E Book Educational Research L R Gay Pearson 2012

632 GLOSSARY

stanines Standard scores that divide a distribution into t test for nonindependent samples A parametric
nine parts. test of significance used to determine whether, at a
selected probability level, the means of two matched,
static-group comparison A pre-experimental design or nonindependent, samples are significantly different
that involves at least two nonrandomly formed groups; or whether the means for one sample at two different
one receives a new or unusual (experimental) treat- times are significantly different.
ment, the other receives a traditional (control) treat-
ment, and both groups are posttested. table of random digits See table of random numbers.

statistic A numerical index describing the behavior of table of random numbers A list of multidigit num-
a sample or samples. bers, arranged in a table, that have been randomly
generated by a computer to have no defined patterns
statistical regression The tendency of subjects who or regularities; used in sampling. Also called table of
score highest on a pretest to score lower on a posttest random digits.
and of subjects who score lowest on a pretest to score
higher on a posttest; a threat to internal validity. target population The population to which the
researcher would ideally like to generalize study
statistical significance The conclusion that results results. Compare accessible population.
are unlikely to have occurred by chance—that is, that
the observed relation or difference is probably a real test A formal, systematic, usually paper-and-pencil pro-
one. cedure for gathering information about people’s cogni-
tive and affective characteristics.
statistics A set of procedures for describing, synthesiz-
ing, analyzing, and interpreting quantitative data. test of significance A statistical test used to determine
whether or not there is a significant difference between
stratified sampling A purposive process of selecting a or among two or more means at a selected probability
sample: The population is subdivided into subgroups, level.
and participants are strategically selected from each
subgroup. testing A threat to experimental validity in which
improved performance on a posttest is the result of
stratum (pl. strata) A subgroup derived from a sample; subjects having taken a pretest. Also called pretest
a variable that can be divided into groups. sensitization.

structured interview An interview that includes a test–retest reliability See stability.
specified set of questions to be asked.
theoretical validity How well a qualitative research
structured item An item on a questionnaire that requires report explains the phenomenon being studied in rela-
the respondent to choose from among response options tion to a theory.
(e.g., by circling a letter, checking a list, or numbering
preferences). Also called closed-ended item. theory An organized body of concepts, generalizations,
and principles that can be subjected to investigation.
summative evaluation Evaluation whose function is to
summarize the overall quality or worth of a program or time-series design A quasi-experimental design involv-
product at its completion. ing one group that is repeatedly pretested, exposed to
an experimental treatment, and repeatedly posttested.
systematic replication Replication that involves differ-
ent investigators, behaviors, or settings. topic statement A statement in a research plan or
report that describes the variables of interest to the
systematic sampling Sampling in which individuals researcher, the specific relation among those variables
are selected from a list by taking every Kth name, and, ideally, important characteristics of the study par-
where K equals the number of individuals on the list ticipants. Also called problem statement.
(i.e., population size) divided by the number of sub-
jects desired for the sample. treatment diffusion A threat to external validity that
occurs when individuals from different treatment
T score A standard score derived from a z score by groups in an experiment communicate with and learn
multiplying the z score by 10 and adding 50. Also from each other.
called Z score.
triangulation The use of multiple methods, data col-
t test An inferential statistics technique used to deter- lection strategies, and data sources to get a more
mine whether the means of two groups are signifi- complete picture of what is being studied and to cross-
cantly different at a given probability level. See also t check information.
test for independent samples and t test for noninde-
pendent samples. true categories Categories into which persons or
objects naturally fall, independent of a research
t test for independent samples A parametric test of study.
significance used to determine whether, at a selected
probability level, the means of two independent trustworthiness Along with understanding, a fea-
samples are significantly different. ture essential to the validity of qualitative research;

GLOSSARY 633

is established by addressing the credibility, transfer- unstructured item An item on a questionnaire that
ability, dependability, and confirmability of study gives the respondent complete freedom of response.
findings.
validity The degree to which a test measures what it
Type I error The rejection by the researcher of a null is intended to measure; a test is valid for a particular
hypothesis that is actually true. purpose for a particular group. In qualitative research,
validity refers to the degree to which qualitative data
Type II error The failure of a researcher to reject a null accurately gauge what the researcher is trying to measure.
hypothesis that is really false.
variable A concept (e.g., intelligence, height, aptitude)
unobtrusive measures Ways to collect data that do not that can assume any one of a range of values.
intrude on or require interaction with research par-
ticipants; examples include observation and collecting variance The amount of spread among scores.
data from written records. z score The most basic standard score; expresses how

unstructured interview An interview that consists far a score is from a mean in terms of standard devia-
of questions prompted by the flow of the interview tion units.
itself.
Z score See T score.

