Islamic Education in Indonesia and Malaysia Shaping Minds, Saving Souls (Azmil Mohd Tayeb)

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Interviews and personal communications

Abdul Kadir Makarim, head of the NTT chapter of MUI.
Affida Helmi, principal of Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Agama (SABK) Tun Ahmad

Zaidi, Kuching.
Ahmad Betan, principal of Madrasah Aliyah Negeri (MAN) Kupang.
Ahmad Sadudin, Kepala Bidang Pendidikan Agama Islam, Kanwil Agama Jawa Barat,

Bandung.
Amany Lubis, Deputy Secretary General, Majelis Ulama Indonesia.
Amran Mamat, Deputy Director of Sektor Pendidikan Islam, Jabatan Pendidikan Negeri

Kelantan.
Arip Sa’aya, Pengarah SPI-­JPNS.
Azizan Muhammad, Ketua Penolong Pengarah Kanan Bahagian Kemajuan Islam

(LEPAI), JAKIM.
Bustami Usman, Kepala Badan Pembangunan Pendidikan Dayah, Banda Aceh.

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Newspapers and periodicals

Aliran Online
BBC News
Borneo Post
Detik News
Free Malaysia Today
Harakah
Hukum Online
Kompas
Kosmo!
Malay Mail Online
Malaysiakini
Merdeka.com
Mimbar Ulama
Pelita
Republika
Sinar Harapan
Sinar Harian (edisi Kelantan)
Suara Pembaruan
Suara Merdeka
The Malaysian Insider

242   Bibliography

The Star
Tempo
Tribune News
Utusan Malaysia

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penubuhan-yik.
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html,9,542,ptrans.
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kemenag.go.id/index.php?a=artikel&id=25483&t=241.
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pengenalan-s­ riaakl.
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rancang.
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index.php/gerbang-k­ orporat-4/profil.
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program-­pendidikan-ppaa.
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html.
Sejarah Parti Amanah Rakyat: http://amanah.org.my/berkenaan-a­ manah/sejarah/.
The World Bank: http://data.worldbank.org/.

Glossary

Angkatan Belia Islam Malaysia (ABIM)  Muslim Youth Movement of
Malaysia

Badan Pembangunan Pendidikan Dayah (BPPD)  Dayah Education Devel-
opment Agency

Dayah  Islamic boarding schools in Aceh
Dinas Pendidikan  Provincial office of the Indonesian Ministry of Education

and Culture
Gereja Masihi Injili di Timur (GMIT)  Protestant church denomination in

East Indonesia
Gabungan Usaha Perbaikan Pendidikan Islam (GUPPI)  Joint Efforts to

Improve Islamic Education
Harakah Islamiah (HIKMAH)  Main non-­governmental Islamic organization

in Sarawak
Himpunan Ulama Dayah Aceh (HUDA)  Association of Traditional

Acehnese Ulama
Jabatan Agama Islam Negeri (JAIN)  State Islamic Agency
Jabatan Kemajuan Islam Malaysia (JAKIM)  Malaysian Islamic Develop-

ment Department
Jabatan Pendidikan Negeri (JPN)  State Education Department
Jemaah Tarbiyah  Tarbiyah Group (campus-­based dakwah group in

Indonesia)
Kantor Wilayah (Kanwil) Agama  Provincial office of the Indonesian Minis-

try of Religious Affairs
Kemahiran Berfikir Secara Kreatif dan Kritis (KBKK)  Skills for Thinking

Creatively and Critically
Kementerian Agama  Ministry of Religious Affairs
Kementerian Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan  Ministry of Education and

Culture
Kesatuan Aksi Mahasiswa Muslim Indonesia (KAMMI)  Indonesian

Muslim Students Action Union
Madrasah Aliyah  Senior Islamic High School
Madrasah Ibtidaiyah  Primary Islamic School
Madrasah Tsanawiyah  Junior Islamic High School

244   Glossary

Majelis Permusyawaratan Ulama (MPU)  The Deliberating Council of
(Acehnese) Ulama

