.

34

There are two procedures commonly used to distribute the misclosure, one based on
experience and knowledge of the survey, the other based on the theory that the mis-
closure is propor�onal to the distance measured.
The two procedures are:

i. Bowditch Method – propor�onal to line distances.
ii. Transit Method- propor�onal to ∆E ∆N values

3.3.1 Bowditch Method
This method also knows the method of the compass. In this method the correc�on is
propor�onal to line distances. Where the bounder line is very long, the value of correc-
�on is greater.

La�tude correc�on = Line distance x differen�al La�tude
∑ Traverse distance

Departure correc�on = Line distance x differen�al Departure

∑ Traverse distance

A�er the la�tudes and departures are balanced, the length and bearing of the sides of
a traverse will be slightly changed. The corrected length of each side can be now calcu-
lated

And the adjusted bearing may be determined by trigonometry

3.3.2 Transit Method
In this method, the correc�on is propor�onal to ∆E ∆N values. Where the ∆E ∆N value
is very grater, the value of correc�on is also grater.

35

In for all this method, the correc�on value (posi�ve and nega�ve) refers the total value
for la�tude and departure. If the total for la�tude is posi�ve (NORTH) grater from total
value la�tude (nega�ve (South), then correc�on value for all la�tude (NORTH) is
nega�ve and all la�tude nega�ve (SOUTH) is posi�ve. The same process for get
Departure correc�on. Refer table 1.3 and 1.4.

36

Table 1.3: Bowd

Station Bearing Distance Latitude Depart
1 NS E
16 38 12 252.230 + 0.053
2 73 19 12 284.210 241.672 + 0.048
195 17 30 384.730 + 0.060 72.214
3 281 04 36 247.840 81.576 + 0.054
272.251
4 - 0.081
371.109
1 + 0.052
47.616

1169.010 370.864 371.109 344.465
+ 0.245 + 0.224

LATIT DIPAT AFTER ADJUSTMENT

1 16 38 12 252.230 241.725 72.262
2

3 73 19 12 284.210 81.636 272.305

4 195 17 30 384.730 371.028

1 281 04 36 247.840 47.668

371.029 371.028 344.567
+ 0.001 + 0.001

ditch Method

ture Final Final Coordinate E/W
W Latitude Departure N/S

- 0.074 MISCLOSE
101.466
- 0.047 = (0.245)2 + (0.224)2
243.223 1169.010
344.689
= 1: 3521
101.392
243.176
344.568

37

Table 1.4: Tra

Station Bering Distance Latitude D
16 38 12
1 252.230 NSE
2 284.210
384.730 + 0.080 + 0.023
247.840
241.672 72.214

+ 0.027 + 0.088

3 73 19 12 81.576 272.25

- 0.123

4 195 17 30 371.109

+ 0.016

1 281 04 36 47.616

370.864 371.109 344.46
+ 0.245 + 0.224

La�tude 741.973 Departure 689.15

LATIT AND DIPAT AFTER ADJUSTMENT 241.752 72.237
1
2 16 38 12 252.230

3 73 19 12 284.210 81.603 272.33

4 195 17 30 384.730 370.986

1 281 04 36 247.840 47.632

370.987 370.986 344.57
+ 0.001 + 0.001

ansit Method Final Final Coordinate
Latitude Departure N/S E/W
Departure
W

3
4
8
51

- 0.033
101.466
- 0.07
243.223

65 344.689
4

54

7
39

101.433
243.144
76 344.577
1

38

3.4 Traverse Calcula�on
A�er compute La�tudes (lats) and departures (deps) adjustment, the next task uses the
data to measure the item were related with traverses Origin point is for refer different
values of coordinates from each state in Malaysia. The origin value for North and East
is zero (0). This point is use for reference for all survey work in that state. The second
coordinate point be found depend the calcula�on of la�tudes and departures value.
Therefore, to calculate the next coordinate, you must start from known coordinate
point.