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Name Index

A F
Abdul-Tawwab, Najwa, 454–462 Feldman, M. A., 12
Agar, M. H., 386, 447 Flinders, D. J., 24, 447
Airasian, P. W., 173, 174 Fretz, R. I., 429
Akos, Patrick, 565–576 Fueyo, V., 508
American Education Research
G
Association, 160 Galassi, John P., 565–576
American Psychological Association (APA), 20, 160 Geertz, C., 446
Anderson, G. L., 466 Glass, G. V., 101, 257
Atkinson, P., 425 Gould, Stephen Jay, 368
Greene, J. C., 487
B Guba, E. G., 392, 393
Barlow, D. H., 300 Gubrium, J. F., 406
Barnes, Stacie B., 308–317
Biklen, S. K., 81, 116, 117, 383–384, 395 H
Bogdan, R. C., 81, 116, 117, 383–384, 395 Haaland, J., 335
Bracht, G. H., 257 Hammersley, M., 425, 511
Bruning, Roger H., 496–505 Hamre, Bridget K., 7, 33–50
Buckley, N. K., 296 Hawes, Carmen Ann, 219–224
Buros Institute of Mental Measurements, 155 Herr, K., 466
Hersen, M., 300
C Holstein, J. A., 406
Calderin, Sara Jane, 543–553 Huberman, A. B., 444, 449
Campbell, D. T., 254 Hughes, C. A., 12
Caracelli, V. J., 487
Clandinin, D. J., 13, 400, 403, 404, 405 I
Cobb, R. Brian, 237–247 Igo, L. Brent, 496–505
Cochran, William G., 132 Impara, J. C., 171
Colvin, Carolyn, 89 Inman, Duane, 198–201
Connelly, F. M., 13, 400, 403, 404, 405
Conoley, J. C., 171 J
Cook, T. D., 254 Jackson, P. W., 509
Crawford, Kathleen, 436–441 Jitendra, Asha K., 279–290
Creswell, J. W., 6, 15, 388, 402, 405, 406, Jones, J. H., 20
Jorner, U., 335
426, 475, 484, 486, 487, 489 Juenemann, Penny, 521–529
Crumpler, Thomas, 436–441
K
D Kellaghan, T., 17
Dalrymple, A. J., 12 Kemmis, S., 513
Dauite, C., 402 Kennedy, M. M., 508, 509–510
Deatline-Buchman, Andria, 279–290 Keyser, D., 172
Denzin, N. K., 426, 444 Kim, Jeong-Hee, 410–419
Deshler, D. D., 12 Koerner, Mari E., 454–462
Dey, I., 477 Koorland, M. A., 508
Krathwohl, D. R., 468, 483
E
Ellerby, Dick, 237–247
Emerson, R. M., 429

635

636 NAME INDEX

L Schlosser, Linda Kramer, 89
LeCompte, M. D., 425, 484, 485, 560 Schram, T., 117
Leech, Nancy, 237–247 Schram, T. H., 425
Lenski, Susan Davis, 436–441 Schumaker, J. B., 12
Lightfoot, C., 402 Shaw, L. L., 429
Lincoln, Y. S., 444 Shwery, Craig, 198–201
Sleeter, Christine, 7, 51–59
M Smith, L. M., 23
McGaw, B., 101 Smith, M. L., 101
McTaggart, R., 513 Snedecor, George W., 132
Madaus, G., 17 Spradley, J., 427
Maddox, T., 171 Stallworth, Corsandra, 436–441
Malinowski, B., 7 Stanley, J. C., 254
Marlow, Leslie, 198–201 Stringer, E. T., 472, 476, 511
Marshall, C., 81, 116, 117, 118 Stufflebeam, D., 17
Maxwell, J. A., 392 Sweetland, R., 172
Merriam, S. B., 444, 445, 446, 448, 449
Merton, R. K., 447, 451 T
Miles, M. B., 444, 449 Tashakkori, A., 487
Milgram, S., 20 Teddlie, C., 487
Mills, G. E., 14, 24, 98, 118, 119, 390, 429–430,
V
431–432, 445, 447, 470, 473, 510, 512, 513, 532 Van de Walle, J. A., 513
Van Maanen, J., 426
N
National Council on Measurement in Education, 160 W
Nihlen, A. S., 466 Walberg, H. J., 101
Walker, H. M., 296
P Wallgren, A., 335
Patton, M. Q., 12, 13, 430, 433, 446, 448 Wallgren, B., 335
Pelto, G. H., 427 Whinnery, Keith W., 308–317
Pelto, P. J., 427 Whyte, W. F., 446
Persson, R., 335 Winokur, Marc A., 237–247
Piaget, Jean, 62 Wolcott, H. F., 394, 423, 427, 428, 429, 432, 476,
Pianta, Robert C., 7, 33–50
Plouride, Lee A., 219–224 477, 512, 539
Polkinghorne, D. E., 402 Wolcott, J. F., 117
Pope, Ginger G., 496–505 Wolgemuth, Jennifer R., 237–247

R X
Riccomini, Paul J., 496–505 Xin, Yan Ping, 279–290
Riessman, C. K., 404, 407
Rossman, G., 81, 116, 117, 118 Y
Ruhl, K. L., 12 Yin, R. K., 14, 444, 447, 448, 451

