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and March 2004, the Big Five cast 17 vetoes, it is still a crippling limitation on the powers of
the Security Council.
Although international law favours peace and lays down rules for its maintenance and
provides certain procedures for its restoration in cases it is breached, yet there are serious
deficiencies in its enforcement mechanism. The major deficiencies is the veto right of the Big
Five which is considered as an obstacle to the effective collective decision making of the
Security Council. The veto, which was the result of a particular situation at the end of the
Second World War where the superpowers confrontation dominated the international legal
system, was accepted on the assumption that it would not be abused.
However, the assumption proved to be wrong. The abuse of veto right by some,
although not all, of the Big Five has become the source of the problem for the world peace.
Others consider it as an outrage against the will of the majority, an affront to the sovereign
equality of States, and as such it must be abolished. The idea of abolishing veto right of the
Big Five is not an easy task as it requires the amendment of the UN Charter.
Again, the Charter is very rigid to amend or revise and an attempt to revise the Charter
in order to make the UN a more democratic organisation has so far failed. The procedure for
amendment of the Charter is laid down in Article 108 of the UN Charter, which provides:
“Amendments to the present Charter shall come into force for all Members of the United
Nations when they have been adopted by a vote of two thirds of the members of the General
Assembly and ratified in accordance with their respective constitutional processes by two thirds
of the Members of the United Nations, including all the permanent members of the Security
Council”. This rigid provision which requires the consent of all the Big Five to any
amendment makes the amendment to the UN Charter unlikely, as the permanent members
may not wish to vote themselves out. Even, assuming, if the UN Charter is amended and the
veto is abolished, it is doubtful if it would have any effect on the power of the UN to take
enforcement action against any member of the Big Five simply because they are powerful
economically, militarily and technologically.64
VIII. RULE AGAINST BIAS IN THE SECURITY COUNCIL DECISION MAKING
PROCESS
After careful reading of the second limb of Article 27 (3) of the UN Charter, the Security
Council requires a party to a dispute to abstain from voting in decisions relating to Chapter
VI and Article 52 (3) of the UN Charter. Article 2 (3) requires all members of the UN to
settle their international disputes by peaceful means in a manner that international peace and
security, and justice, are not endangered. Some of the manners and procedures for peaceful
settlement of international disputes are mentioned under Chapter VI from Articles 33-38 of
the UN Charter. First of all, Article 33 (1) urges parties to an international dispute to seek a
solution by negotiation, enquiry, mediation, conciliation, arbitration, judicial settlement,
resort to regional agencies or arrangements, or other peaceful means of their own choice. It
the parties are resorting to any of these peaceful means to resolve their disputes, then the
Security Council may call upon the parties to settle their dispute by such means.65 In addition,
the Security Council may also investigate “any dispute or any situation which might lead to
international friction or give rise to a dispute in order to determine whether the continuance of the
dispute or situation is likely to endanger the maintenance of international peace and security”.66
Any member of the UN may bring any dispute to the attention of the Security Council.67
64 Mohammad Naqib Ishan Jan, Principles of Public International Law: A Modern Approach, (Kuala Lumpur:
IIUM Press, 2011), 346-348.
65 Article 33 (2) of the UN Charter.
66 Article 34 of the UN Charter.
67 Article 35 (1) of the UN Charter.
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Even a non-member may bring to the attention of the Security Council of any dispute to
which it is a party if it accepts the obligations of pacific settlement provided in the UN
Charter in advance.68 The Security Council may recommend appropriate procedures or
methods of adjustment at any stage of a dispute after taking into consideration any procedures
for the settlement of the dispute which have already been adopted by the parties.69 If the
parties to a dispute fail to settle it by peaceful means indicated above, they shall refer it to the
Security Council which can recommend such terms of settlement as it may consider
appropriate.70 Finally, at the request of the parties, the Security Council may also make
recommendations to a pacific settlement of the dispute.71 Apart from that, under Article 52 (3) of
the UN Charter, the Security Council may also encourage the peaceful settlement of local
disputes through regional arrangements or by such regional agencies either on the initiative of
the States concerned or by reference from the Security Council. In all of those above
mentioned matters, a member of the Security Council, regardless whether it is permanent or
non-permanent, needs to abstain from voting in decision making processes by virtue of
Article 27 (3) of the UN Charter.
It can be observed that, at least in theory, this requirement of abstention of a party to a
particular dispute from voting in decision making processes at the Security Council is in line
with the principle of natural justice which expresses in Latin as: nemo judex in causa sua (a
man should not be a judge in his own cause). This ‘rule against bias’ guarantees exclusion of
a party who is interested in the subject matter of a dispute regardless of whether a party to
such a dispute is member of the Security Council or even member of the UN. However, in
practice, this does not seem to be the case. Although countless number of cases can be
highlighted in this regard, authors select the following four cases to emphasise how the
decision making processes at the Security Council are inconsistent and, in most cases, violate
one of the principles of natural justice, i.e., nemo judex in causa sua.
8.1 Corfu Channel Case
In the case of Corfu Channel (United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland v.
Albania),72 the ICJ claimed jurisdiction over its very first case arose out of the mine
explosions resulted severe damage to some British warships and death of some crew
members while passing through the Corfu Channel in a part of the Albanian waters in 1946.
The UK accused Albania for laying or allowing a third State to lay the mines after mine-
clearing operations had been carried out by the Allied naval authorities. The UK referred the
case to the Security Council which invited Albania to send representative as Albania was not
a member of the UN at that particular time. Later, Albania joined the UN on 14 December
1955.
The cable from the acting Secretary General, David Owen, to the President of the
Council of Ministers of the People’s Republic of Albania dated 20th January 1947 stated that:
“With reference to my cable of 15th January, I have the honour to inform you that the letter
from the United Kingdom representative to the Security Council concerning the incidents in
the Corfu Channel was placed on the agenda of the Security Council meeting which took
place to-day. In accordance with Article 32 of the Charter, the Security Council decided to
invite the Albanian Government to participate, without a vote, in the proceedings with regard
to this dispute, on condition that Albania accepts, in the present case, all the obligations
which a Member of the United Nations would have to assume in a similar case. I should be
68 Article 35 (2) of the UN Charter.
69 Article 36 (1) and (2) of the UN Charter.
70 Article 37 of the UN Charter.
71 Article 38 of the UN Charter.
72 [1949] ICJ Rep. 4.
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obliged if you mould kindly inform me as soon as possible whether the Albanian Government
accepts this invitation, and if so, if you would advise me of the name of the delegate which it
appoints to represent it and the date on which he will arrive in New York. The Security
Council wishes to be in a position to study this matter as soon as possible. Please
acknowledge receipt of this cable”.73
The President of the Council and Minister of Foreign Affairs for Albania, Colonel-
General Enver Hoxha, replied in his acknowledgement letter dated on 24th January 1947 by
saying that: “I have the honour to inform you that Albanian Government accepts the Security
Council’s decision. Its representative to the Security Council for that question will be Mr.
Hysni Kapo. He and his suite will leave soon, but because of very difficult communications
impossible to fix date of his arrival in New York. Please postpone proceedings until his
arrival”.74
Accordingly, the Security Council adopted Resolution No. 22 on 09 April 1947 which
stated as follows: “The Security Council, …
Having considered statements of representatives of the United Kingdom and of Albania
concerning a dispute between the United Kingdom and Albania arising out of an incident on
22 October 1946 in the Straits of Corfu in which two British ships were damaged by mines,
with resulting loss of life and injury to their crews, …
Recommends that the United Kingdom and Albanian Governments should immediately refer
the dispute to the International Court of Justice in accordance with the provisions of the
Statute of the Court”.
During 1946 to 1965, there were only 6 non-permanent members in the Security
Council. In 1947, the Security Council was composed of Australia, Belgium, Brazil, China,
Colombia, France, Poland, Syria, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, the UK, and the
US.75 This resolution was adopted at the 127th meeting by 8 votes to none, with 2 abstentions,
i.e., Poland and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (current Russian Federation). One of
the permanent members and also a party to the dispute - the UK - did not participate in the
voting.76
On the basis of this resolution, the UK contended that the ICJ had jurisdiction under
Article 36 (1) of the Statute of ICJ as being a matter which is one specially provided for in
the UN Charter on the grounds: “(a) that the Security Council of the United Nations, at the
conclusion of proceedings in which it dealt with the dispute under Article 36 of the Charter,
by a Resolution, of which a copy forms Annex 2 to this Application, decided to recommend
both the Government of the United Kingdom and the Albanian Government to refer the
present dispute to the International Court of Justice; (b) that the Albanian Government
accepted the invitation of the Security Council under Article 32 of the Charter to participate
in the discussion of the dispute and accepted the condition laid down by the Security Council,
when conveying the invitation, that Albania accepts in the present case all the obligations
which a Member of the United Nations would have to assume in a similar case. (A copy of
the invitation of the Security Council and of the Albanian Government’s reply thereto form
Annex 3 to the present Application); (c) that Article 25 of the Charter provides that the
73 International Court of Justice, “Pleadings, Oral Arguments, Documents,” Volume 1: Application-British
Memorial and Annexes, 16-17, https://www.icj-cij.org/public/files/case-related/1/1499.pdf (accessed 04 October
2022).
74 Ibid., 17.
75 United Nations, “Security Council Membership,” https://research.un.org/en/unmembers/scmembers (accessed
10 October 2022).
76 United Nations Digital Library, “Resolution 22 (1947) / [adopted by the Security Council at its 127th
meeting], of 9 April 1947,” https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/111975?ln=en#record-files-collapse-header
(accessed 10 October 2022).
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Members of the United Nations agree to accept and carry out the decisions of the Security
Council in accordance with the present Charter”.77
In this case, by virtue of Article 27 (3) of the UN Charter, the UK abstained from
voting although it is a permanent member of the Security Council. Therefore, this practice
preserves the principle of natural justice - i.e., nemo judex in causa sua - in the decision
making process of the Security Council.