The measurement including are:
a) Coordinate
b) Area computa�on
c) Direct distances and bearing

3.4.1 Coordinate

Table 1.5 : The origin point for State in Peninsular Malaysia.

State Coordinate System Original Point
(Origin)
State / System North East
G. Perak
Kedah & Perlis (Chain) (Chain) Bukit Panau
Kelantan G. Sinyum
Pahang 0.000 0.000 G. Hijau Larut
Perak G. Blumut
Johor 0.000 0.000 Gun Hill
Negeri Sembilan & Melaka Bukit Asa
Selangor 0.000 0.000 Fort Cornwallis
Pulau Pinang Gajah Trom
Terengganu + 6633.947 0.000

0.000 0.000

- 47.152 - 12.030

+ 2781.802 - 1081.656

0.000 0.000

0.000 0.000

(Refer: JUPEM)

39

Table 1.6: The calculation coo
The coordinates for all station reference to statio

Station Bearing Distance Latitude D
NS E

1

2 16 38 12 252.230 241.725 72.26

3 73 19 12 284.210 81.636 272.3

4 195 17 30 384.730 371.028

1 281 04 36 247.840 47.668
Example

Coordinate (N) Sta�on 2 = Coordinate (U) Sta�on 1 + La�tud
= 1000.000 + 241.725
= 1241.725

Coordinate (E) Sta�on 2 = Coordinate (E) Sta�on 1 + Departu
= 1000.000 + 72.262
= 1072.262

The posi�ve and nega�ve value must be considered in calcul

Calculate by: ………………………………… Date: ……………………… No. Su
Check by :: ………………………………… Date: ……………………… Survey

Diluluskan oleh : ………………………………… Tarikh : ……………………

ordinates for closed traverse.
on 1 when the values are N1000.000, E1000.000.

Departure Final Final Coordinate
N/S
W Latitude Departures E/W

1000.000 1000.000

62 1241.725 1072.262

305 1323.361 1344.567

101.392 952.333 1243.175

243.176 1000.001 999.999

de 1 – 2

ure 1 – 2

la�on.

urvey layout: …………………….. No. Sheet : …………….
yor : …………………….. No. Plan : ………..…….

…… Buku kerja Luar & Halaman : ………. Mukim : …………….

38

3.4.2 Area computa�on
DMD method – Double Meridian Distance
The best known procedure for calcula�ng a land area with a calculator is the Double
Meridian Distance (DMD) method. This method also uses at Jabatan Ukur dan
Pemetaan Malaysia (JUPEM) to measure the traverse. The meridian distance of a line
is the distance; parallel to the east-west direc�on, from the midpoint of the line to
the reference meridian (usually the north arrow placed at the most easterly point of
the traverse).

Calculation method, Refer figure 1.9

To facilitate the calcula�on, a reference meridian line drawn on the most western
point where it is ver�cal lines parallel to the north-south. In this case, the meridian
through the westerly point is taken as the reference meridian. The distance between
two lines dividing point of two traverse points and reference meridians called the
meridian distance.

The meridian distance for line 1-2, 2-3, 3-4, 4-5 and 5-1 is AA’, BB’, CC’, DD’ and EE’.
The calcula�ons to get the distance meridian for line 2-3 are as below :

Meridian
distance

Reference
Meridian

Figure 1.27: Area computa�on using Double Meridian Distance Method

41

BB’ = meridian distance 1-2 + dipat1-2 + dipat2-3
22

From equa�on:
2(BB’) = 2(meridian distance 1-2) + dipat1-2 + dipat2-3

So, 2(BB’) is two �me meridian distance line 2-3, means:

Consider the posi�ve and nega�ve value in calcula�on
(Final meridian distance = Final Depart)

Final meridian distance + Departure + Departure
Back line back line

The value of meridian distance is half from the value of Final departure, so replace
the value for final departure to formula:

42