S
Schensul, J. J., 425, 484, 485, 560
Schensul, S. L., 560

Subject Index

A A posteriori, 358
A-B design, 295 Appendixes
A-B-A design, 295–297
A-B-A-B design, 297 of qualitative research plan, 121
Ability variables, 230 of report, 538
Abstract, evaluation of, 558 Applied research, 16–18
Accessible, action research as, 509 A priori, 358
Accessible population, 130 Aptitude tests, 155–156
Accidental sampling, 140 Archival documents, 389
Achievement tests, 155 Area of focus, in action research, 513–514
Action in Teacher Education, 7 Artifacts, 390–391
Action planning, 515 Artificial category, 365
Action research, 18 Assessment, defined, 154
Association for Supervision and Curriculum
characteristics of, 508–510 Development (ASCD), 91
critical, 510–511 Assumptions, 115
defined, 507, 508 Attenuation, 212
evaluation of, 561 Attitudes, 156
example, 521–529 Attitude scales, 156–158
levels of, 511–512 Attrition, 256
performance criteria, 518–520 Audiotape, 390
practical, 511, 512 Audit trail, 393
process, 512–515 Authentic assessment, 154
purpose of, 508 Authoritative, action research as, 509
summary, 507–508, 516 Autobiographical writing, 407
Active participant observer, 427–428 Available population, 130
Additive design, 295
Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP), 319 B
Affective characteristic, defined, 154 Bar graphs, 334–335
Affective tests, 156–159 Baseline measures, 301
Alternating treatments design, 299–300 Baseline stability, 301–302
Alternative assessment, 154 Basic research, 16, 17
Ambiguity, 429 Bias, 159
American Educational Research Association Bimodal set, 324
(AERA), 164 Biographical writing, 407
American Psychological Association (APA), 19, 164 Biserial, 211
American Reinvestment and Recovery Act (ARRA), 4 Blogs, 64, 391
Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA), 233, 264, 360–361 Body, of report, 536–538
Analysis of variance, 234 Buckley Amendment, 21
analysis of covariance, 360–361 Budget, research plan and, 116
multifactor, 360 Buros Institute of Mental Measurements, 155
multiple comparisons, 358–360
simple, 357–358 C
Anonymity, 21 California Achievement Test, 155
ANOVA (simple/one-way analysis of variance), 357–360 California Psychological Inventory, 159
Antecedents, 472–473
APA manual, 534

637

638 SUBJECT INDEX

“Can Instructional and Emotional Support in the First- Cognitive tests, 155–156
Grade Classroom Make a Difference for Children at Cohort surveys, 185
Risk of School Failure?” (Hamre and Pianta), 7, 33–50 Columbia Mental Maturity Scale (CMMS), 156
Common variance, 207–208
Canonical analysis, 214–215 “Comparing Longitudinal Academic Achievement
Case study, 12, 13
Case study research, 14 of Full-Day and Half-Day Kindergarten Students,”
(Wolgemuth et al.), 237–247
causal models, 451 Compensation rivalry, 261
characteristics of, 445–446 Computer databases, 85–90
conducting and analyzing multiple case studies, Concept maps, 472
Conclusion
449–451
data collection techniques, 448–449 evaluation of, 558
defined, 443, 444 of report, 538
design of, 446–448 Concurrent validity, 162
evaluation of, 561 Confidence limits, 343
example, 454–462 Confidentiality, 21, 23–24
purpose of, 444–453 Confirmability, 392
scatterplots, 450 Confounded, 262
site-ordered descriptive matrix, 449 Consequences, 472–473
site-ordered effects matrix, 450–451 Consequential validity, 161, 164
site-ordered predictor-outcome matrix, 450 Construct, 150
summary, 443–444, 452–53 Construct validity, 161, 163–164
time-ordered meta matrix, 450 Content validity, 161
unordered meta-matrix, 449, 450 Control, defined, 252–253
when to use, 445 Control group, 252
Categorical variables, 151 Control variable, 273
Causal-comparative research, 10–11 Convenience sampling, 140–141
control procedures, 232–233 Correlation, 10
data analysis and interpretation, 233–234 Correlational research, 9–10
defined, 228 defined, 204
design, 231–232 evaluation of, 558
evaluation of, 559 example, 219–224
example, 237–247 interpretation problems, 215
process, 231–234 other analyses, 214–215
purpose of, 228–231 prediction studies, 212–214
summary, 227–228, 235–36 process of, 205–209
Causal models, 451 purpose of, 204–205
Causal variables, 251 relationship studies, 209–212
Cause, 153 summary, 203–204, 216–18
Ceiling effect, 357 Correlation coefficient, 10
Center for the Study of Testing, Evaluation, and Correlation ratio (eta), 211
Educational Policy (CSTEEP), 91 Counterbalanced designs, 271–272
Changing criterion design, 296 Credibility, 392, 477
Child Development, 7 Criterion, 163, 212
Chi square, 234, 364–367 Criterion-referenced scoring, 155
Classification Criterion-related validity, 161, 162–163
in data analysis, 468 Criterion sampling, 143
guidelines for, 18–19 Criterion variables, 153, 251
Clinical replication, 302 Critical action research, 510–511
Closed-ended items, on surveys, 186 Critical ethnography, 426
Cluster, 135 Cronbach’s Alpha, 167–168
Cluster sampling, 135–137, 138 Cross-sectional surveys, 184–185
Coding procedures, for data analysis, 320–321 Cross-validation, 213
Coefficient of determination, 214 Culture, 423
Coefficient of stability, 165 Curvilinear relation, 211
Cognitive characteristic, defined, 154