8.2 Lockerbie Case
On the other hand, the Questions of Interpretation and Application of the 1971 Montreal
Convention Arising from the Aerial Incident at Lockerbie78 (Lockerbie case)79 is an example
relevant to highlight the violation of the principle of natural justice - i.e., nemo judex in causa
sua - in the decision making process of the Security Council. On 21 December 1988, a bomb
planted on Pan Am flight 103 exploded over Lockerbie, Scotland and killed all 258 people on
board and at least 15 on the ground. Two Libyan intelligence agents were identified as
masterminds upon investigations conducted by the US and the UK. These two States
requested the surrender of the agents but Libya refused.80 Then, they referred the matter to
the Security Council.
In 1992, the Security Council was composed of Austria, Belgium, Cape Verde, China,
Ecuador, France, Hungary, India, Japan, Morocco, Russian Federation, United Kingdom,
United States of America, Venezuela, and Zimbabwe.81 The Security Council invited the
representatives of Canada, the Congo, Iraq, the Islamic Republic of Iran, Italy, the Libyan
Arab Jamahiriya, Mauritania, the Sudan and Yemen to participate without vote. Besides, at
the request of the representative of Morocco, Mr. Adnan Omran (Under-Secretary-General of
the League of Arab States) and Mr. Engin Ansay (Permanent Observer of the Organization of
the Islamic Conference to the United Nations) were also invited under rule 39 of the
provisional rules of procedure.
On 21 January 1992, at its 3033rd meeting, the Security Council adopted Resolution 731
(1992) which sated as follows: “The Security Council, … [d]etermined to eliminate
international terrorism,
(1). Condemns the destruction of Pan Am flight 103 and Union de transports aeriens
flight 772 and the resultant loss of hundreds of lives;
(2). Strongly deplores the fact that the Libyan Government has not yet responded
effectively to the above requests to cooperate fully in establishing responsibility
for the terrorist acts referred to above against Pan Am flight 103 and Union de
transports aeriens flight 772;
(3). Urges the Libyan Government immediately to provide a full and effective
response to those requests so as to contribute to the elimination of
international terrorism;
77 International Court of Justice, “Pleadings, Oral Arguments, Documents,” Volume 1: Application-British
Memorial and Annexes, 8-9, https://www.icj-cij.org/public/files/case-related/1/1499.pdf (accessed 04 October
2022).
78 Questions of Interpretation and Application of the 1971 Montreal Convention Arising from the Aerial
Incident at Lockerbie (Libya v. UK; Libya v. US) (Provisional Measures) [1992] ICJ Rep. 3, 114 (Orders of Apr.
14).
79 See Fiona Beveridge, “The Lockerbie Affair,” Int’l & Comp. L.Q. 41, (1992): 907; Christian Tomuschat,
“The Lockerbie Case before the international Court of Justice,” Rev. Int'l Comm'n Jurists, (June 1992): 43-48,
38; Marc Weller, “The Lockerbie Case: A Premature End to the ‘New World Order’?,” J. Afr. Society Int’l &
Comp. L. 4, (1992): 302.
80 For the joint US-UK Communiqué, see UN Doc. S/23308 (1991).
81 United Nations, “Security Council Membership,” https://research.un.org/en/unmembers/scmembers (accessed
10 October 2022).
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(4). Requests the Secretary-General to seek the cooperation of the Libyan
Government to provide a full and effective response to those requests;
(5). Urges all States individually and collectively to encourage the Libyan
Government to respond fully and effectively to those requests; …”.
Basically, this Resolution 731 called on Libya to respond to the request of those two
States to extradite the two Libyan nationals for trial in Scotland. This was adopted
unanimously at the 3033rd meeting of the Security Council and thus the parties to the
disputes, i.e., the US and the UK, involved in the voting and voted affirmative.82
On 03 March 1992, Libya filed a suit to the ICJ against the US and the UK under the
Montreal Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts Against the Safety of Civil
Aviation (Sabotage) of 1971. In its suit Libya asked the Court to declare:
(1) “That Libya had fully complied with all of its obligations under the Montreal
Convention by taking steps to investigate the case and prosecute the two
offenders in its own courts;
(2) That the United Kingdom and the United States had breached and were
continuing to breach various provisions of the Convention, in particular Article 7
incorporating the principle aut dedere aut judicare, according to which Libya had
a choice between extradition and prosecution of an alleged offender; and
(3) That the United Kingdom and the United States were obliged to desist from the
use or threat of force against Libya and from all violations of its sovereignty,
territorial integrity and political independence”.83
On the same day, Libya applied to the Court for provisional measures “to prevent the
US and the UK from taking any action that would coerce Libya into surrendering the two
accused to any jurisdiction outside Libya or otherwise prejudice the rights claimed by Libya,
and to restrain those States from taking any step that might aggravate or extend the dispute,
as would surely happen if sanctions were imposed against Libya or force were employed”.84
On the other hand, the US and the UK referred the matter to the Security Council again
due to the delay in the implementation of the Resolution 731. This time, the Security Council
invited the representatives of Iraq, Jordan, the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, Mauritania and
Uganda to participate without vote. Besides, at the request of the representative of Morocco,
Mr. Engin Ansay (Permanent Observer of the Organization of the Islamic Conference to the
United Nations) was also invited under rule 39 of the provisional rules of procedure.
On 31 March 1992, at its 3063rd meeting, the Security Council adopted a much tougher
Resolution 731 (1992) which sated as follows: “The Security Council, …
Reaffirming its resolution 731 (1992) of 21 January 1992, …
Deeply concerned that the Libyan Government has still not provided a full and effective
response to the requests in its resolution 731 (1992), …
Acting under Chapter VII of the Charter,
82 UNSCR, “Resolution 748,” http://unscr.com/en/resolutions/748 (accessed 10 October 2022).
83 Montreal Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts Against the Safety of Civil Aviation (Sabotage),
Sept. 23, 1971, 24 UST 565. Libya claimed that the acts that had been committed over Lockerbie constituted ‘an
offence’ within the meaning of Article 1 of the Convention. Article 1 covers “any person who unlawfully and
intentionally destroys an aircraft in service or places or causes to be placed in any aircraft in service by any
means whatsoever, a device or substance which is likely to destroy that aircraft”. Other alleged breaches of the
Convention by the UK and the US were of Article 5(2), by preventing Libya from establishing its jurisdiction
over the alleged offenders present in its territory; Article 5(3), by preventing Libya from exercising criminal
jurisdiction under its national law; Article 8(2), by which extradition is subordinated to national law; and Article
11, by refusing judicial assistance in connection with criminal proceedings.
84 Mohammad Naqib Ishan Jan, Principles of Public International Law: A Modern Approach, (Kuala Lumpur:
IIUM Press, 2011), 361-364.
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(1). Decides that the Libyan Government must now comply without any further delay
with paragraph 3 of resolution 731 (1992) regarding the requests addressed to
the Libyan authorities by France, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and
Northern Ireland, and the United States of America;
(2). Decides also that the Libyan Government must commit itself definitively to cease
all forms of terrorist action and all assistance to terrorist groups and that it must
promptly, by concrete actions, demonstrate its renunciation of terrorism;
(3). Decides that, on 15 April 1992, all States shall adopt the measures set out below,
which shall apply until the Security Council decides that the Libyan Government
has complied with paragraphs 1 and 2 above;
(4). Decides also that all States shall:
(a) Deny permission to any aircraft to take off from, land in or overfly their
territory if it is destined to land in or has taken off from the territory
of Libya, unless the particular flight has been approved on grounds of
significant humanitarian need by the Security Council Committee
established by paragraph 9 below;
(b) Prohibit, by their nationals or from their territory, the supply of any aircraft
or aircraft components to Libya, the provision of engineering and
maintenance servicing of Libyan aircraft or aircraft components, the
certification of airworthiness for Libyan aircraft, the payment of new claims
against existing insurance contracts and the provision of new direct
insurance for Libyan aircraft;
(5). Decides further that all States shall:
(a) Prohibit any provision to Libya by their nationals or from their territory of
arms and related material of all types;, including the sale or transfer of
weapons and ammunition, military vehicles and equipment, paramilitary
police equipment and spare parts for the aforementioned, as well as the
provision of any types of equipment, supplies and grants of licensing
arrangements, for the manufacture or maintenance of the aforementioned;
(b) Prohibit any provision to Libya by their nationals or from their territory of
technical advice, assistance or training related to the provision,
manufacture, maintenance, or use of the items in subparagraph (a) above;
(c) Withdraw any of their officials or agents present in Libya to advise
the Libyan authorities on military matters;
(6). Decides that all States shall:
(a) Significantly reduce the number and the level of the staff at Libyan
diplomatic missions and consular posts and restrict or control the movement
within their territory of all such staff who remain; in the case of Libyan
missions to international organizations, the host State may, as it deems
necessary, consult the organization concerned on the measures required to
implement this subparagraph;
(b) Prevent the operation of all Libyan Arab Airlines offices;
(c) Take all appropriate steps to deny entry to or expel Libyan nationals who
have been denied entry to or expelled from other States because of their
involvement in terrorist activities;
(7). Calls upon all States, including States not members of the United Nations, and all
international organizations, to act strictly in accordance with the provisions of the
present resolution, notwithstanding the existence of any rights or obligations
conferred or imposed by any international agreement or any contract entered into
or any licence or permit granted prior to 15 April 1992;
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(8). Requests all States to report to the Secretary-General by 15 May 1992 on the
measures they have instituted for meeting the obligations set out in paragraphs 3
to 7 above; ...”.
