dialogue repetition 36–7, 46, 73
dialoguing (Participatory Approach technique) 177
dictation exercises 28, 33, 136
dictogloss exercises 136, 142
digital portfolios 211
Direct Method 25–34, 219
discourse level work 116–17, 120, 124, 126, 136, 138–9
display questions 122–3
distance education 211–12, 225
distributed leadership 190
doubting game 6–8
dramatization and fantasy as aids to learning 74, 77, 82
drills:
backward build-up (expansion) drills 36, 42, 47
chain drills 37, 47, 123
defined as focus on forms 151
as key part of Audio-Lingual method 45
repetition drill technique 37, 47
substitution drills 37–9, 43, 45, 47
transformation drills 39, 48, 123
Echevarria, J. 141
Eckerth, J. 160
Edelsky, C. 141
Edge, J. 226
Elbow, P. 7
electronic chatting 212
electronic text corpora 202, 204–5, 212–13
Ellis, R. x, 150, 159, 160, 209, 220, 232
e-mail in language learning 200–1
emergentism 209
empowerment, language learning as 175, 176, 178, 221
endangered languages 165, 212
engineer, teacher as 62
English, politics of teaching/learning 165–70
enjoyment and fun:
Desuggestopedia 74
Total Physical Response method 109, 110
environment (classroom), importance of in Desuggestopedia 72, 75, 81
e-pen pals 203, 212
error correction:
summary 226
Audio-Lingual method 36, 42, 46
backward build-up (expansion) drills 36, 42, 47
Communicative Language Teaching 117, 120, 122
Content-based Instruction 140
focus on form 157
gentle, in Desuggestopedia 78, 80
Grammar-Translation method 14, 18, 20
importance of errors in learning process 60, 64–5
inevitable in Cognitive Code Approach 51
nonthreatening, in Community Language Learning 93, 97
not a main focus when using online tools 210
peer correction (students helping each other) 59, 60, 63, 66
prevention of errors 42, 46
recasts 97, 151, 155, 156, 157
scaffolding 138, 139
self-correction 27, 29, 32, 65, 66, 99, 177
Silent Way 56–7, 60, 64–5
students developing ‘inner criteria’ 59, 60, 65
Task-based Language Teaching 155
tolerated during fluency-based activities 125
Total Physical Response method 108, 111
European Language Portfolio 211
evaluation:
and analytic syllabi 160
fluency 125
integrative tests 97, 125
self-evaluation 97, 175, 177
and standards 224
using technology 210
expansion (backward build-up) drills 36, 42, 47
Facebook 202, 203, 204, 213
facilitator, teacher as 121, 122, 123
Fairclough, N. 167
Fanselow, J. 230
fantasy and dramatization as aids to learning 74, 77, 82
feedback (from students to teachers):
Community Language Learning 88, 90, 93, 96
Participatory Approach 174
Silent Way 61, 67
feedback (from teachers on students’ work), see also error correction
Communicative Language Teaching 128
Content-based Instruction 143
Task-based Language Teaching 158
Fidel charts 57, 62, 67
fill-in-the-blanks exercises, see also substitution drills
Audio-Lingual method 48
Content-based Instruction 135
Direct Method 27, 29, 32
Grammar-Translation method 16, 21
fine arts, use of 17, 20, 22, 28, 71, 73, 76, 80, 225
‘five minds’ 194
Flores, B. 141
focused tasks 159
focus on form 151, 157, 175, 176, 220
focus on forms 151, 160
form/meaning relationships in Direct Method 29, 30
forms versus functions 120, 122, 124
Freeman, D. xi, xiii, 221, 231, 233
Freire, P. 170, 177
Fried-Booth, D. 157
Fries, C. 35
fun and enjoyment:
Desuggestopedia 74
Total Physical Response 109, 110
functions, language in the Communicative Approach 115
games:
Audio-Lingual method 41, 48
Communicative Language Teaching 117–18, 120, 127
Content-based Instruction 136
Desuggestopedia 74–5
Garcia, O. 221
Gardner, H. 191, 194
Gass, S. 150
Gatbonton, E. ix
Gateva, E. 71
Gattegno, C. 6, 52, 62, 71, 232
Gee, J. 168
generative words 170–1
gestures/actions/demonstrations (teachers’):
Desuggestopedia 72–3
Direct Method 37
as method preferred to explanation or translation 29, 30
Silent Way 53, 58, 59, 63, 66
globalization 221
global language, English as 165, 170
Goffney, I. 139
Gomes de Matos, F. 221
Grabe, W. 185
Graddol, D. 165
‘grammaring’ 201