SUBJECT INDEX 639

D overview, 319–320
Data quartile deviation, 325
range, 325
in causal-comparative research, 233–234 scoring procedures, 320
collecting, analyzing, and interpreting, 514–515 standard deviation, 326
collection methods, 154 tabulation and coding procedures, 320–321
collection techniques used by researchers, 448–449 variance, 325–326
in correlational research process, 206–209 Descriptive validity, 392
defined, 150 Design, of research plan, 114
for descriptive statistics, 320–321 Developing Educational Standards, 91
graphing, 334–335 “Developing Teacher Epistemological Sophistication
interpreting, 154–155 about Multicultural Curriculum,” (Sleeter), 7, 51–59
in prediction studies, 213–214 Diagnostic test, 155
in relationship studies, 209–212 Diagonal cells, 333
for single-subject experimental research, 300 Differential Aptitude Tests, 156
Data analysis Differential selection of participants, internal validity
coding an interview, 470–472 and, 255, 256
concept maps, 472–473 Directional hypothesis, 71
data collection and, 466–467 Direct replication, 302
defined, 465 Discriminant function analysis, 214
ensuring credibility in, 477 Discussion, evaluation of, 558
interpretation, 476–477 Discussion section, of report, 538
in mixed methods designs, 486, 487 Dissertation Abstracts, 89–90
purpose of, 465–466 Dissertations, formatting, 534–538
in qualitative research, 467–468 Dragon Dictate 2.0, 407
strategies, 468–475 Dummy variable, 363
Databases, 85–90
Data collection E
interviewing, 386–388 Ecological validity, 253
observation, 381–386 Educational Associations and Organizations, 93
questionnaires, 388–389 Educational research
records examination, 389–391
of report, 537 approaches to, 6–9
Data mining, 367–368 classification by method, 9–14
Data saturation, 143 classification by purpose, 16–18
Deception, 22 classification guidelines, 18–19
Deductive hypothesis, 71 defined, 5
Deductive reasoning, 4–5 ethics of, 19–27
Degrees of freedom, 349–350 examples, 33–59
Dependent variables, 10, 152–153, 251 qualitative process, 15–16
Descriptions, in data analysis, 468 summary, 28–31
Descriptive activities, 514 Educational Research Service (ERS), 172
Descriptive case study, 446 Educational Testing Services, 172
Descriptive statistics Education Full Text, 82, 89
defined, 319 Education Resource Organizations Directory, 93
frequencies, 322–323 Education Resources Information Center (ERIC), 82, 85,
graphing data, 334–335 86, 87–89
language of statistics, 320 Effect, 153
mean, 323, 324–325 “Effect of Interactive Multimedia on the
measures of central tendency, 323 Achievement of 10th-Grade Biology Students,”
measures of relationship, 332–334 (Calderin), 543–553
measures of relative position, 329–332 Effect size, 101
measures of variability, 325 “Effects of Functional Mobility Skills Training for Young
median, 323–325 Students with Physical Disabilities,” (Barnes and
mode, 324–325 Whinnery), 308–317
normal curve, 326–329

640 SUBJECT INDEX

“Effects of Mathematical Word Problem-Solving survey research, 558
Instruction...” (Xin, Jitendra, and Deatline-Buchman), type-specific criteria, 558–561
279–290 Evaluation research, 17
Evaluative validity, 392
Effect variables, 251 Experimental group, 252
Eighteenth Mental Measurements Yearbook, 170 Experimental research, 11–12
Electronic mailing lists, for research topic, 63 defined, 250
Email interviews, 388 evaluation of, 559
EndNote, 535 example, 279–290
Environmental variables, 253 for groups, 262–274
Equality of voice, in researcher-participant purpose of, 250–253
summary, 249–250, 275–278
relationship, 403 validity threats, 253–262
Equivalence, 166–167 Experimental study, of
Equivalent-forms reliability, 166 report, 537
ERIC Clearinghouse on Assessment and Evaluation, 172 Experimental variables, 153, 251
Error, defined, 343 Experimenter bias effect, 260
eSurveyspro, 194 Experimenter effects, external validity and, 258,
Eta coefficient, 211, 212 260–261
Ethics Explanatory activities, 514
Explanatory mixed methods design, 485
considerations of qualitative researcher, 119 Exploratory mixed methods design, 484
of educational research, 19–27 Ex post facto research, 228
Ethnographic case study, 426 External validity, 253–254, 257–262, 300–301, 560
Ethnographic research, 13–14
characteristics of, 425 F
defined, 421, 423 Facebook, 64
evaluation of, 560 Face validity, 161
example, 436–441 Factor analysis, 215, 368
process, 423–425 Factorial analysis of variance, 233
purpose of, 423 Factorial designs, 272–743
summary, 421–422, 434–435 Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act (1974), 21
techniques for, 426–433 Family-related variables, 230
types of, 426 Feedback, 394
Ethnograph v6, 475 Field notes, 382–386, 429–431
Ethnography, 12, 13, 423, 426 Findings, displaying, 473
Ethnomethodology, 12, 13 Focus groups, 388
Ethology, 12, 13 Follow-up surveys, 185
Evaluation of reports Format, of research report, 533–534
abstract or summary, 558 “For Whom the School Bell Tolls,” (Kim), 410–419
action research, 561 F ratio, 358
case study research, 561 Freidman test, 369
causal-comparative research, 559 Frequencies, 322–323
correlational research, 558–559 Frequency polygon, 335
discussion, 558
ethnographic research, 560 G
example, 565–576 “Gender and Race as Variables in Psychosocial
experimental research, 559
general criteria, 555–558 Adjustment to Middle and High School,” (Akos and
introduction, 556–557 Galassi), 565–576
method, 557 Generalizability, 11, 130, 395
mixed methods research, 561 Generalization, 4–5
narrative research, 560 Google, 92
overview, 555 Grading on the curve, 155
performance criteria, 564 Graduate Record Examination (GRE), 162
qualitative research, 559–560
results, 557–558
single-subject research, 559