Majelis Ulama Indonesia (MUI)  Council of Indonesian Ulama
Majlis Agama Islam Negeri (MAIN)  State Islamic Council (Malaysia)
Majlis Islam Sarawak (MIS)  Sarawak Islamic Council
Partai Keadilan Sejahtera (PKS)  Prosperous Justice Party
Parti Islam Se-M­ alaysia (PAS)  Islamic Party of Malaysia
Parti Pesaka Bumiputera Bersatu (PBB)  Malay-­Muslim party in Sarawak
Pengetahuan Agama Islam (PAI)  Islamic Studies subject in Indonesian

national curriculum
Persatuan Tarbiyah Islamiyah (PERTI)  Association for Islamic Education
Persatuan Ulama Seluruh Aceh (PUSA)  All-­Aceh Association of

(Modernist) Ulama
Pertubuhan IKRAM  A dakwah organization formerly known as Jamaah Islah

Malaysia (JIM)
Pondok Pesantren  Islamic boarding schools
Sekolah Agama Bantuan Kerajaan (SABK)  Government-A­ ssisted Islamic

Schools
Sekolah Agama Rakyat (SAR)  People’s Islamic Schools
Sekolah Islam Terpadu (SIT)  Integrated Islamic Schools
Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Agama (SMKA)  National Secondary

Islamic Schools
Sekolah Musleh  Integrated Islamic schools under IKRAM
Sektor Pendidikan Islam (SPI)  Islamic Education Sector (Malaysia)
Teungku Chik  Major Islamic scholar in Aceh
Ulama  Islamic scholar
Uleebalang  Traditional leader in Aceh
United Malay National Organisation (UMNO)  Malay nationalist political

party in Malaysia
Yayasan Islam Kelantan (YIK)  Kelantan Islamic Foundation
Yayasan Pendidikan Kristen (Yapenkris)  Christian Education Foundation

Index

13 May 1969 race riots 74, 76, 80 Anggaran Pendapatan dan Belanja
1952 Education Ordinance 68 Daerah (APBD) NTT 146
1956 Razak Report 68–9, 73
1957 Education Ordinance 70 Anggaran Pendapatan dan Belanja
1960 Rahman Talib Report 69–70, 72–3 Negara (APBN) 2, 60, 237–8
1961 Education Act 70, 156, 160
1989 Law on National Education System Angkatan Belia Islam Malaysia (ABIM):
alliance with PAS 201, 203; Anwar
55 Ibrahim 25; campus dakwah 182, 197;
1996 Education Act 79, 200 integrated Islamic education 175, 199,
2003 Law on National Education System 212; party politics 198, 204; political
stances 205; Sarawak 165–6
58
2006 Law on Governance of Aceh 93, 106 Anwar Ibrahim 25, 76, 165, 182, 201–4,
212
Abdul Kadir Makarim 146, 174, 240
Abdul Rahman Ya’kub 74, 159, 161, 165 apostasy 29, 172–3
Aceh: Gerakan Aceh Merdeka (GAM) 85, aqidah 28, 108–9, 171
Asad, Talal 23
131; history of Islamic education 84–7, Aspinall, Edward 15, 85, 104, 228
90, 92–6, 99–103, 105–6, 222; identity authority, sultan’s 71, 116–17
97, 100, 102–4, 107, 127; Japanese Azyumardi Azra 16, 52
occupation 87, 91, 99, 118; number of
Islamic schools 94; Persatuan Ulama Barisan Nasional (BN) see ruling
Seluruh Aceh (PUSA) 90–1, 97–9, 113, coalition, Malaysia
239, 244; PERTI (Pergerakan Tarbiyah
Islamijah) 48, 93, 98, 104; Prang Sabil Barnes Report 68
88, 96, 98, 117–18, 225; Qanun 93–4, Brooke, James 151–2, 154–6
106–7; rebellion 15, 92; Special
Province status 92–3, 101, 103, 106–8; centralized control, Islamic education 3–4,
theological differences 90, 97, 109 25, 57, 60, 70–1, 92, 216, 220–1, 223
Advisory Agency for the Streamlining of
Islamic Education and Islamic Studies Centre for Strategic and International
(LEPAI) 65, 115, 201, 241 Studies (CSIS) 53–4, 234
affirmative action program see New
Economic Policy (NEP) Chinese and Tamil schools 69, 76
Ahlus Sunnah Wal Jamaah (ASWJ) 29, Christian missionary schools 58–9, 135, 152
109–10, 170–1, 213 codification of syariah laws 16–17, 19
ajaran sesat 11, 29, 77, 107, 109–11, comparative historical institutionalism:
171–2, 205, 213
al-Afghani, Jamal al-Din 177 critical juncture 24–5, 33, 35–6, 38–9,
Al-Faruqi, Ismail 177, 179 115–16, 124, 130, 180; feedback
mechanisms 34–6; identity formation 7;
institutional complexity 24, 27, 34–5,
37, 105, 127–9, 150, 169, 196, 218; path
dependency 34–5
competency indicator 43, 59, 191