Grammar-Translation method 13–23, 219
grammatical patterns in Audio-Lingual method 35–50
grammatical rules:
deductive approaches 15–16, 18, 19, 21
inductive approaches 29, 30, 40, 43
graphic organizers 136–7, 139, 142–3
group work:
cooperative learning 186–90
small group tasks 99–100, 120, 123
habit formation, language learning as 42, 44, 51
habits of mind (five minds) 194
Halliday, M.A.K. 115
Hanks, J. 228, 229, 230
Hatch, E. 191
Hawkins, M. x, 178
Heift, T. 200n
hidden curriculum 169
Hinkel, E. xii
Holliday, A. 228
Howatt, A.P.R. 131
Human ComputerTM 89–90, 93, 99
Hymes, D. 115
i+1 level of proficiency 103
identity:
and the politics of language 165, 167–8, 221
students choosing new 72, 76, 80, 81
idioms 16, 21
immersion programs 133
imperatives, in Total Physical Response method 105–7, 108, 110, 111–12
indirect positive suggestions 76, 80, 81
infantilization 78
information gaps 122–3, 127, 128, 158
initiative, student:
Desuggestopedia 79
‘Heather’ example 2–3
lack of in Grammar-Translation approaches 19
inner criteria, developing 59, 62, 65
input:
comprehensible input and the Natural Approach 103
input control 225
input enhancement 150
input flooding 150
input-providing tasks 160
quantity of exposure to 104
intelligences, multiple 191–4
interaction, student–student:
Audio-Lingual method 45
Collaborative Learning 186–90, 220
Communicative Language Teaching 123
Cooperative Learning 186–90, 220
Direct Method 31
lack of in Grammar-Translation approaches 19
small group tasks 99–100, 120, 123
students helping each other 59, 60, 63, 93
Task-based Language Teaching 155, 156
via online means 209
internet 199, see also electronic chatting; social networking sites
Jacobs, G. 186
Jenkins, J. 167
Johnson, K. x, 122
Kachru, B. 166
Katz, A. xii
Kern, R. 200, 201
Klapper, J. 115
Kleifgen, J. 221
Kramsch, C. 201, 221n, 225
Krashen, S. 103
Kumaravadivelu, B. xiii, 131
Kuo, I-C. 167
‘language across the curriculum’ 132
language counselors, teachers as 85, 94
Language Experience Approach 142, 143
Language Teaching Research x
Larsen-Freeman, D. xiii, xiv, xv, 2, 3, 6, 7, 191, 201, 209, 220, 221, 225, 227, 229,
230, 231–2, 233
Lave, J. xii
Lazear, D. 191n
Learnables, The 104
learner roles, summary 225
learning counselors, teachers as 92
learning, definition of 232
learning strategy training 181–6, 220
learning styles, individual 191–4
learning to teach 231–2
Levin, J. 191
Lewis, M. 104
Lexical Approach 104
Li, D. 220
lingua franca, English as 166–7
linguistics, Audio-Lingual method based on 35
‘listen-and-do’ tasks 155, 160
listening:
Comprehension Approach 103
Direct Method 33
Grammar-Translation method 18
literacies (concept of) 168
literature, foreign:
importance of 13, 17, 19
using passages for teaching 13–14, 20–1
Littlewood, W. 122
Long, M. xii, xiii, 150, 151, 153, 157, 191
Lortie, D. ix, xi
Loschky, L. 150, 159
Lozanov. G. 71
Luke, A. 168
managers of learning, teachers as 230–1
maps, lesson using 25–8
Marsh, D. 133
McCarthy, M. 213
McNamara, T. 227
meaning, focus on 157, 175
meaning, negotiation of 121, 127, 207
meaningful:
language 61, 138, 140, 175, 176, 177, 201, 229
tasks 149, 156, 159
memorization:
Audio-Lingual method 35, 46
Grammar-Translation method 18, 19, 22
mental exercise, language learning as 13, 18, 19
metacognitive learning strategies 186
‘method’, definition of term xvi, 1
methodological change 219–21
methodological innovation 181
methods fatigue 4
methods, study of xi–xii
‘Michigan Method’, see Audio-Lingual method
Miller. A. 71n
minimal pair exercises 41, 48
mobile phone-based applications 213
modelling:
Audio-Lingual method 37, 44
not used in Silent Way 59
Task-based Language Teaching 155
think-aloud technique 182
Total Physical Response method 109, 110
Mohan, B. 133
Morrow, K. 122, 127
motivation, student:
Content-based Instruction 138, 140
Participatory Approach 174
and purposeful communication 123–4
student autonomy 59, 62, 185, 200, 209
Task-based Language Teaching 156–7
and working with technology 206
Mullock, B. ix