The Resolution 748 was adopted under Chapter VII of the UN Charter and required
Libya to return the alleged offenders and imposed sanctions against it for not doing so. The
Security Council acted on the basis that Libya had been engaged in international terrorism,
which was a threat to the peace under Article 39 of the Charter. The Resolution 748 was
adopted at the 3063rd meeting of the Security Council by 10 votes to none, with 5 abstentions
(Cape Verde, China, India, Morocco, and Zimbabwe). Again, the parties to the disputes, i.e.,
the US and the UK, involved in the voting and voted affirmative.85
Before the ICJ reached to a decision, due to the adoption of the Resolution 748, on 14
April 1992, the Libya’s request for provisional measures was dismissed by a vote of 11-586
on the ground that Libya was obliged by Article 25 of the Charter to carry out the decisions
of the Security Council and this obligation extended prima facie to Security Council
Resolution 748. According to Article 103 of the Charter member States’ obligations under the
Charter prevail over their obligations under any other international agreement. This means
that Resolution 748 prevailed over the obligations of Libya under the Montreal Convention.
Resolution 748 annihilated the rights claimed by Libya for protection under the Montreal
Convention.87
In this case, it can be observed that not only the permanent members of the Security
Council but also the parties to the dispute - i.e., the UK and the US - involved in the voting
and voted affirmative despite the fact that they should abstain from voting under Article 27
(3) of the UN Charter. This is a clear example of the violation of the principle of natural
justice - i.e., nemo judex in causa sua - in the decision making process of the Security
Council.
8.3 Nicaragua Case
In the case of Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v.
United States of America)88 (Nicaragua Case), on 09 April 1984, Nicaragua filed an
application to the ICJ instituting proceedings against the US “concerning a dispute relating to
responsibility for military and paramilitary activities in and against Nicaragua”. Nicaragua
also made a request for the indication of provisional measures. On 10 May 1984, the Court
ordered provisional measures which required “the US immediately to cease and refrain from
any action restricting access to Nicaraguan ports, and, in particular, the laying of mines”.89
On 26 November 1984, the Court decided on the questions of the jurisdiction of the
Court and the admissibility of the Nicaraguan application that: “[I]t possessed jurisdiction to
deal with the case and that Nicaragua’s Application was admissible. It was held that: “[T]he
Nicaraguan declaration of 1929 was valid and that Nicaragua was therefore entitled to invoke
the United States declaration of 1946 as a basis of the Court’s jurisdiction (Article 36,
85 UNSCR, “Resolution 748,” http://unscr.com/en/resolutions/748 (accessed 10 October 2022).
86 The composition of the Court was altered to take account of the parties to the action. The President of the
Court, Judge Jennings, was a UK national and as such prevented from fulfilling his presidential duties by virtue
of Article 32 (1) of the Rules of the Court. Libya, unrepresented on the Court, was able to name an ad-hoc judge
by virtue of Article 31 (2) of the Statute of the ICJ.
87 Mohammad Naqib Ishan Jan, Principles of Public International Law: A Modern Approach, (Kuala Lumpur:
IIUM Press, 2011), 363.
88 [1984] ICJ Rep. 392.
89 ICJ, “Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States of America),”
https://www.icj-cij.org/en/case/70 (accessed 10 October 2022).
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paragraphs 2 and 5, of the Statute)”.90 However, the US maintained it objection to the
jurisdiction of the ICJ and did not participate in the subsequent proceedings.
On 27 June 1986, the Court, in its judgement on merits, rejected “the justification of
collective self-defence advanced by the US concerning the military or paramilitary activities
in or against Nicaragua”. It further made a statement that the US “violated the obligations
imposed by customary international law not to intervene in the affairs of another State, not to
use force against another State, not to infringe the sovereignty of another State, and not to
interrupt peaceful maritime commerce”. The Court held that the US was under “a duty
immediately to cease and to refrain from all acts constituting breaches of its legal obligations,
and that it must make reparation for all injury caused to Nicaragua by the breaches of
obligations under customary international law and the 1956 Treaty, the amount of that
reparation to be fixed in subsequent proceedings if the Parties were unable to reach
agreement”.91 The US continued to maintain its refusal to take part in the case.
Accordingly, the Permanent Representative of Nicaragua to the UN referred the matter
to the Security Council to consider the failure of the US to comply with its obligations in the
judgment of the ICJ and requested for a meeting of the Security Council “for the purpose of
considering the dispute between the US and Nicaragua …, which threatens international
peace and security”.92 In 1986, the Security Council was composed of Australia, Bulgaria,
China, Congo, Denmark, France, Ghana, Madagascar, Thailand, Trinidad and Tobago, Union
of Soviet Socialist Republics, United Arab Emirates, The UK, The US, and Venezuela.93 At
its meeting of 31 July 1986, the Security Council proceeded to vote a draft resolution -
submitted by Congo, Ghana, Madagascar, Trinidad and Tobago and the United Arab
Emirates - which made an “urgent and solemn call for full compliance with the judgment of
the International Court of Justice”. Despite the fact that this draft resolution received 11 votes
in favour, it was failed to adopt due to the negative vote of a permanent member. The
affirmative votes were cast by Australia, Bulgaria, China, Congo, Denmark, Ghana,
Madagascar, Trinidad and Tobago, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, the United Arab
Emirates and Venezuela. Three members, i.e., France, Thailand and the UK abstained from
the voting. The US vetoed and voted against the resolution.94
Again, Nicaragua requested for another meeting of the Security Council on 17 October
1986 in accordance with Article 94 of the UN Charter “to consider the non-compliance with
the judgment of the International Court of Justice dated 27 June 1986”. Similarly, a draft
resolution was submitted by Congo, Ghana, Madagascar, Trinidad and Tobago and the
United Arab Emirates. The Security Council failed again to adopt this draft resolution due to
the negative vote of a permanent member. Exactly the same way as before, the affirmative
votes were cast by Australia, Bulgaria, China, Congo, Denmark, Ghana, Madagascar,
Trinidad and Tobago, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, the United Arab Emirates and
Venezuela. Three members, i.e., France, Thailand and the UK abstained from the voting. The
US vetoed and voted against the resolution.95 Finally, in September 1991, Nicaragua
90 Ibid.
91 Ibid.
92 United Nations, “Art. 94, Repertory Suppl. 7,” Vol. VI, (1985-1988), 11-12, https://
legal.un.org/repertory/art94/english/rep_supp7_vol6_art94.pdf (accessed 10 October 2022).
93 United Nations, “Security Council Membership,” https://research.un.org/en/unmembers/scmembers (accessed
10 October 2022).
94 United Nations, “Art. 94, Repertory Suppl. 7,” Vol. VI, (1985-1988), 11-12, https://legal.un.org/
repertory/art94/english/rep_supp7_vol6_art94.pdf (accessed 10 October 2022).
95 Ibid.
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informed the ICJ, inter alia, that it did not want to continue the proceedings and then the case
was removed from the Court’s List.96
In this case, it can be observed that the permanent member of the Security Council and
also a party to the dispute - the US - involved in the voting, not only voted negative but also
vetoed as the permanent member, despite the fact that it should abstain from voting under
Article 27 (3) of the UN Charter. This is another example of the violation of the principle of
natural justice - i.e., nemo judex in causa sua - in the decision making process of the Security
Council.
8.4 Russian Invasion of Ukrainian Territories 2022
The same trend can be also observed in the most recent Russian invasion and annexation of
some parts of Ukraine in 2022. On 24 February 2022, Russia invaded many areas in Ukraine
and managed to annex some parts of it.97 On 30 September 2022, Albania and the US
circulated a draft resolution at the Security Council calling to illegalise the attempt to modify
Ukraine’s internationally recognized borders under the pretext of so-called referendums held
by Russia in the four regions of Ukraine, i.e., Luhansk, Donetsk, Kherson, and Zaporizhzhya
which Moscow now regards as its sovereign territories. The draft resolution described
Russian attempts to unlawfully annex these four Ukrainian regions as a threat to international
peace and security and demanded that Russia should immediately and unconditionally
reversed its decision. It further called on “all States, international organisations, and agencies
not to recognize the Russian annexation declaration, and called on Russia to immediately,
completely and unconditionally withdraw all of its military forces from Ukrainian
territory”.98
The UN Secretary General António Guterres condemned the Russian annexation of
Ukrainian territories as “a violation of international law, warning that it marked a ‘dangerous
escalation’ in the seven-month war that began with Russia’s invasion of Ukraine on 24
February”. He referred to the UN Charter and said that: “The Charter is clear. Any
annexation of a State’s territory by another State resulting from the threat or use of force is a
violation of the Principles of the UN Charter”.99
Moreover, the US Ambassador Linda Thomas-Greenfield said to the ambassadors at
the Security Council that: “the referendums were a ‘sham’, predetermined in Moscow, ‘held
behind the barrel of Russian guns’. We all have an interest in defending the sacred principles
of sovereignty and territorial integrity, in defending peace in our modern world. All of us
understand the implications for our own borders, our own economies and our own countries,
if these principles are tossed aside. It is about our collective security, our collective
responsibility to maintain international peace and security. This is what this body is here to
do”.100
In a harsh and irrational respond, Ambassador Vassily Nebenzia of the Russian
Federation addressed the UN Security Council labelled the drafters of the resolution to be a
‘low grade provocation’, to force his country to use its veto. He said that: “Such openly
hostile actions on the part of the West, are a refusal to engage and cooperate within the
Council, a refusal of practices and experience gained over many years”. He claimed that
96 ICJ, “Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States of America),”
https://www.icj-cij.org/en/case/70 (accessed 10 October 2022).
97 BBC News, “Ukraine in Maps: Tracking the War with Russia,” https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-
60506682 (accessed 10 October 2022).
98 UN News, “Russia Vetoes Security Council Resolution Condemning Attempted Annexation of Ukraine
Regions,” September 30, 2022, https://news.un.org/en/story/2022/09/1129102 (accessed 10 October 2022).