246   Index electoral strategy: educational policy
formulation 13, 81; Islamic schools in
compliance 2, 14, 30, 32, 171 Aceh 104–5
conservative values in Islamic studies
enforcement: centre-periphery 14, 80;
curriculum 28, 31, 176, 197, 217, 220–1 institutional complexity 37, 218; Islamic
curriculum, Islamic education 4, 14–15, orthodoxy 24, 108, 170

23, 28, 30, 36, 78, 111, 217, 238 English-medium schools 66, 68, 113
ethno-politics 70, 75–6, 140, 151, 158–9,
dakwah: campus groups 180, 190; state
response 77; teacher recruitment 192 163, 181

Dana Alokasi Khusus 61, 107, 144–5 Fadzil Noor 198, 202
Dana Alokasi Umum 61, 144 Faisal Hazis 158, 161, 165
Dana Bagi Hasil 144 federalization of Islamic schools 84, 111,
Dana Perimbangan 144
Daoed Joesoef 54 121, 167–8, 200
Dasar Penerapan Nilai-Nilai Islam Dalam federalized institutional mindset 4, 80–1,

Pentadbiran 77, 206, 218 85, 133, 167, 222
Daud Beureueh 90, 92, 97, 109 financing Islamic education: challenges 72,
daurah 190, 210
dayah: background 84; Badan Pembinaan 86, 222; federal funding 86, 123, 125–6,
154, 168, 201, 207, 222; financial
Pendidikan Dayah (BPPD) 86, 93–4; autonomy 42, 60, 175–6; financial
conflict with madrasah 98; educational solvency 70, 122, 124, 129, 137, 200–1,
reform 102 206–7; Indonesia 46, 61, 107, 145, 147
decentralization: education in Malaysia 70; Foucault, Michel 7, 12
Islamic education in Aceh 93, 106–7, functionalization of Islamic education
130; Islamic education in Indonesia and 30–1, 33–42
Malaysia 86; Islamic education in NTT functionalization of national education
133, 137; laws 22 and 25 (1999) 3, 45, 43–63, 65–83
57, 59, 83, 219, 222; religious affairs 31
developmentalist agenda 40, 56, 101–2, Gabungan Usaha Perbaikan Pendidikan
104, 122, 124, 141, 161 Islam (GUPPI) 55, 105, 243
discourse: ideological hegemony 7;
Islamic 18, 24, 112, 124, 164, 203, 205; Garis Besar Haluan Negara 51, 53–4, 109
political legitimacy 39, 123–4, 155, 162, Gerakan Pramuka-Sekolah Islam Terpadu
164, 166, 220
diversity: inter-religious 134, 140, 148, (GP-SIT) 190, 210
151; Islamic interpretations 17, 28, 36, Gereja Masehi Injili Timur (GMIT) 145–7
39, 196, 214, 219; policy Golkar 53–4, 56, 104–5
implementation 59; types of schools 69 Gramsci, Antonio 7–8
Dutch colonial administration 44, 48, guidebooks, Islamic studies 28–30
88–9, 94, 101, 138, 225 Guided Democracy 14–15, 50–1, 100
Dutch Islamic policy 137, 226 Guru Ordinance 49