SUBJECT INDEX 641

Grounded theory, 12, 13 Inductive hypothesis, 71
Group designs, vs. single-subject designs, 294–995 Inductive reasoning, 4–5
Group experimental designs Inferential statistics

control of extraneous variables, 262–264 analysis of variance, 357–361
counterbalanced designs, 271–272 chi square, 364–367
factorial, 272–274 data mining, 367–368
nonequivalent control group design, 270 defined, 341
one-group pretest-posttest design, 265–266 degrees of freedom, 349–350
posttest-only control group design, 269 example, 375–379
pretest-posttest control group design, 267–269 factor analysis, 368
single-variable, 264–272 hypothesis testing, 344
Solomon four-group design, 269–270 multiple regression, 361–364
static-group comparison, 266–267 overview, 341–342
time-series design, 271 parametric and nonparametric statistical tests, 350–
Grouping variable, 10, 229
Guiding hypothesis, 73 351, 368, 369
Guttman scales, 157–158 performance criteria, 374
standard error, 342–344
H Structural Equation Modeling (SEM), 368
Haphazard sampling, 140 tests of significance, 344–345, 350–361
Hawthorne effect, 261 t test, 351–357
Headnotes, 430 two-tailed and one-tailed tests, 345–347
Heuristic case study, 446 Type I and Type II errors, 347–349
Historical research, 12, 13 Informed consent, 21, 23
History, internal validity and, 254, 255 Insight, for action research, 513–514
Holtzman Inkblot Technique, 160 Institutional Review Board (IRB), 20, 116
Homogeneous groups, comparing, 233, 263 Instrumentation, internal validity and, 255
Homogenous sampling, 143 Instruments
“How Should Middle-School Students with LD for data collection, 151
in research plan, 113–114
Approach Online Note Taking?” (Igo, Riccomimi, terminology, 154
Bruning, and Pope), 496–505 Intensity sampling, 143
Human Subjects Review Committee (HSRC), 20, 22 Interact, 253
HyperRESEARCH 3.0.2, 475 Interest inventories, 158
Hypothesis Interests, 156
Interjudge reliability, 168
characteristics of, 71 Internal consistency reliability, 166, 167–168
deductive, 71 Internal validity, 253, 254–257
defined, 5, 69–70 evaluation of, 560
directional, 71 threats to, 301–302
evaluation of, 557 Internal variables, 151, 152
guiding, 73 International Reading Association (IRA), 93
inductive, 71 Internet, 90–91
nondirectional, 71 Interpretation of results, of report, 537
null, 72 Interpretive validity, 392
in qualitative studies, 73–74 Intervening variable, 214
in quantitative studies, 70–71 Interviewing, for data collection, 386–388
in report, 536–537 Interviews, 186, 468, 470–472
stating, 72–73 Intraclass, 211
testing, 73 Intrajudge reliability, 168
types of, 71–72 Introduction
Hypothesis testing, 344 evaluation of, 556–557
of report, 536
I of research plan, 117–118
Independent samples, 351–352 Iowa Test of Basic Skills, 155
Independent variables, 152–153, 251 Item validity, 161

642 SUBJECT INDEX

J Mean, 234, 323, 324–325, 344
John Henry effect, 261 Measurement, defined, 154
Journal publications, writing for, 538–539 Measurement scales, 151
Journals, 389–390 Measures of central tendency, 323
Judgment sampling, 141 Measures of relationship, 332
Measures of relative position, 329–332
K Measures of variability, 325
Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children, 156 Measuring instruments
Kendall’s tau, 211
Key Math Diagnostic Inventory of Essential Mathematics affective tests, 156–159
characteristics of, 153–155
Test, 155 cognitive tests, 155
Key questions, 472 constructs, 150
Keywords, 82, 84 projective tests, 159–160
Kruskal-Wallis test, 369 reliability of, 164–169
Kuder Preference summary, 176–78
test administration, 174–175
Record-Vocational, 158 test construction, 173–174
Kuder-Richardson 20 (KR-20), 167–168 test selection, 169–173
validity of, 160
L variables, 150–153
“Let’s Talk: Discussion in a Biology Classroom,” Median, 323–325
Median test, 369
(Juenemann), 521–529 Memoing, in data analysis, 468
Letter writing, 406 Mental Measurements Yearbook (MMY), 155, 158,
Library searches, for research topic, 63, 83–85 170, 171
Likert scales, 157 Meta-analysis, 100–101
LimeSurvey, 194 Method section, of report, 537
Limitations, 115 Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory
Linear relation, 211 (MMPI), 159
Literature review Mixed methods research
data analysis in, 486, 487
analyzing, organizing, and reporting, 99–100 defined, 481, 483
annotating sources, 96–99 evaluating, 489, 561
conducting, 81 examples, 493–505
evaluating sources, 93–95 identifying studies using, 488–489
examples, 106–108 overview, 483
identifying keywords, 82 performance criteria, 492
identifying sources, 82–93 purpose of, 483–484
meta-analysis, 100–101 QUAL-quan model, 484–485,
performance criteria, 105
purpose and scope, 79–81 486, 487
qualitative research and, 81 QUAN-qual model, 485, 486, 487
in report, 536 QUAN-QUAL model, 486, 487
summary, 102–104 summary, 481–482, 490
Longitudinal surveys, 185 Mode, 324–325
Lying with statistics, 324 Mooney Problem Checklist, 159
Mortality, internal validity and,
M 255, 256–257
Main body, of report, 536–538 Multi-element baseline design, 299
Malleable variable, 320 Multi-element manipulative design, 299
Manipulated variables, 153 Multifactor analysis of variance, 360
Manipulation of the treatments, 251 Multimodal set, 324
Mann-Whitney U test, 369 Multiple-baseline designs, 297–299
Maps, 390 Multiple prediction equation, 213
Matching, 232–233, 263 Multiple regression, 361–364
Maturation, internal validity and, 255 Multiple regression equation, 213
McCarthy Scales of Children’s Abilities, 156 Multiple schedule design, 299