99 Ibid.
100 Ibid.
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Proceedings: International Conference on Peace and Conflict Resolution (ICPCR) 2022
International Peace and Security: The Achievement of the United Nations and the Way Forward
“there had been ‘overwhelming’ support from residents in the four regions that Russia now
claims. The residents of these regions do not want to return to Ukraine. They have made an
informed and free choice, in favour of our country”. He finally concluded by saying that the
outcome of the deceptive referendums had been recognized by international observers and
already endorsed by the Russian Parliament as well as by presidential decrees, and hence
there will be no turning back.101
In 2022, the Security Council was composed of Albania, Brazil, China, France, Gabon,
Ghana, India, Ireland, Kenya, Mexico, Norway, Russian Federation, United Arab Emirates,
the UK, and the US.102 The draft resolution was supported by ten members of the Security
Council, i.e., Albania, France, Ghana, Ireland, Kenya, Mexico, Norway, United Arab
Emirates, the UK, and the US. Four members, i.e., Brazil, China, Gabon, and India abstained
from the voting. Russian Federation vetoed and voted against the resolution.103
Again, it can be observed that the permanent member of the Security Council and also a
party to the dispute - Russian Federation - involved in the voting and not only voted negative
but also vetoed as the permanent member despite the fact that it should abstain from voting
under Article 27 (3) of the UN Charter. This is an extreme example of the violation of the
principle of natural justice - i.e., nemo judex in causa sua - in the decision making process of
the Security Council.
IX. CONCLUSION
In a nutshell, the Security Council is tasked with the primary responsibility to keep
international peace and security in accordance with the purposes and principles of the UN on
behalf of its Members. All decisions made by the Security Council are binding on all the UN
members and thus it possesses quasi-executive, quasi-legislative and quasi-judicial power at
the international level. It is paramount for an organisation of this calibre to make its decisions
in line with the principles of natural justice, namely, audi alteram partem (no order should be
made without hearing the other side) and nemo judex in causa sua (a man should not be a
judge in his own cause).
So far, the Security Council invites a party to a dispute to participate in its discussions
regardless of whether a party to such a dispute is member of the Security Council or even
member of the UN. Obviously, this practice is in line with the principle of natural justice, i.e.,
audi alteram partem. Again, by virtue of Article 27 (3) of the UN Charter, the Security
Council requires a party to a dispute to abstain from voting in decisions making relating to
Chapter VI and Article 52 (3) of the UN Charter. This requirement is also in line with the
principle of natural justice, i.e., nemo judex in causa sua. Nevertheless, there is no
consistency in practice and this principle is regularly violated in several occasions.
Accordingly, authors recommend that a party to a dispute shall abstain from voting in
decisions not only relating to Chapter VI and Article 52 (3) of the UN Charter but also in all
decisions of the Security Council by virtue of being a party to the dispute which disqualified
it from voting as such regardless of whether it is a permanent or non-permanent member of
the Security Council, a member of the UN, or a non-UN member. Only then, the decision
making processes at the Security Council would properly uphold the principles of natural
justice.
101 Ibid.
102 United Nations, “Security Council Membership,” https://research.un.org/en/unmembers/scmembers
(accessed 10 October 2022).
103 UN News, “Russia Vetoes Security Council Resolution Condemning Attempted Annexation of Ukraine
Regions,” September 30, 2022, https://news.un.org/en/story/2022/09/1129102 (accessed 10 October 2022).
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Proceedings: International Conference on Peace and Conflict Resolution (ICPCR) 2022
International Peace and Security: The Achievement of the United Nations and the Way Forward
22 October 2022
E-ISBN 978-967-491-267-3
p. 35-40
4. AFGHANISTAN IN THE SPOTLIGHT: ‘WAR’
OR INTERACTION WITH ‘TERRORISM’?
Mohammad Naqib Eishan Jan
Professor, Ahmad Ibrahim Kulliyyah of Laws,
International Islamic University Malaysia
Email: [email protected]
Ashgar Ali Ali Mohamed
Professor, Ahmad Ibrahim Kulliyyah of Laws,
International Islamic University Malaysia
Email: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
Terrorism is widely recognised as a threat to international peace and security.
Sometimes it goes beyond the threat level and manifests itself in action, a prime
example being the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks that killed nearly three
thousand people in New York City, Washington, and Shanksville, Pennsylvania.
The incident prompted the United States to declare the so-called "Global War on
Terrorism" and, after blaming the Taliban and al-Qaeda for the deadly incident,
launched a military operation in Afghanistan on October 7, 2001 that deposed the
Taliban's government, and replaced by a corrupt and incompetent regime.
However, the Taliban fought back and, after 20 years, the war on terror failed
resulting in the return of the Taliban back to power on 15th August 2021. Now the
US, its allies and even the UN, which in the past considered the Taliban either as
“terrorists” or the “harbourers of terrorism”, are now interacting with them. What
went wrong that led to the defeat of the global war on terror? Who is responsible
for its failure in Afghanistan, those who started this so-called war, the corrupt
republican regime of this country or all of them? The initiators of this war
promised Afghans freedom from the yoke of terrorism, democracy and not
abandoning the country, what happened to those promises? Why are the people of
Afghanistan still victims of terrorism after twenty years of war? This article
critically revolves around these questions and concludes that the Global War on
Terror has not only failed to defeat terrorism in Afghanistan, but with its defeat, it
has emboldened terrorist groups everywhere. The fear is that, if no effective
actions taken. not only Afghans will continue to burn in the fire fueled by
terrorists, but also more 9/11 attacks may be on the way.
Keywords: Terrorism, September 11, global war on terror, Afghanistan, Taliban,
Al-Qaedah.
Proceedings: International Conference on Peace and Conflict Resolution (ICPCR) 2022
International Peace and Security: The Achievement of the United Nations and the Way Forward
I. INTRODUCTION
Terrorism generally involves the unlawful use of violence and intimidation, especially against
civilians, in pursuit of political or religious goals. Although this ugly phenomenon is not new,
it has been raised as a threat to international peace and security after the incident of
September 11, 2001. The incident, which included terrorist attacks on the cities of New York
and Washington, shocked America and the world, killing about three thousand people and
forcing the United States to declare the so-called "Global War on Terror" - A war that "began
with al-Qaeda [and its ‘harbourers’, the Taliban].”
The so-called global war on terror rises numerous questions in the curious minds that
need to understand the rational of this war, its rate of success and outcome. This paper
attempts to examine what the global war on terror involved? When it started, against whom,
what it achieved and why it, after twenty years struggle, spending trillions of dollars, and
wasting of hundreds of thousands of human lives, ended? If it was aimed to stop terrorists
around the world, has it achieved its goal? To be more specific, has it defeated terrorism or
terrorism defeated it? If it is the latter, then has the global war on terror not been a waste of
time, destruction of infrastructures and lose of human lives in the affected countries, like
Afghanistan and Iraq?
This paper critically revolves around the above questions and concludes that the Global
War on Terror has not only failed to defeat terrorism in Afghanistan, but with its defeat, it has
emboldened terrorist groups everywhere. The fear is that, if no effective actions taken. not
only Afghans will continue to burn in the fire fueled by terrorists, but also more 9/11 attacks
may be on the way.
II. DEFINITION OF TERRORISM
Let us begin the discussion with the basic question of what terrorism is. This seemingly easy
question requires a complex answer. Considering the political complexity of the term
"terrorism" and its, often, selective use outside the domestic and international legal arenas,
terrorism has not yet been given a universally accepted definition. Despite the fact that the
United Nations has adopted several international treaties regarding specific forms of
terrorism such as hostage-taking, nuclear terrorism and terrorist bombings104, there are
differing views on the definition of terrorism, including whether can be committed by states
or only non-state actors are capable of committing acts of terrorism, and whether violent acts
carried out in cause of self-determination can amount to acts of terrorism.
The fact, however, is that terrorism, whether domestic or international, certainly
involves horrendous violent acts, whether committed by State actors or non-state actors, that
aims to influence the policy of a government by intimidation or coercion or to affect the
conduct of a government by mass destruction, assassination, kidnapping or other violent acts
criminally dangerous to human life. Terrorism basically involves criminal acts “calculated to
provoke a state of terror in the general public, a group of persons or particular persons for
political purposes are in any circumstance unjustifiable, whatever the considerations of a
political, philosophical, ideological, racial, ethnic, religious or any other nature that may be
invoked to justify them…”105
According to the United Nations Security Council terrorism refers to “criminal acts,
including against civilians, committed with the intent to cause death or serious bodily injury,
or taking of hostages, with the purpose to provoke a state of terror in the general public or in
a group of persons or particular persons, intimidate a population or compel a government or
an international organisation to do or to abstain from doing any act, which constitute offences
104 These treaties can be found online, see http://www.un.org/terrorism/instruments.shtml.
105The Declaration on Measures to Eliminate International Terrorism, UN GA, Res, 1994.
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Afghanistan in the Spotlight: ‘War’ or Interaction with ‘Terrorism’?
within the scope of and as defined in the international conventions and protocols relating to
terrorism, are under no circumstances justifiable by considerations of a political,
philosophical, ideological, racial, ethnic, religious or other similar nature…”106
The International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism of
1999107 in its Article 2 (b) considers as terrorism “any other act intended to cause death or
serious bodily injury to a civilian, or to any other person not taking an active part in the
hostilities in a situation of armed conflict, when the purpose of such act, by its nature or
context, is to intimidate a population, or to compel a government or an international
organisation to do or to abstain from doing any act.”
None of the above definition of terrorism is being universally accepted. Nevertheless,
there are common elements that characterises terrorism. For instance, terrorism usually
involves the threat or use of violence by a group of persons (state and non-state groups),
which may or may not be organised. Such threat or use of violence is unpredictable and
commonly affects civilians or other parties that are not part of any hostilities, and may have
political, philosophical, ideological, racial, ethnic, or religious purposes or objectives, or may
seek to compel the government, an international organisation, or another group to do or
abstain from doing an action., or may destabilise or destroy the political, constitutional,
economic, or social structures of a country, an international organisation, or another group, or
may intimidate or cause a state of terror on the civilian population.