educated urban Muslim middle-class 82, halaqa 185, 189, 209
180, 194, 198 Harun Nasution 182
heresy 8, 23, 26, 226, 237
educational philosophy: Falsafah heterogeneity see pluralism
Pendidikan Kebangsaan 78, 207, 212, hidden curriculum 10–11, 22
238; integrated Islamic education 187, HIKMAH (Harakah Islamiah) 165–6
193, 195, 215; Pancawardhana 51 Himpunan Mahasiswa Islam (HMI) 183
homeostasis 203
educational policies: early years Malaysia homogeneity, national education 9, 18, 28,
68; language 18, 66, 68–9, 156; late
colonial period 39; local level 46, 149; 43, 94, 171, 218
national integration 45, 70, 73; New hudud law 166–7, 205
Order era 53; PPSMI 80–2; Reformasi Huraian Sukatan Pelajaran Sejarah 78–9
era in Indonesia 57; social influence 80 Hurgronje, C. Snouck 48, 95, 137

Iban: inter-ethnic politics 161; vernacular Index   247
education 156
institutional fragmentation 36, 83, 105–6,
Ibrahim Hasan 103, 105 196, 219
ideological coherence, state institutions 4,
institutional identity: federalized 126–7,
20, 24, 27, 40, 129, 197, 219 131, 134, 149, 167, 169; formation 7,
ideological differences, Islamic 25, 32, 35, 38, 80–3, 86, 104, 126–7,
130, 133, 169, 218–19; localized 85,
educational actors 171, 183, 197, 208 100, 104, 130–1, 133, 149–51, 168–9
ideological hegemony, state institutions 1,
instrumentalization of Islam 21, 39, 85,
6–7, 10, 13, 22, 39–40, 216, 223 155, 183, 218
ideological openness, Islamic education in
integrated Islamic education: caderization
Indonesia 11, 40, 221 208; ideological indoctrination 175–6,
ideological training ground, integrated 189, 191, 209–11, 217; Jaringan
Sekolah Islam Terpadu (JSIT) 186–7,
Islamic schools 42, 175, 187 189, 192; national exams 213;
Ikatan Cendekiawan Muslim Indonesia Pendidikan Guru Sekolah Islam
Terpadu (PGSIT) 192; seamless
(ICMI) 5, 135, 229, 236 educational channel 188, 198; state
Ikhwanul Muslimin (Muslim Brotherhood) Islamic orthodoxy 195; teaching corps
191–2, 210–11
178–9, 209
IKRAM 175, 197–9, 202–9, 211–12, integrated Islamic schools in Indonesia 42,
183, 189, 217
214–15
Imaduddin Abdurrahim 187, 197 integrated Islamic schools in Malaysia
Indonesian Ministry of Education and 197, 200, 208–14

Culture: centre-periphery relations 93, Internal Security Act (ISA) 202, 204
101, 107; Dinas Pendidikan 46–7, 93–4, International Islamic University of
107, 110, 146, 150, 238; institutional
ideology 36, 196; institutional Malaysia (IIUM) 182, 206
jurisdiction 46, 176, 193; institutional inter-religious tolerance 42, 60, 140, 150,
tensions 3, 54, 83, 218; integrated
Islamic education 187; local curriculum 162, 166
policy 57, 59; madrasah funding 86, Islamic learning: local legacy 61, 84, 88,
150; sistem pendidikan satu atap 51, 55
Indonesian Ministry of Home Affairs 46, 101, 150, 152, 157, 217; objectification
107, 145–6 18
Indonesian Ministry of Religious Affairs: Islamic orthodoxy: definition 26; Indonesia
curriculum 176, 187; institutional 24, 26, 28, 31, 37, 40, 109, 111, 176,
ideology 26, 36, 108, 111, 220; 195, 214, 221; Malaysia 23–4, 27–32,
institutional jurisdiction 36, 46, 60, 108, 40, 128–9, 166–73
136, 146, 175, 193; institutional tensions Islamic political movement 16, 42, 188,
3, 26, 83, 105–6, 223; integrated Islamic 220
schools 187; Islamic schools Islamic reformist movements 89–90, 98,
management 47; Kantor Urusan Agama 118, 178, 197
(KUA) 141; Kanwil Agama Aceh 85, Islamic reform movement 98, 100, 181
93, 101, 110, 241; Kanwil Agama NTT Islamic Representative Council (IRC) 203
133, 145, 147–51; madrasah funding Islamic revivalism: campus based dakwah
disputes 145; Minister of Religious groups 180; critical juncture 39, 130;
Affairs 62, 86, 106; sistem pendidikan dynamics in Sarawak 162; educational
satu atap 51, 57 policy formulation 35; educational
Indonesian Ministry of Workforce and policy shift in Malaysia 73–4, 76, 80;
Transmigration 141 Indonesia 24; integrated Islamic
Institut Agama Islam Negeri (IAIN) 36, education 38, 214; Malaysia 5;
181, 191 Malaysian government’s responses 77;
Institut Latihan Perguruan ABIM (ILPA) political movement 220; UMNO-PAS
199 rivalry 124, 197
Institut Teknologi Bandung (ITB) 181 Islamic Studies subject: classroom
observation 195; ideological diversity