SUBJECT INDEX 643

Multiple-treatment interference, external validity and, Null hypothesis, 72, 344
258–259 NVivo 9.0, 475

Multistage sampling, 136 O
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator, 159 Observation, 4–5

N for data collection, 381–386
Narrative research, 13 Off-diagonal cells, 333
One-group pretest-posttest design, 265–266
analysis of, 402 One-shot case study, 265
autobiographical and biographical writing, 407 One-tailed tests, 345–347
characteristics of, 404 One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA), 357–360
defined, 399, 400–401 Operational definitions, 70–71
evaluation of, 560 Oral history, 406
examining materials, 406 Ordinal variables, 151–152
example, 410–419 Organismic variables, 229–230
letter writing, 406 Organizational review, 472
oral history, 406 Otis-Lennon School Ability Test, 156
process, 402–404 Outcome, 153
purpose of, 400–401 Outlines, 99–100, 533
restorying, 405–406
storytelling, 406 P
summary, 399–400, 408 Pairwise matching, 232–233
techniques, 404–407 Panel surveys, 185
types of, 401–402 Parametric statistical tests, 368, 369
writing, 407 Parametric tests, 350–361
National Board on Educational Testing and Public “Parental Involvement and Its Influence on the Reading
Policy (NBETPP), 172
National Center for Education Statistics, 91 Achievement of 6th Grade Students,” (Hawes and
National Commission for the Protection of Human Plouride), 219–224
Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research, 19 Participant effects, 261
National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS), 93 Participant observation, 382, 427–429
National Council of Teachers of Mathematics Participant variables, 253
(NCTM), 93 Particularistic case study, 445–446
National Council on Measurement in Education Passive observer, 428–429
(NCME), 164 Path analysis, 215, 361
National Education Association Pearson product correlation, 369
(NEA), 93 Pearson r, 210, 211, 332–334
National Research Act (1974), 19 Percentile ranks, 155, 330
National Science Teachers Association Performance assessment, 154
(NSTA), 93 Personal experiences, for research topic, 62
Next-step studies, 65 Personality, 156
No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB), 319 Personality Adjective Checklist, 159
Nominal variables, 151 Personality inventories, 158–159
Nondirectional hypothesis, 71 Personality variables, 230
Nonequivalent control group Persuasive, action research as, 509
design, 270 Phenomenology, 12, 13
Nonindependent samples, 355 Phi coefficient, 210, 211
Nonparametric statistical tests, 369 Pie charts, 335
Nonparametric tests, 350–357 Pilot study, 121
Nonparticipant observation, 382 Placebo effect, 261
Nonprobability sampling, 140 Point biserial, 211
Nonrandom sampling, 140 Population, defined, 113, 130–131
Normal curve, for statistics, 326–329 Population parameter, 329
Norm-referenced scoring, Posttest, 153
154–155, 330 Posttest-only control group design, 269
Novelty effect, 261–262