multicompetence 169
multilingualism 5
multiple intelligences 191–4
multiple-slot substitution drills 38–9, 47
Murphy, D. 150
Murray, D. x
music, use of 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 82
native language use in the classroom:
summary 5, 225
Audio-Lingual method 35, 42, 46
Communicative Language Teaching 125
Community Language Learning 86, 88, 97
in conjunction with technology 207, 210
Content-based Instruction 140
Desuggestopedia 72, 80
Direct Method 5, 25, 29
Grammar-Translation method 5, 14, 20
Silent Way 57, 59, 64
Total Physical Response method 105, 110
native speakers as teachers 169
Natural Approach 103, 220
‘natural order’ of language acquisition 45, see also child language acquisition
negotiation of meaning 121, 127, 207
newspaper articles, see realia, pictures and objects, use of
non-native speakers as teachers 169
nonverbal behavior, starting with 107, 109, see also gestures/actions/demonstrations
(teachers’)
Norton, B. 178, 221
novelty 77, 93, 106, 108
Nunan, D. x, 132, 230
O’Malley, M. 182n, 186
opinion-gap tasks 158–9
orchestra leader, teacher as 43, 44
Ortega, L. 221
output-promoting tasks 160
‘overlearning’ 43, 44
Palmer, P. 228
Paradowski, M. 5
paragraph writing exercises 33
Participatory Approach 170–80, 221
pattern practice 43, see also drills
peer correction (students helping each other) 59, 60, 63, 66
Pennycook, A. xii, xiv
peripheral learning 75, 79, 81
Phillipson, R. 170
pictures, see also realia, pictures and objects, use of
Audio-Lingual method 43
Communicative Language Teaching 117
different inferences from using 3–4
Direct Method 25–8
The Learnables 104
Participatory Approach 172
picture strip stories 118, 127
Pitzl, M-L. 166
pluralism (of method choice) 229
plurilingualism 5, 169, 221
podcasts 213
politics of language 165–70, 178, 221
‘positive interdependence’ 189
positive reinforcement/praise:
Audio-Lingual method 43
cooperative learning 187
not used in Silent Way 60, 64
posters and wallcharts:
Desuggestopedia 72
sound–color charts 52–8, 62, 65
PowerPoint presentations 212
Prabhu, N.S. ix, xi, xii, 4, 151, 157, 158, 159, 227, 228, 229, 230
predictions, exercises involving 116–19, 184
principled eclecticism 229
prior knowledge, using as starting point:
Community Language Learning 92
Content-based Instruction 138
in learning strategy training 185
Silent Way 58, 59, 61
problem posing 171, 174, 175–6, 177
process writing 143
project work 157–8
pronunciation:
Direct Method 27, 29
Grammar-Translation method 18, 20
minimal pair exercises 41, 48
Silent Way 52–8, 60, 62
sound–color chart 52–8, 62, 65
props and objects, use of 74, 77, see also realia, pictures and objects, use of
proverbs, used to teach cultural issues 28, 30
psychology:
Audio-Lingual method based on 35
psychological barriers to learning 71, 76, 78
purposeful communication, see Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)
question-and-answer exercises, see also drills
Audio-Lingual method 39, 48
Desuggestopedia 78
Direct Method 26–7
Grammar-Translation method 14
Rajagopalan, K. xii, 4
Rardin, J. 95
reading aloud 25–6, 32
reading comprehension questions 21
realia, pictures and objects, use of, see also pictures
Audio-Lingual method 42
Communicative Language Teaching 126
Content-based Instruction 139
Desuggestopedia 74, 77
Direct Method 25–8
reasoning-gap tasks 159
recasts 97, 151, 155
receptive phase 79
Reeder, K. 216
reflection:
reflective listening 99
student 92, 95, 99
teacher xi
relativism 228
repetition:
input flooding 150
lack of in Silent Way 61, 62, 77
necessity of in Audio-Lingual method 42
repetition drill technique 37, 47
Richards, J. x, 224, 233
Riggenbach, H. 150
right brain hemisphere, addressing 107
Rinpoche, S. 7
rods, as tool in Silent Way 54–7, 66
role-playing:
Communicative Language Teaching 118–19, 121, 127–8
Desuggestopedia 82
Rubin, J. 181
rule formation, language learning as 51
Samuda, V. 150, 151
Savignon, S. xi, 115
scaffolding 138, 139
Schleppegrell, M. 139
Schulze, M. 200n