III. HISTORY OF TERRORISM AND TYPES OF TERRORISM
Not only is the definition of terrorism complex, but the history and types of this ugly
phenomenon are complex. However, the history and types of terrorism are beyond the scope
of this article, and therefore there is no need to provide a full discussion of these two aspects
of terrorism. Suffice it to say that terrorism is nothing new. In fact, in some ways, what is
known today as terrorism predates the modern term used to describe it by millennia.
What is new is the evolution of terrorist acts over the years. They are becoming more
deadly and destructive, such as in the case of 9/11 or the suicide bombings that are used from
time to time in certain areas of the world that terrorise innocent people. Terrorism shows no
mercy to anything with its complex but cowardly actions, even places of worship, schools
and universities are not safe from terrorism.
There are many types of terrorism, including, bioterrorism, cyberterrorism,
ecoterrorism, nuclear terrorism, domestic and international terrorism, etc., but this paper does
not deal with all of these issues, as it only discusses the war on terror, its failure, and the
effects of that failure.
IV. GLOBAL WAR ON TERROR: SUCCESS OR A FAILURE
The “global war on terror” involves “a comprehensive plan to seek out and stop terrorists
around the world.” The American led wars in Afghanistan in 2001 and Iraq in 2003, which
raised legality issues both as regard their initiation and the way they were conducted, were
part of the global war on terror. In both wars, hundreds of thousands of innocent people lost
their lives, many were injured, displaced, both inside and outside the country, private and
public property was destroyed or damaged, not to mention the loss of economic
opportunities. Changing regimes and corrupt and incompetent replacements half-heartedly
supported by the invaders all led to their failure to effectively control their respective
countries. Consequently, both Afghanistan and Iraq have not seen the face of peace and
security since the day of their invasions till today. In this sense, the global war on terror failed
106 UN SC Res 1566 (2004).
107 2178 UNTS 197, 39 ILM 270.
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Proceedings: International Conference on Peace and Conflict Resolution (ICPCR) 2022
International Peace and Security: The Achievement of the United Nations and the Way Forward
to achieve its objectives as it instead of eliminating terrorisms generated more terrorist cells,
which create huge headache not only to Afghanistan and Iraq but also to the region and the
world.
The global war on terror used to describe diplomatic, financial, and other actions taken
to deny financing or safe harbour to terrorists, but even in all these, though several countries
adopted laws to counter terrorism from all fronts, not so successful, as the situation in
Afghanistan exemplifies this failure. Yes, following the global war on terror the leader of Al-
Qaeda eventually eliminated, but Al-Qaeda as an organisation is still pretty alive under a new
leader.
The global war on terror supposedly not end “until every terrorist group of global reach
has been found, stopped and defeated.” Former US President told Congress days after the
attacks, on September 20, 2001 that “Our war on terror begins with al-Qaeda, but it does not
end there. It will not end until every terrorist group of global reach has been found, stopped
and defeated.”
However, the truth is that terrorism defeated the craft men of that ill-fated war ending it
with a devastating defeat, as the world watched how America polled out its forces from
Afghanistan abandoning the regime which it supposedly backed and in due process putting
the lives of all those individuals who worked with the US agencies, civilian or military, and
also with NATO forces at risk. Whatever gains made in the interval period between 2001 and
2021 lost within a day and yet the architect of the global war on terror did not care for they
already struck a deal with the Taliban whom they considered as terrorist and with whom they
fought for over twenty years.
V. CONSEQUENCE OF FAILURE OF THE WAR ON TERROR
The consequential result of the failure of the so-called war on terror is devastating to many,
especially, the people of Afghanistan, as the centre of that war was Afghanistan. On the
ground of fighting terrorism, the US and its allies invaded Afghanistan, deposed the Taliban
government, installed and backed another corrupt regime. The Taliban fought back and, after
20 years, the war on terror failed resulting in the return of the Taliban back to power on
August 2021. Now the US, its allies and even the UN, which considered the Taliban either as
terrorists or the harbourers of terrorism, are now interacting with the Taliban.
The objective of the so-called war on terror was to defeat terrorism and punish those
who harbour them, but the war ended without much success, as neither terrorism was
defeated nor its harbourers punished. The abrupt and harry ending of that war was
devastating especially to the Afghan people for they were and still are the victims of
terrorism. It has emboldened terrorists and those who harboured them, giving them free hand
to commit all kinds of crimes without fear of consequences, as there is no one dares to ask
them why.
The poor, armless and unfortunate Afghans have no means to combat terrorism alone.
All major players of the war on terror including the US and NATO have abandoned
Afghanistan and surrendered its people into the blood-stained hands of terrorism. By doing
this, they knowingly or unknowingly encouraged terrorists everywhere. Today, Afghans are
victims of terrorism, but this menace may sooner or later knock the doors of those major
powers who now deal with terrorism instead of combating them.
The war on terror supposedly fought "a radical network of terrorists and every
government that supports them" but ended by befriending those radical groups and
governments that supported them. The centre of this failed and legally questionable war was
Afghanistan. What exactly this war has achieved, except death, destruction, displacement of
people from their homes, towns and countries? Yes, the regime in this country was changed
and replaced by new one, but why it was abandoned by the powers helped it to be installed?
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Afghanistan in the Spotlight: ‘War’ or Interaction with ‘Terrorism’?
In Afghanistan the situation was so tragic that the Western backed regime not only left on its
own but the powers backed it concluded a deal with its armed opponents whom the West
used to fought for twenty years for being terrorist or the harbourers of terrorism. If, based on
a deal, power was to be handed over to a group that was called terrorists for years, why was
war declared against this group in the first place? Why twenty years of war?
Thus, the war on terror brought insecurity instead of peace, emboldened terrorists
instead of weakening them, and plunged Afghanistan in particular into a pit of misery without
achieving success. Educated Afghans left the country or looking for opportunities to leave.
Afghan girls are now deprived of secondary education, women are mostly not allowed to
work or basically excluded from public participation, freedom of the press is limited, there is
a lack of security, as there are suicide bombings of mosques and educational centres. This is
what we got in Afghanistan as the result of the failed war against terrorism. Afghanistan
today seems like a terrible place and no one feels safe there. Everyone lives in fear of arrest,
torture, humiliation and insult. No one is sure if there is another day to live. There is no news
about security, but there is a lot of news about suicide bombings and acts of violence that hurt
everyone physically and mentally.
VI. CONCLUSION
In short, the so-call war on terror and its failure has brought nothing to the people of
Afghanistan except death, destruction, displacement, both internal and external, and also
costs more than a trillion dollars of the US taxpayers, and yet it ended with no tangible result.
Having overserved the plight of Afghans subsequent to hurryingly withdrawal of US and
NATO forces and abandoning those Afghans who were their ally in the war on terror, I
wonder will there ever be a nation who would trust these major military and economic
powers in future. These powers promised never abandon Afghanistan to be the abode of
terrorists, but they breached that promise, surrendered the country to a militant group that
knows nothing how to govern Afghanistan both its internal affairs as well as its external
affairs.
The group, calling itself the ruling party in Afghanistan now, neither managed to earn
national legitimacy, as most people of Afghanistan reject it as usurper of power in the
country, nor it has earned international legitimacy, as no nation in this wide-world has
recognised it as the legitimate government of Afghanistan. At this moment, Afghanistan is
internationally isolated and this has caused so much misery to the people of Afghanistan in
terms of international trade, travel, etc. To most Afghans their precarious situation is caused
not only by the failure of the previous corrupt western backed regime that abandoned them,
but also the miserable failure of the so-called war on terror. Having observed the terrible
failure of that war in Afghanistan, I wonder why was it started in the first place. The twenty-
year plus war on terror if distanced to end the way it was ended, it should have never been
started, so that not many lost their lives and not so much property, both private and public,
destroyed. In fact, the global war against terrorism not only did it not defeat terrorism in
Afghanistan, but with its defeat, it emboldened terrorist groups everywhere, and it has led
some to fear that, if no effective action taken, more 9/11s may be on the way.
39
Proceedings: International Conference on Peace and Conflict Resolution (ICPCR) 2022
International Peace and Security: The Achievement of the United Nations and the Way Forward
22 October 2022
E-ISBN 978-967-491-267-3
p. 41-48
5. GLOBAL PEACE AND SECURITY: ISLAMIC
PERSPECTIVES
Tayyaba Razzaq
Visiting Assistant Professor, Sheikh Zayed Islamic Centre,
University of the Punjab, Pakistan
Email; [email protected]
ABSTRACT
Global peace and security is a core issue and a major shared aspiration now a day.
The power of religion can be used as a major force of unification among
divergent factions and hence it can play a key role in the promotion of social
peace & prosperity and reconciliation by bringing varying groups together to
establish and maintain constructive channels of communication and sustainable
collaboration. Persons with profound and obvious religious affiliations, on the
other hand have been often blamed for instigating extremism, fundamentalism,
violence, terrorism and bloodshed. Peace initiatives and peace process are
generally associated with peaceful settlement of disputes; concern for collective
security; disarmament; preventive diplomacy and functionalism. Disputes and
disagreements whether political, economic or ideological have been generally
settled either through use of power or through negotiations, i.e. brain power,
mediation, face to face interaction and dialogue. Peace initiatives provide a forum
for this purpose.
The culture of peace, as visualised by Islam, is not limited to a formal
understanding of concept of disarmament, collective security or peace as
functionalism. Islamic view of peace is comprehensive; it is more than a no-war
situation. The main purpose of religion Islam is to fulfill and satisfy personal,
psychological & social needs and make a person of good conduct. The purpose of
the study is to examine the Islamic understanding of peace which provides a
practical basis for a global order of peace.
This study also seeks to explain Islamic perspective for global peace and security
in a diverse society? This paper is an attempt to study the fundamental principles
of Islam and explore the golden precedents of peace and harmony and its
application in contemporary perspective. The methodology of this research study
is descriptive with an analytical tone.