644 SUBJECT INDEX

Posttest variables, 251 defining a population, 130–131
Power, in significance test, 361 determining sample size, 138–139
Practical action research, 511, 512 overview, 7
Prediction studies, 212–214 plan components, 112–116
vs. qualitative research, 8, 120
evaluation of, 559 selecting nonrandom samples, 140–141
Predictive validity, 162–163 selecting random sample, 131–138
Predictor, 163, 212 Quantitative studies, hypotheses in, 70–71
Preexperimental group designs, 264, 265–267 Quantitative variables, 152
Preliminary pages, for report, 535–536 Quartile deviation, 325
“Preparing Preservice Teachers in a Diverse World,” Quasi-experimental designs, 264, 268, 270–272
Questionnaires, 388–389, 468
(Lenski, Crawford, Crumpler, and Stallworth), 436–441 analyzing results, 194–195
Pretest-posttest control group designs, 267, 269 constructing, 186–189
Pretest sensitization, 255 defined, 186
Pretest-treatment interaction, external validity and, distributing, 191–192
follow-up activities, 192–193
257–258 pilot testing, 189
Primary sources, 83 preparing a cover letter, 189–190
Privileged, active observer, 428 responses, 193–194
Probability sampling, 131 selecting participants, 190–191
Procedure section, of report, 537 stating the problem, 186
Pro-Ed Publications, 171–172 Quota sampling, 141
Professional journals, 172
Professional organizations, 91, 93 R
Projective tests, 159–160 Randomization, 262
Proportional stratified sampling, 133 Random purposive sampling, 143
Prospective causal-comparative research, 229 Random sampling
Psychological Abstracts, 89
PsycINFO, 89 cluster, 135–137, 138
Publication Manual of the American Psychological simple, 131–133, 138
stratified, 133–135, 138
Association, 534 systematic, 137–138
Purposive sampling, 141, 142 Range, 325
Rank difference correlation, 210, 211
Q Rating scales, 157
Qualitative research Ratio variables, 151, 152
Raw scores, 154
approaches to, 12–14 Reactive arrangements, external validity and, 258, 261–262
characteristics of, 15, 16 Reading, in data analysis, 468
defined, 7 Realist ethnography, 426
ethical issues in, 22–23 Really Simple Syndication (RSS) Feeds, 64
evaluation of, 559 Reciprocity, 428–429
literature review and, 81 Recommendations, evaluation of, 558
overview, 7–9 Recording observation, 382–386
plan components, 116–121 Reference section, of report, 538
process, 15–16 Reflexivity, 393–394
vs. quantitative research, 8, 120 RefWorks, 535
reliability in, 395 Relationship, measures of, 332
sampling in, 142–143 Relationship studies, 209–212, 558–559
validity in, 391–394 Relative position, measures of, 329–332
Qualitative variables, 152 Relevant, action research as, 509
QUAL-quan model, 484–485, 486, 487 Reliability
QUAN-qual model, 485, 486, 487 coefficients, 165, 168–169
QUAN-QUAL model, 486, 487 defined, 164–165
Quantitative research equivalence, 166
approaches to, 9–12
avoiding sampling error and bias, 139–140
characteristics of, 15
defined, 7

SUBJECT INDEX 645

equivalence and stability, 166–167 identifying, 62–69
evaluation of, 560 narrowing, 65, 66
interjudge, 168 overview, 61
internal consistency, 166, 167–168 sources of, 62–65
intrajudge, 168 stating, 66–67
Kuder-Richardson 20 and Cronbach’s Alpha, 167–168 Response set, 159
in qualitative research, 395 Restorying, 405–406
scorer/rater, 166, 168 Results, evaluation of, 557–558
split-half, 167 Results section, of report, 537
stability, 165–166 Retrospective causal-comparative research, 229
standard error of measurement, 169 Review of related literature, 80. See also Literature
Reliable measurement, 301 review
Repeated measurement, 301 in report, 536
Replication, 63, 302 Rorschach Test, 160
Representative sample, 130
Research, defined, 5 S
Research and development (R&D), 17–18 Sample, defined, 12
Research continuum, 6–7, 17 Sample-based statistic, 329
Research hypothesis, 344 Sampling
Research methods
action research, 18 avoiding error and bias, 139–140
applied research, 16–18 cluster, 135–137, 138
basic research, 16, 17 convenience, 140–141
case study research, 14 criterion, 143
causal-comparative research, 10–11 defining a population, 130–131
correlational research, 9–10 determining sample size,
ethnographic research, 13–14
evaluation research, 17 138–139, 142
experimental research, 11–12 example, 147
narrative research, 13 homogeneous, 143
research and development, 17–18 intensity, 143
single-subject research, 12 nonrandom, 140–141
survey research, 9 performance criteria, 146
Research plan purposive, 141, 142
critiquing, 121 in qualitative research, 142–143
data analysis of, 115 in quantitative research, 130–141
defined, 111 quota, 141
examples, 125–126 random purposive, 143
performance criteria, 124 representative, 130
purpose of, 111–112 simple random, 131–133, 138
qualitative, components of, 116–121 snowball, 143
quantitative, components of, 112–116 stratified, 133–135, 138
revising and improving, 121 summary, 144–145
Research reports systematic, 137–138
example, 543–553 Sampling bias, 140
format and style, 533–534 Sampling error, 139, 342
formatting theses and dissertations, 534–538 Sampling validity, 161
overview, 531–532 Scatterplots, 450
performance criteria, 542 Scholastic aptitude tests, 155
writing for journal publication, 538–539 School-related variables, 230
writing guidelines, 532–533 Scientific method
Research topics defined, 5
characteristics of good, 65–66 educational approach of, 5–6
developing, 64 limitations of, 5
hypothesis for, 69–74 overview, 4–5
steps of, 6