‘second language’, non-use of term 13
Seidlhofer, B. 166
self-correction 27, 29, 32, 65, 66, 99, 177
self-evaluation 97, 175, 177
self-expression, language for 61–2
self-reliance 62
Sheen, R. 150
Sheltered Instruction Observation Protocol (SIOP) 141
sheltered-language instruction 141
Sherris, A. 134
Short, D. 141
Shulman, L. xi
silence, as a tool 59, 60, 63, 66
Silent Way 6, 51–69, 220
Sinclair, J. 213
single-slot substitution drills 37, 47
Skehan, P. 132, 157
skim reading 183–4
Skinner, B. 35
Skype 212
sleep, learning during 63, 77, 79
Snow, M.A. 131, 132
social/affective learning strategies 186
social context of language:
Audio-Lingual method 42
Communicative Language Teaching 115–30
Community Language Learning 85–102
via technology 200
Vygotskian principles 142
social networking sites 201–2, 203, 213–14
social skills, teaching 186–90
songs, use of 74, 78
sound-color charts 52–8, 62, 65
speaking:
coming after listening 103
in Grammar-Translation method 18
primacy of speech in Audio-Lingual Method 44
primacy of speech in Direct Method 28, 29, 31
speaking when ready 110, 112
specific purposes, language for 132, see also Content-based Instruction
standards, calls for more 224, 228
Stevick, E. 2, 3, 226
Stoller, F. 185
student–student interaction:
Audio-Lingual method 45
Collaborative Learning 186–90, 220
Communicative Language Teaching 123
Cooperative Learning 186–90, 220
Direct Method 31
lack of in Grammar-Translation approaches 19
small group tasks 99–100, 120, 123
students helping each other 59, 60, 63, 93
Task-based Language Teaching 155, 156
via online means 209
subconscious plane, accessing 77
substitution drills 37–9, 43, 45, 47
suggestion in teaching, see Desuggestopedia
suprasentential (discourse) level work 116–17, 120, 124, 126, 136
Swain, M. 124
Swan, M. 150
syllabi, analytic 149, 160, 177, 224
‘syllabus’ created by students 93
‘syllabus types’, approaches seen as 131, 150
synthetic syllabi 149
‘target language’, definition of term xvi, 13
target language used as vehicle for classroom communication 120, see also native
language use in the classroom
Task-based Language Teaching 149–63
‘task’, definition of 131
teacher learning x–xi
teacher preparation 140–1, 224
teacher, role of:
summary 225
co-communicator 122, 123
engineer 62
facilitator 121, 122, 123
language counselor 85, 94
learning counselor 92
manager of learning 230–1
orchestra leader 43, 44
partner with student 30
technician 62
‘traditional’ teacher role 19
teachers, native/non-native speakers as teachers 169
teaching, subordinate to learning 52
team teaching 141
technology, use of 199–218, 220
Terrell, T. 103
text messaging 213
think-aloud technique 182
Thorne, S. 200, 201
thought-in-action links 1–2
top-down approaches, defined 141–2
topics, focus on instead of linguistic structures 30
Total Physical Response method 103–14, 220
transformation drills 39, 48, 123
translation:
Community Language Learning 5, 86, 88, 92, 94, 97
Desuggestopedia 73, 74, 76
as goal, see Grammar-Translation method not allowed in Direct Method 25
not used in Silent Way 60
trust, students and teachers’ 78, 96
Tudor, I. x Twitter 213
unfocused tasks 159
Ur, P. 167
van Lier, L. 216, 231
varieties of English 166
virtual communities 200
vocabulary:
cognates 15, 21
Direct Method 31
as emphasis for Desuggestopedia 80
Grammar-Translation method 14–15, 21
idioms 16, 21
Vygotsky, L. 142, 200
Wajnryb, R. 142
Walker, R. 167
wallcharts and posters:
Desuggestopedia 72
sound–color charts 52–8, 62, 65
Wallerstein, N. 171
Wenden, A. 182
Wenger, E. xii
Wesche, M. 132, 141
Whole Language approach (WL) 141–2
whole-person learning 85, 91, 94
Widdowson, H.G. xiii, xiv, 115, 126n, 166, 225
wikis 202, 203, 206, 214–15
Wilkins, D. 115, 149
Willis, J. 151
Winitz, H. 104
Wisniewska, I. 150
Woods, D. xi
word charts 66
words in sentences exercises 22, see also fill-in-the-blanks exercises
workplace literacy programs 132
World Englishes 166
world wide web 199
YouTube 202, 205–6
zone of proximal development (ZPD) 142