Keyword: Global peace, security, communication, harmony.
I. INTRODUCTION
Peace, violence and social inequality; There have been varying definitions of the word
“peace” having focused on post-war situations ‘concluded that peace is the absence of war.
Proceedings: International Conference on Peace and Conflict Resolution (ICPCR) 2022
International Peace and Security: The Achievement of the United Nations and the Way Forward
However, peace is more than just the absence of direct violence or war.108 Peace is the key
player of social harmony, economic equity and political justice. It is a state of affairs wherein
people dwell together in harmony and tolerance. Where people have equal access to the
economic resources of their country and treated fairly and justly by politicians and those in
authority. Peace exists when individuals can freely work towards personal happiness without
infringing on other people’s liberties. 109 Indeed, peace and conflict studies have tended to
devote more attention to conflict than to peace, and peace has long been grossly under-
conceptualised. Global peace is acceptance harmony among people around the world.
II. DEFINITION OF VIOLENCE
Violence is identified when human beings are being influenced so that their actual somatic
and mental realisations are below their potential realisations. Personal or direct violence
involves actors who then cause direct harm through maiming or killing someone so that they
fail to reach their potential. The absence of direct or personal violence leads to negative
peace. Whilst there is no indication of attacks on people in this instance, there may be a
presence of structural (uneven distribution of resources) or indirect violence. Structural
Violence refers to social injustice and it is characterised by unequal access to education,
health, water, food, shelter and other basic services. It delays self-actualisation and in most
cases people fall short and fail to reach optimum potential realisation. The narratives of
people exposed to structural violence are underpinned by struggles, deaths, frustrations,
hopelessness and despondency.
Another cultural violence is the rhetoric and excuses those policymakers and politicians
give to justify the continued existence of social injustices within their society. The most
common one is the government’s lack of resources. Most countries that at one stage lived
under an oppressive regime such as colonialisation usually link the lack of change to historic
pasts.
III. RELIGION
A set of beliefs concerning the cause, nature, and purpose of the universe, especially when
considered as the creation of a superhuman agency or agencies Usually involving devotional
and ritual observances, and often containing a moral code governing the conduct of human
affairs. Human recognition of super-human controlling power and especially of a personal
god or gods entitled to obedience and worship, effects of such recognition or conduct of
mental attitude, particular system of faith and worship.
Religion is the set of beliefs, feelings, dogmas and practices that define the relations
between human being and sacred or divinity. It is defined by specific elements of a
community of believers: dogmas, sacred books, rites, worship, sacrament, moral prescription.
From our youngest years, we were taught that we should voluntarily obey the law; should
respect other people’s property, and not steal it. We were taught never to lie, and to respect
the life and freedom of others the same as your own.
Some praise these good works but attempt to marginalise the beliefs and practices that
motivate them. Such efforts are unfortunate. Distinct religious beliefs and practices are
fundamental to the moral actions they arouse. Examples abound of religious faith inspiring
communities to profound acts of charity and selfless service. These positive contributions
underscore the need to preserve the fundamental human right of religious freedom.
Indeed, preserving religious freedom also has its benefits. Bundled with other
freedoms, religious liberty boosts society’s socio-economic progress and reduces violent
108 Webel, C. (2007). Introduction: toward a philosophy and metapsychology of peace. In C. Webel & J.
109 Galtung, J. (1969). Violence, peace, and peace research. Journal of peace research, 6(3), 167-191.1969.
Galtung (Eds.), Handbook of peace and conflict studies (1st ed., pp. 3-13). Oxon: Routledge.
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Global Peace and Security: Islamic Perspectives
conflicts. 110As a result, societies are more likely to flourish when citizens have this freedom
to voice their deepest beliefs and highest ideals. In short, both religion and religious freedom
contribute to a more peaceful, stable and charitable society.
Religious instruction and belief remain today the lifeblood of society’s moral ethos. Not
only does religion teach virtue, it catalyses moral action. As such, religion plays an essential
societal role warranting special consideration.
IV. RELIGION AS PEACE BUILDING AGENT
The main purpose of the religion is to fulfill and satisfy social, personal and psychological
needs and make a person of good conduct
(1) Religion teaches us ethics to be followed
(2) Religion defines limitations of socialisation
(3) Religion strengthens the bonds among people
(4) Religion serves as an agent of social control by encouraging conformity to norms.
(5) Religion provides emotional support for people during difficult times.
(6) Religion helps people endure disappointment and suffering by providing a
comforting believing that harsh circumstances have a special purpose.
(7) Religion has constructed a society with set rules of morality and ethics that has
the power to control the individual’s behavior. Some Standard norms and code of
conduct are evolved to define acceptable and desired behavior to maintain and
stable particular human character. Sometimes moral and ethical rules formalised
and regarded as supernatural being.
(8) Every religion has given set of rules to make the society best. Equality, unity,
justice, mutual respect, sense of responsibilities, ownership, duties and rights,
security, safety and respect for entire humanity are the core and foundational
grounds of religion.
(9) Religion is a peace building agent; it controls the inner self that holds the
individual to social standards when external social pressure is absent .it is
governing instinct. Religion does not create standards or determine ends.
(10) It is simply a check to individual action, a pause, which gives the more, racial
impulses, an opportunity to come to the front.
(11) It lowers down the level of anxiety and depression. It gives incentives and peace
of mind & heart by practicing particular things.
(12) It commits high rewards to their followers some in this world and some in the life
here after.
110 Khel, Dr. Muhammad Nazeer Kaka. “The Rights of Non-Muslims in Islamic State.” Dialogue (Qurtuba
University of Science & IT), n.d. 4 Mansoorpuri, Qazi Muhammad Suleman Salman. Rah.
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Proceedings: International Conference on Peace and Conflict Resolution (ICPCR) 2022
International Peace and Security: The Achievement of the United Nations and the Way Forward
V. ISLAMIC POINT OF VIEW ON PEACE BUILDING
Islam means peace. The word ‘Islam’ derives from Arabic word ‘Salama’ or ‘Salima’ which
means peace. It is the universal message of peace from the Creator to His creatures. The holy
Qur’an and Hadith literature reveals the fact that Islam supports universal peace and
affluence. Its aim is the advancement of all human beings. It attempts to construct those
settings of social life without which no man can pursue, in general, to be himself at his best.
The holy Qur’an addresses all human beings at large and not to Muslims alone. It is the
universal message of peace from the Creator to His creatures. Islam has given space to
minorities in Islamic state and also given the acceptability level of social customs, lifestyles,
human identity and dignity and the material world. Personal needs like security, recognition,
acknowledgement from others, freedom, trust, belongingness and relationships are all
important needs to be satisfied in a legal and religious way. Islam calls all human beings
including People of the Book by emphasising on commonalities for a peaceful coexistence. It
makes those commonalities as a foundation for alliance and fraternity among world religions.
Islam is a religion of love and non-violence. It conveys the message of peace and
brotherhood to all nations and societies and inculcates mutual brotherhood, love, respect and
mutual justice for all mankind.
5.1 Quranic Point of View on Peace Building
Islam itself is a religion of peace and tranquility and urges others to live in peace and
tranquility. The greatest proof that Islam is a religion of peace and security is that the
Almighty has chosen the name ‘Islam’ for the religion He has sent. The fact stated in Quranic
verse111 is an important basis of tolerance that everyone should keep in mind that the
religious and intellectual differences between different classes are natural, eliminate them.
111 Surah 11 Hud, Ayat 118-119.
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Therefore, generosity should be shown and the religion, beliefs and ideologies of others
should be encouraged to be tolerated and religious, political, intellectual and scientific
tolerance should be dealt with them. “Security” and “faith” is peace. It is the religion of
humanity and the bearer of peace and security. Islam is distinguished from all religions of the
world in that it is based on peace and security and religious tolerance.
Regarding tolerance, this verse of surah al-Maida ; O you who have believed, be
persistently standing firm for Allah , witnesses in justice, and do not let the hatred of a people
prevent you from being just. Be just; that is nearer to righteousness. And fear Allah; indeed,
Allah is Acquainted with what you do” 112is the basis that tolerance is synonymous with
justice, meaning that everyone who has differences in religion, culture, language or race,
whether he is a friend or enemy should be treated with justice, he should not be discriminated
against because of his religion, etc., nor should he be subjected to any kind of abuse or
oppression. The meaning of this verse is that your enmity and enmity towards any nation
should not persuade you to abandon justice, but you have to do justice in all circumstances.
Religious freedom is guaranteed so that no one is forced to change his religion and
belief said ; There shall be no compulsion in [acceptance of] the religion. The right course
has become clear from the wrong. So whoever disbelieves in Taghut and believes in Allah
has grasped the most trustworthy handhold with no break in it. And Allah is Hearing and
Knowing.”113 It has to do with heart and conscience. This principle is very important when it
comes to tolerance. The same fact is stated in Surah Kafirun: “You have your way, and I have
my Way.”
In the Light of Quran Allah almighty say’s: “Invite to the way of your Lord with
wisdom and good instruction, and argue with them in a way that is best. Indeed, your Lord is
most knowing of who has strayed from His way, and He is most knowing of who is [rightly]
guided.114 Even if non-Muslims live with Muslims in a country, Islam instructs Muslims to
adhere to Islamic teachings of peace and security, justice, equality and tolerance, compassion,
generosity and humanity. Introduce non-Muslims to Islam and invite them to the religion
with effective advice and wisdom, but do not try to force or coerce them in any way, if they
do not believe and talk and debate about religion. If you want to do it, you have to have a
very generous and cheerful religious dialogue.
In all the religions of the universe, the right of human life to live with respect and
dignity and peace and contentment has been given priority, Praise be to God! Islam has the
greatest status in this regard.” And cause not corruption upon the earth after its reformation.