646 SUBJECT INDEX

Scorer/rater reliability, 166, 168 Skype, 391
Scoring procedures, for data Snowball sampling, 143
Solomon four-group design, 269–270
analysis, 320 Sources
Secondary sources, 83
Selection-maturation interaction, internal validity and, annotating, 96–99
evaluating, 93–95
255, 257 identifying, 82–93
Selection-treatment interference, external validity and, primary, 83
secondary, 83
258, 259 Spearman rho, 210, 211, 334, 369
Self-referenced scoring Specificity of variables, external validity and, 258,
259–260
approaches, 155 Split-half reliability, 167
Self-reflection, 513–514 SPSS 18, 352–357, 358–360, 362–364, 366–367
Semantic differential scales, 157 Stability, 165–166, 166–167
Shared variance, 207 Standard deviation, 234, 326
Shrinkage, 213 Standard error, 214, 342–344
Significance testing. See Tests of significance Standard error of measurement, 169
Simple analysis of variance (ANOVA), 357–360 Standard error of the mean, 343
Simple random sampling, 131–133, 138 Standardized test, defined, 154
Simultaneous treatment design, 299 Standard scores, 330
Single-subject experimental designs, 12 The Standards for Educational and Psychological
Testing, 164
A-B design, 295 Stanford Achievement Tests, 155
A-B-A design, 295–297 Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale, 156
A-B-A-B design, 297 Stanford Diagnostic Reading Test, 155
alternating treatments design, 299–300 Static-group comparison, 266–267
data analysis and interpretation, 300 Stating what’s missing, in report, 473
defined, 294 Statistical regression, internal validity and, 256
evaluation of, 559 Statistical significance, 208
examples, 306–317 Storytelling, 406
vs. group designs, 294–295 Strata (stratum), 133
multiple-baseline designs, 297–299 Stratified sampling, 133–135, 138
performance criteria, 305 Street Corner Society (Whyte), 446
replication, 302 Strong-Campbell Interest Inventory, 158
single-variable rule, 295 Structural equation modeling (LISREL), 215
summary, 293–294, 303–304 Structural Equation Modeling (SEM), 368
threats to validity, 300–302 Structured interviews, 386–387
Single-subject research, 12 Structured items, on surveys, 186
Single-variable group designs, 264 Style, of research report, 533–534
counterbalanced designs, 271–272 Subtest, 155
nonequivalent control group design, 270 Summary, evaluation of, 558
one-group pretest-posttest design, 265–266 Survey, defined, 184
one-shot case study, 265 SurveyMonkey.com, 194
overview, 264 Survey research, 9. See also Questionnaires
posttest-only control group collection methods, 191
conducting, 185–195
design, 269 defined, 184
pretest-posttest control group designs, 267, 269 design, 184–185
Solomon four-group design, 269–270 evaluation of, 558
static-group comparison, 266–267 examples, 198–201
time-series design, 271 purpose of, 184
Single-variable rule, 295 summary, 183, 196–197
Site-ordered descriptive matrix, 449 Web-based tools, 194
Site-ordered effects matrix, 450–451
Site-ordered predictor-outcome
matrix, 450
Sixteen Personality Factors Questionnaire, 159
Skewed distributions, 329

SUBJECT INDEX 647

Surveys, 468 “To What Extent Are Literacy Initiatives Being
Symbolic interaction, 12, 13 Supported,” (Marlow, Inman, and Shwery), 198–201
Systematic replication, 302
Systematic sampling, 137–138 Transferability, 392
Treatment diffusion, external validity and, 258, 260
T Treatment variables, 153, 251
Table of random numbers, 131–132 Trend surveys, 185
Tabulation, for data analysis, 320–321 Triangulation, 393, 427
Target population, 130 Triangulation mixed methods
Technical writing, guidelines for, 99
TerraNova, 155 design, 486
Test battery, 155 True category, 365
Test Critiques (Keyser and True experiment designs, 264,

Sweetland), 172 267–270
Testing, internal validity and, 255 Trustworthiness, 392
Test in Print (TIP), 170 T scores, 331–332
Test-retest reliability, 165 t test, 369
Tests
analysis of gain or difference scores, 357
administration, 174–175 defined, 351
constructing, 173–174 explained, 351
defined, 154 for independent samples, 351–355
selecting, 169, 172–173 for nonindependent samples, 355–357
sources of information, 170–172 Twitter, 64
Tests: A Comprehensive Reference for Assessments in Two-tailed tests, 345–347
Psychology, Education, and Business Type I/Type II errors, 347–349
(Maddox), 171
Tests of general mental ability, 155 U
Tests of significance Unobtrusive measures, 258
analysis of variance, 357–361, 369 Unordered meta-matrix, 449, 450
chi square, 364–367, 369 Unstructured interviews, 386
data mining, 367–368 Unstructured items, on surveys, 186
defined, 345 U.S. Department of Education, 91
degrees of freedom, 349–350 “Using Community as a Resource for Teacher
factor analysis, 368
multiple regression, 361–364 Education,” (Koerner and Abdul-Tawwab), 454–462
overview, 344–345
parametric and nonparametric, 350–351, V
Validity
368, 369
selecting among, 350–351 in qualitative research, 391–394
structural equation modeling, 368 threats to, 300–302
t test, 351–357, 369 Values, 156
two-tailed and one-tailed tests, 345–347 Values tests, 158
Type I and Type II errors, 347–349 Variability, measures of, 325
Tetrachoric, 211 Variables, 9
Themes, in data analysis, 469 defined, 150
Theoretical validity, 392 dependent and independent, 152–153
Theory, defined, 62 interval, 151, 152
Theses, formatting, 534–538 measurement scales and, 151–152
Thurstone scale, 157–158 nominal, 151
Time-ordered meta matrix, 450 ordinal, 151–152
Time schedule, research plan and, 115–116 overview, 150–151
Time-series design, 271 quantitative and qualitative, 152
Topic statement, 66 ratio, 151, 152
Variance
among scores, 325–326

648 SUBJECT INDEX

Variance (Continued) Wiki, 391
common, 207–208 Wilcoxon signed rank test, 369
Wilson Education Index, 89
Vates-MacGinitie Reading Tests, 155 World Wide Web, 90–91
Videotape, 390
Vocational Test and Reviews, 170 Z
Zoomerang, 194
W Zotero, 535
Web sites, for research topic, 63, 65 z scores, 330–332
Wechsler scales, 156