248   Index Latihan Kader Du’at (LKD) 210
Latihan Mujahid Dakwah (LMD) 187, 209
Islamic Studies subject continued Law on National Education System 55–9,
110, 220; integrated Islamic education
61
187; JAKIM’s orthodox values 27; local government elections (Malaysia) 15,
Kanwil Agama 94; mandatory
requirement 79; secularization of 69
national education 101 local staff 85, 101, 104, 149
Islamic subjects in schools 65, 87, 91, 120, local teachers 150, 156, 169, 171
169 local traditions in Islamic education 41,
Islamization of knowledge 177, 179, 182,
184, 213 140, 148, 150, 219
Islam kultural 184 localized institutional identity 84, 86–7,

Jabatan Agama Islam Negeri: management 140–1, 151
of Islamic schools 64, 200; Sarawak
161; school supervision 213 Madrasah Aliyah 60, 92, 94, 108, 145, 150
Madrasah Ibtidaiyah 60, 92, 94, 102, 145
Jabatan Kemajuan Islam Malaysia madrasah, state-owned (Indonesia) 60, 62
(JAKIM): budget 2; centre-periphery Madrasah Tsanawiyah 60, 92, 94, 108, 145
relations 14, 27, 115, 129; Islamic Mahathir Mohamad 5, 25, 77, 81–2, 183,
education curriculum 115, 201;
managing Islamic schools 64; state 197, 212, 220, 231
orthodoxy 27, 32, 36, 172, 218 Majelis Permusyawaratan Ulama (MPU)

Jabatan Pendidikan Negeri (JPN): 94, 103, 105, 109–11
federalized institutional mindset 222; Majelis Ulama Daerah Istimewa Aceh
Kelantan 114–15, 125–8, 239–40;
Sarawak 133, 154, 167; Selangor 213; 109, 238
Sektor Pendidikan Islam 154, 167, 171 Majelis Ulama Indonesia (MUI): 1989

Jabatan Sekolah-Sekolah Agama (JASA) Law on National Education System
123 55–6, 2003 Law on National Education
System 58; Christianization in public
Jamaah Islah Malaysia see IKRAM schools 109; institutional role 5; Islamic
Jamaat-e-Islami 179, 209, 213–14 education 36, 59, 63, 105; Islamic
Jemaah Tarbiyah 175, 182–9, 191–2, 197, orthodoxy 26, 31, 37; Nusa Tenggara
Timur 146
208–9, 214 Majlis Agama Islam Negeri: centre-
periphery relations 27; institutional role
Kantor Urusan Agama (KUA) 136, 141 16, 39, 114; Kelantan 67, 71, 112, 117,
Kelantan: federalization of Islamic 129; managing Islamic schools 63;
Sarawak 133, 153, 161, 166
education 121; history of Islamic Malayanization policy 75
education 85–7, 111, 115, 121, 124, Malay College of Kuala Kangsar 113, 156
130; Islamic schools 114, 127, 129; Malay intelligentsia 113, 120–1, 155–9
local identity 126–7, 130 Malay vernacular schools 39, 49, 67, 114,
Kelompok Kerja Guru (KKG) 110, 150 156–7
Kemahiran Berfikir Secara Kreatif dan Malaysian constitution 76, 86
Kritis (KBKK) 170–1 Malaysian Ministry of Education: Bahagian
Ketuanan Melayu 75–6 Pendidikan Islam 65, 77, 239; integrated
kisi-kisi (guideline) 110, 150 Islamic education 176, 200; with JAKIM
Kuntowijoyo 184 3, 6, 14, 36, 65; Kelantan 114, 124–5;
Kupang incident 142–4 national curriculum 35, 37, 70, 79, 171,
Kurikulum Bersepadu Sekolah Menengah 199, 213; national education system 63;
(KBSM) 78 Sarawak 152, 154, 162, 172
Kurikulum Muatan Lokal 57, 149 Management of Islamic schools in
Malaysia 64
late colonial period, Indonesia and Management of national education in
Malaysia 41, 45, 48, 66, 94, 100, 115, Indonesia 47
130, 134, 151, 154