And invoke Him in fear and aspiration. Indeed, the mercy of Allah is near to the doers of
good.”115
“Say, ‘Come, I will recite what your Lord has prohibited to you. [He commands] that
you not associate anything with Him, and to parents, good treatment, and do not kill your
children out of poverty; We will provide for you and them. And do not approach immoralities
- what is apparent of them and what is concealed. And do not kill the soul which Allah has
forbidden [to be killed] except by [legal] right. This has He instructed you that you may use
reason’.”116
In many places in the Quran, Allah points out the importance of forgiveness and
encourages his people to forgive others and maintain peace.117 The verse118 talks about how
112 Surat Al-Mā'idah 5; 8.
113 Surat Al-Baqarah2; 256.
114 Surat An-Naĥl 125.
115 Al-'A`rāf 7; 56.
116 Al-'An`ām 6; 151.
117 Al imran 3; 134.
118 Yasin 36; 40.
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Allah has created the universe as a model of peace and tranquility where every object
performs its function in harmony with others. There are a number of other Quranic verses that
are based on peace, kindness, equality & justice – proving that Islam is a religion of peace.
5.2 Prophet’s Point of View on Peace Building
A man asked the Holy Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him): O Messenger of
Allah! Which Islam is better? It is said by Prophet Muhammad (pbuh): In the Ahadith:119
“Islam is the best of the person) from whose tongue and hand all people are safe.”
Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) has given rules for violence prevention and non-violence:
Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) said, “Never aspire for confronting your enemies (in a fight).
Pray to God to be among those who seek living peacefully with others. But if ever you
confront them (in a fight) be patient and know that Heaven is as close to you as the shades of
the swords.”120
In the legal text of the Medina Charter, which is described as the first constitution of the
City of Medina’s government which was founded by the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) in the
first year of the Migration, he laid down this principle of peace for all.
Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) demonstrated patience and tolerance to negative reactions:
During the first thirteen years of Prophet Muhammad’s prophetic mission in Mecca, he faced
opposition on his monotheistic message and unleashed a heavy toll of physical and economic
persecution upon Islam’s weakest followers. Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) unconditionally
forbade retaliation and enjoined a complete and patient commitment to nonviolence.
When the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) finally returned to the city of Mecca with
victory, he came in with a powerful army of 10,000 strong, could take revenge but he forgave
them all. The story of a woman who threw garbage on Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) explained
his patience and tolerance. Prophet always liked negotiation. He made Treaties for
Peacemaking.
Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) was always an unbiased arbitrator and leader who acted
justly to defend the middle ground. His ability to arbitrate was recognised not only by the
Muslims, but also by the non-Muslims. . For some of the legal problems that occurred among
the Jews, the Prophet ruled according to Jewish law. His commitment to justice and his
reliable character were well-known long before he became a Prophet. Prophet Muhammad
(pbuh) always promoted tolerance and inter-communal harmony. He was always constructive
in his relationships with people, whether they were believers or not.
5.3 Skills of Effective Communication
Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) was someone who understood the importance of communicating
with people; he did not converse or embrace only believers. Rather he saw all people,
irrespective of religion, language, race, sex, social status or role as possessing value and thus
he established good communication with all of them. Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) brought the
divine message into a form that people could perceive, hear and feel, about which they could
read, talk and write; he set examples that could be brought to life and practiced. As a prophet,
Muhammad's mission and goal was to establish a good dialogue with people and to
communicate; to do this he not only used the various means of communication that belonged
to his era, he also took into account the psychological peculiarities of the individual and
society in order to present the message in the best and most effective way.
119 Ahmad ibn Hanbal, Al-Musnad, 2: 187, No. 6753.
120 Al Bukhari, Muslim and Abu Dawoud.
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5.4 The Need of Dialogue Culture for Peace Building
The need of dialogue can be stated as follows:
(1) Because of the increasing rate of changing environment and rapid learning
(2) Because of the growth of technological complexity, knowledge-based distributed
information and peaceful society.
(3) Consequently, the different social groups will show a greater tendency to break
down into subunits.
(4) The effectiveness depends upon valid communication.
Lack of Communication Skill
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5.5 Islam as Tools for Peace Building
Islam can be a tool for peace building by
(1) Cooperation,
(2) Good relationship,
(3) Forgiveness,
(4) Socialisation,
(5) Equality,
(6) Communication, and
(7) Sharing at the time of happiness and sorrow are all social ethics that made an
honorable society.
VI. CONCLUSION
The study reveals that Religious instruction and belief remain today the lifeblood of society’s
moral ethos. Peace has been an essential component necessary for smooth human existence
and durable survival for all mankind. Peace can be achieved and promoted if the human
beings search for a common ground and purpose of existence in this world. Islam propagates
peace and stability both for the followers of Islam and those who do not believe in Islam.
Human nature is peace-loving and hates violence. Peace, tolerance and mutual understanding
have always been essential and inseparable components of a prosperous, vibrant and
productive social system in the recorded history of mankind. Human societies are Multi-
Religious (though in minority) & Multi-cultural societies. Difference is the essence of
natural diversity, a way of this universe. The alliance provides people with a framework for
collective action that serves noble humanity. Allama Iqbal says; “Religion is not a
departmental affair; it is neither mere thought, nor mere feeling, nor mere action; it is an
expression of the whole man”
It is in human nature to mingle up with his fellows. When people live together, some
problems due to difference of opinion are obvious and very common to face. Religion
bridges here and gives the proper guidance to tackle such situation so that nobody could
misuse his rights and power. Confusions among society are the fruit of misunderstanding and
lack of communication.
Islam provides a framework for collective action that serves noble human objectives for
the natural ambition; share for stability and peace, for prosperity and harmony that arises
from the cooperation and alliance of all. Providing civic or peace education alone cannot be
effective in addressing social inequality and structural violence. There is great need to study
Islam in its original sense and spread the right concept of the Islamic peace building. Finally,
the following points are recommended to peace building through creating space to talk,
improving our thought processes, bridging of mutual understandings, tolerating towards
different religious sects and minorities, and respecting each other’s religious beliefs and
practices.
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22 October 2022
E-ISBN 978-967-491-267-3
p. 49-64
6. ISLAM AS A RELIGION OF INTERNATIONAL
PEACE AND SECURITY: AN ANALYTICAL
STUDY
Fariha Fatima
Lecturer, Department of Islamic Studies,
Riphah International University, Pakistan
Email: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
Islam is a religion of peace and security, not only for human beings but for all
creatures, not only for Muslims but for all mankind. The demand of the name and
nature of Islam which itself means peace and security, is to promote tolerance,
brotherhood, harmony; establish justice, general wellbeing of everyone; and to
eradicate injustice, racism, terror, extremism and violence. The actual message
and teachings of Islam have been misunderstood sometimes due to negligence,
insufficient knowledge of Islam, misinterpretation of religious texts and
sometimes due to unjust propagandas against Islam. In any case, Islam has been
the target of criticism for a long time and regarded as the religion of war and
violence. In fact, Islam is a religion which advocates kindness to all human beings
and animals and responsible behvaiour towards environmental resources;
encourages peaceful co-existence with other communities; and stresses upon
religious, intellectual, social and political stability and prosperity. Islamic notions
of Amr bil Maruf wa Nahi anil Munkir (establishment of good and eradication of
evil), protection of fundamental human rights through Maqasid-e-Shari’ah
(objectives of Shari’ah) and the principle of non-compulsion in religion are the
remarkable features of Islam. A descriptive and analytical methodology will be
utilised in this research. The focus of this paper will be to examine the universal
Islamic principles of peace and security and identify the misconceptions against
the true nature of Islam in the contemporary world. The golden examples of
conflict resolution, peace building, protection of basic human rights, inter-faith
dialogue and Islamic approach to war and peace will be explored from the
Qur’anic injunctions, the Blessed Seerah of the Prophet Muhammad (peace be
upon him) and life of the Rightly-Guided Caliphs in order to highlight the peace-
loving nature of Islam.
Keywords: Islam, international peace and security, misconceptions.
I. INTRODUCTION
Islamic history is full of evidences and illustrations with respect to the peace loving nature of
Islam. As the Qur’an and Hadith are the primary sources of Islam, the golden examples of
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International Peace and Security: The Achievement of the United Nations and the Way Forward
peaceful coexistence with others in a society, conflict resolution and protection of
fundamental human rights will be provided from the Qur’anic Injunctions, Prophetic
Traditions and his blessed Seerah to remove misconceptions and answer the objections of
those who distort the real image of Islam and spread false rumours against its peaceful nature
either on purpose or due to misunderstandings. Starting from the advent of Islam in Arabian
Peninsula till the establishment of Islamic State of Madinah and Caliphate of Rightly Guided
Caliphs, examples will be given in order to clarify the doubts and prove that Islam advocates
only mercy, tolerance, harmony and security.
II. DEFINITION OF ISLAM
According to the Arabic dictionary “al-Mu’jam al-Waseet”, the word Islam is derived from
“salima/salama” which means “peace, security and safety”. Another relevant word is
“aslama” which means “to show obedience, to embrace Deen of Allah”. So Islam literally
means “to accept and practice the Shari’ah brought by the Messenger of Allah (peace be upon
him) with full obedience”.121
Imam Raghib Isfihani has defined the term Islam in the meaning of “sulh” means
“peace”. Embracing Islam verbally as well as believing by heart and fulfilling its
requirements practically leads towards the superior level of Islam which is “total surrender
and utmost subservience to the commands of Allah”122 as it implies in the verse 101 of Surah
Yousuf “Cause me to die in submission to You (O Allah)”.123
Allah Almighty said in Surah Room, verse 31: “So set your face to the upright religion.