mandatory exams 4, 9, 31, 43, 69, 74, 77, Index   249
81, 150, 172–3, 189, 191, 213
Pancasila 51, 53, 70
Manipol/USDEK 51 Partai Keadilan Sejahtera (PKS) 42, 185,
mass education 8–10, 13, 18–19, 23, 38,
193, 208–9, 215, 221
41, 45, 216 Partai Komunis Indonesia (PKI) 50–1
Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) Partai Pembangunan Persatuan (PPP) 53,

114, 125, 153, 167, 169 104–5, 184–5, 208
Migdal, Joel 6, 12–14, 38, 149, 161, 216, Parti Islam Se-Malaysia (PAS) 85–6, 114,

223 123–5, 130, 208
modernizing Islamic education 8, 44, 52, party caderization 192, 207–8, 215
pedagogical methods 16, 22, 44, 129, 185,
67, 84, 90, 93, 117
Muhammadiyah 26, 36, 55, 58, 103, 105, 189, 210
Pendidikan Moral Pancasila 54, 194
133, 135, 220 Persis 36
Muhyiddin Yassin 81–2, 125 Piagam Jakarta 52, 92
mukhayyam 189–90, 209–10 pluralism 29, 31, 36, 44, 54, 150, 176
murabbi 185, 189, 191, 210 policies: centre-periphery 35, 80–1, 136,
MUSLEH schools network 202, 208,
140, 146, 148, 160, 168, 219; colonial
211–12 39, 48, 68, 89, 119, 132, 156
Muslim Brotherhood 19, 177–9, 182, pondok 44, 65–7, 71, 84, 111–15, 120–3,
125, 129, 207
197–8, 203, 209 power relations: centre-periphery 41, 127,
Muslim middle-class 38, 175, 180–2, 184, 160, 222; inter-communal 143, 147,
173–4, 217; state and society 23
194, 197, 215 public schools 50–3, 61, 72, 89, 101–2,
mutarabbi 185, 189 105, 109
Mu’tazilah 179, 182
qiyamul lail 189–91, 209–10
Nahdlatul Ulama 27, 36, 55, 58, 103, 105,
133 Ramadan controversies in schools 54, 79,
101, 105
naqib 189, 211
Nasr, Seyyed Hossein 177, 179–80 Rationalism see Mu’tazilah
national identity 21, 45, 50–1, 70–1, 80, Reformasi era, Indonesia 14, 39, 46, 58,

140 100, 104, 106, 109, 142, 144
nationalization of education 43, 45, 66, reformist ulama 88–90, 97–103, 109, 113,

68–9, 80, 83 118–19, 130
National-Type Chinese schools 69, 75–6 regional rebellions, Indonesia 100, 139
Netherlands East Indies 41, 44–5, 48, religiosity, heightened 77, 114, 164, 166,

66–7, 89–90, 95, 138, 178 181, 183, 198, 206, 220
New Economic Policy (NEP) 39, 74–5, 82, religious conflicts 142–3, 166
rihlah 189–90, 209–10
181 ruling coalition, Malaysia see Barisan
NKK/BKK 54, 183
Normal Islam Instituut 91, 97, 100 Nasional
Nusa Tenggara Timur (NTT): Badan rupture see comparative historical

Perencanaan Pembangunan Daerah institutionalism, critical juncture
(Bappeda) 61, 146; centre-periphery rural Malay heartland 82, 121
relations 174; history of Islamic
education 135; localized Islamic Sarawak: centre-periphery relations 42,
education 150; Muslim community 136, 169; history of Islamic education 151–2;
141, 146–7, 174; number of Islamic Islamic education 42, 151–4, 161, 169,
schools 133; state of Islamic schools 174; Malay-Muslim community 132–3,
146 151, 154–5, 157, 161–7, 174; number of
Islamic schools 153; Pesaka Bumiputera
orthodox values in Islamic education 4, 6, Bersatu (PBB) 161, 163, 165, 185, 244;
11, 23–8, 36, 108, 118, 170, 220

Osman Bakar 177, 179, 212

250   Index syaksiyyah Islamiyah 189
Syed Sheikh Al-Hadi 67, 178
Sarawak continued Syeikh Muhammad Tahir Jalaluddin 67
viability of Islamic education 161, 174;
tamrin al-kadir 209
vote bank 134, 162, 222 tarbiyah 178, 182, 188, 197, 209, 213–14
school fees 129, 136, 186–7, 201 teachers: Islamic studies 58, 65, 72, 110,
scouting 189–90
Sekolah Agama Bantuan Kerajaan 153; non-Muslims 148, 150, 219;
salaries 73, 201
(SABK) see Sekolah Agama Rakyat traditional elites 48, 88, 95, 97, 113,
(SAR), management and supervision 117–18, 121, 130, 155–7
Sekolah Agama Negeri (SAN) 64–5, 115, traditionalist Islam 90, 93, 97–100, 102–4,
123, 130, 200–1 109, 113, 118, 120, 183, 185
Sekolah Agama Rakyat (SAR): control by
Majlis Agama 121; conversion from uleebalang 88–91, 95–9, 151
pondok 44, 65; federal funding 77, 114, United Malay National Organisation
125–6; financial solvency 72, 200;
management and supervision 64–5, (UMNO): 13 May race riots 74; Anwar
114–15, 125, 128, 153, 162, 170–1, Ibrahim 201; ketuanan Melayu 76;
200–1; PAS’s strongholds 73, 130, 206; rivalry with PAS 25, 86, 121, 128, 162,
UMNO-PAS rivalry 86 164, 197, 204, 208, 218, 220
Sekolah Islam Terpadu (SIT): genesis 183; Universitas Gadjah Mada (UGM) 181
management and supervision 47; SDIT upper-middle-class Muslim professionals
(primary schools) 186, 188, 192; 38, 175, 201
SMAIT (senior high schools) 186, 188; UUD 1945 52, 109
SMPIT (junior high schools) 186, 188 UU sistem pendidikan nasional 57
Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Agama
(SMKA) 64, 114, 200 values, pluralist 1, 14, 24, 28, 31, 42, 148,
sistem pendidikan satu atap 37, 51, 55, 197, 217, 221
62–3, 218
standardization of national education 4, 9, vernacular Malay schools 120, 157
32, 43–5, 53, 56, 65, 68–70, 80, 83, 90,
94, 97, 200, 203 White Rajah see Brooke, James
state ideological apparatus 32 World War II years 14, 66–7, 90, 98
State Islamic Institute (IAIN) 36, 102–3,
181–2, 191 Yayasan Islam Kelantan (YIK) 87, 114,
State Islamic Universities (UIN) 36, 191 123, 168
state resiliency 4, 8, 83
state-owned madrasah 62 Yayasan Nurul Fikri 186
Stephen Kalong Ningkan 15, 159 Yayasan Pendidikan Kristen (Yapenkris)
Suharto 5, 15, 34, 36, 52, 55–7, 103, 142,
184, 215, 230 145–6, 244
Sukarno 15, 50, 92, 100, 139, 230 Yayasan Perekonomian 145
Sukro Muhab 188, 193–4, 241
Sunni Islam 11, 17, 214 zakat 113, 119, 153, 161