Nature (made by) Allah is the one (upon) which He has created (all) mankind. No change
(should there be) in the creation (of) Allah. That (is) the correct religion, but most people (do)
not know.”124
Also one of the glorious names of Allah is As-Salaam “The Giver of peace and
protection”. So the peace, tranquility and security is the nature of Allah and that is the nature
of Islam as well; hence the Muslim is a person who accomplishes every commandment of
Allah alone willfully and submissively. The demand of the obedience towards Allah is that
the teachings of Islam i.e. peace, tolerance, mercy and empathy should be demonstrated by
the attitude and practice of a Muslim towards every creature. Therefore, a Muslim does not
oppress, terrify or violate anyone’s rights. This peaceful nature of a Muslim has been
described by the Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him) in following Hadith: “(The best
Muslim is the) one who avoids harming the (other) Muslims with his tongue and hands”125
III. ISLAMIC REFORMS IN ARABIAN PENINSULA
With the arrival of Islam, every aspect of human life whether religious, moral, social,
political or economical aspect was tremendously influenced and reformed.
Islam conferred upon the human life worth and sacredness so much so that the value of
a person’s life is equivalent to the entire mankind regardless of his/her background, status and
religion as declared in Surah al-Ma’idah, verse 32: “Whoever slays a soul unless for murder
(in punishment) or for spreading mischief in the land, it is as if he had slain all mankind; and
whoever saves a life, it is as if he had given life to all mankind”.126
121 Ibraheem Mustafa & Muhammad Ali an-Najjar, al-Mu'jam al-Waseet, trans. Ibn Sarwar Muhammad Awais
(Egypt: Al-Idarat al-‘Aamah Lil Mu’jamat Wa-Ihya lil-Turath, n.d.), 527.
122 Abul-Qasim Husayn Raghib Isfihani, Mufridaat-ul-Qur’an, trans. Maulana Muhammad Abduhu Fairozpuri
(Lahore, Pakistan: Islamic Academy, n.d.), 522-523.
123 Al-Qur’an, 12:101.
124 Al-Qur’an, 30:30.
125 Muhammad bin Ismail Bukhari, “Belief”, in Sahih Bukhari, Hadith no.11.
126 Al-Qur’an: 5:32.
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Islam as a Religion of International Peace and Security: An Analytical Study
It was narrated by Sahabi Abdullah bin `Amr that the Messenger of Allah (peace be
upon him) said: “Whoever killed a person having a treaty with the Muslims, shall not smell
the smell of Paradise though its smell is perceived from a distance of forty years.”127
During the time of ignorance, in several tribes of Arabia, there was a barbaric practice
of infanticide and especially female infanticide. The daughters could not create the source of
income therefore their birth was regarded as a burden. Allah Almighty altered this cruel
tradition with this commandment in Surah al-Isra’, verse 31: “And do not kill your children,
fearing poverty; We shall provide sustenance to them as well as to you; indeed killing them is
a great mistake.” 128
In Islam, it is forbidden to feel ashamed on the birth of a daughter, instead, the daughter
has been regarded the blessing (rehmat) of Allah for a family as their upbringing leads
towards the paradise according to different Ahadeeth.129
Not only the Bedouins but also the noble people of the tribe of Quraish who were
entrusted with the guardianship of Ka’bah and most of them belonged to the elite class, were
equally involved in the evil and illegal practices of theft, robbing the caravans, cheating in
financial transactions and fraudulent behavior in weight and measure, gambling and charging
and taking interest which corrupted the society.130 Just like human life, a person’s property
also holds grave importance in Islam. That’s why, Allah Almighty has given commandment
in Surah Nisa, verse 29: “O Believers! Eat not up your property among yourselves unjustly
except as a trade amongst you, by mutual consent”.131
In his Last Sermon (Khutba Hajjat-ul-Wida), the Messenger of Allah (peace be upon
him) said: “Indeed, your blood, your wealth, your honor, is as sacred for you as the
sacredness of this day of yours, in this city of yours, in this month of yours”.132
Gender discrimination from the time of ignorance has been annihilated. Women have
been granted rights individually in spirituality, upbringing, education, inheritance, marriage,
divorce, child custody, politics and employment. A man whether he is a father, brother,
husband or a son is responsible to look after, protect and provide sustenance to the women of
his family. There are a lot of injunctions in the Book of Allah and Ahadeeth of His
Messenger about fulfillment of rights and kindness towards women for instance, in Surah
Nisa and Surah Noor, many verses were revealed concerning the matters specifically related
to the women.133 Compassion and justice towards one’s wife is ordained in the verse 19 of
Surah Nisa in the following words: “………Live with your wives in a way that is fair and
kind……….”134
A man is obliged to treat his wife with love, respect and loyalty. S ahabi Abu Hurairah
narrated that the Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him) said: “The best of you are those
who are best to your women.”135
Brutality against slaves and violation of their rights was abolished. Allah’s Messenger
said: “Your slaves are your brothers. Allah has placed them in your care so feed them with
127 Muhammad bin Ismail Bukhari, “Jizyah and Mawaada’ah”, in Sahih Bukhari, Hadith no.3166.
128 Al-Qur’an: 17:31.
129 Arif Billah Maulana Shah Hakeem Muhammad Akhtar, “The Blessings of Daughters in Islam from Quran
and Hadith”, accessed September 10, 2022, http://blog.nooresunnat.com/the-blessings-of-daughters-from-quran-
o-hadith/.
130 Al-Qur’an: 2: 278-279.
131 Al-Qur’an: 4:29.
132 Muhammad ibn Isa Tirmidhi, “Tafsir ul Qur’an”, in Jami’ Tirmidhi, Hadith no.3087.
133 Al-Qur’an: 4:34.
134 Al-Qur’an: 4:19.
135 Muhammad ibn Isa Tirmidhi, “Suckling”, in Jami Tirmidhi, Hadith 1162
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what you eat and clothe them with what you wear and do not burden them beyond their
capacities and if you burden them (beyond their capacities), then help them.”136
Courtesy and kindness towards neighbours has been emphasised to such extent that
Allah’s Messenger declared: “He is not a believer whose stomach is filled while his neighbor
goes hungry”.137
Allah’s Messenger (peace be upon him) warned the Muslims and advised them
regarding the protection of rights of the non-Muslim minorities: “Beware, if anyone wrongs a
contracting man (Dhimmi living in an Islamic state) or diminishes his right or forces him to
work beyond his capacity or takes from him anything without his consent, I shall plead for
him on the Day of Judgment”.138
Islamic clemency is not limited to the human beings. Islam has enjoined to show
humanity to other creatures as well, such as animals and it has strictly admonished inhuman
treatment with them. According to a Hadith, a man was granted salvation due to his act of
kindness towards a thirsty dog as he quenched its thirst.139 According to another Hadith, a
woman was tortured in Hell as she kept a cat locked up and didn’t feed it until it died.140
Shari’ah has bounded the Believers by certain obligations towards parents, children,
spouses, relatives, neighbours, servants, individuals in society and animals whose fulfillment
is mandatory so that the purpose of Islam of establishment of a peaceful and secure
environment for every individual would be achieved.141
Moreover, Islam has introduced a democratic Islamic state in which the highest
authority is possessed by Allah Almighty and He is the Law-Giver. The Islamic state is a
welfare state in which the Islamic government plays a decisive role in safeguarding and
promotion of social and economic well-being of the citizens (both Muslim and non-muslims).
Islam has introduced a political system with the unique features of shoora (consultation),
department of justice which is free from pressure (physical or monetary), codification of laws
on the basis of Shari’ah, Ijtihad,142 right of freedom of expression, Bayt-ul-Maal (public
treasury) as an Amanah (trust)143 and self-accountability of the rulers.144
As a peaceful religion, Islam eliminated all wicked traditions detrimental for society
and elevated the spiritual, social, ethical, economic and political status of the Muslims.145 By
spending their life in accordance with the laws, principles and values of Islam, the Muslims
found glory and success in the world.
IV. NOTIONS OF ISLAM WHICH GUARANTEES PEACE AND SECURITY
4.1 Peace, Mercy and Security: Predominating Characteristics of Islam
The Bearer of the Revelation (peace be upon him) has been depicted in the following way:
“We have sent you forth (O Prophet) as nothing but mercy to (people of) the whole world”.146
136 Muslim bin Hajjaj, “Oaths”, in Sahih Muslim, Hadith no.1661(a).
137 Muhammad bin Ismail Bukhari, “Neighbours”, in Al-Adab Al-Mufrad, Hadith no.112.
138 Abi Dawud Sulayman ibn al-Ash’ath, “Kitab Al-Kharaj, Wal-Fai' Wal-Imarah”, in Sunan Abi Dawud, Hadith
no.3052.
139 Muhammad bin Ismail Bukhari, “Oppressions”, in Sahih Bukhari, Hadith no.2466.
140 Muhammad bin Ismail Bukhari, “Distribution of Water”, in Sahih Bukhari, Hadith no.2365.
141 Naseem Akhter and Abdul Qadoos, “Islam Is The Religion of Peace: Analytical Review from the Life of
Holy Prophet (peace be upon him)”, Burjis 4, no.2 (December 2017): 16.
142Muhammad Hamidullah, “The Political System of Islam”, in Introduction to Islam ,
https://hamidullah.info/political-system-islam-dr-muhammad-hamidullah/.
143 Sayyad Abul A’ala Maudoodi, Khilafat-o-Mulookiyat (Lahore, Pakistan: Idarah Tarjuman al-Qur’an, n.d),
83-96.
144 Jurji Zaydan, Tarikh al-Tamaddun al-Islami (Tehran, Iran: Amir Kabir Publication, 1906).
145 Muhammad bin Ismail Bukhari, “Belief”, in Sahih Bukhari, Hadith no.18.
146 Al-Qur’an: 21:107.
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Islam as a Religion of International Peace and Security: An Analytical Study
The Deen brought by the Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him) recommends worships
which strengthen a person physically, mentally, ethically and spiritually; proposes a healthy
lifestyle, pure and hygienic food to eat; and advises to engage in sensible, productive and
beneficious activities. There is always an absolute logic and wisdom of Shari’ah behind the
legality or illegality of things. Food choices have a deep impact on human nature. That’s the
reason, only herbivorous, peaceful and docile animals like cow, goat and chicken are allowed
to eat while the carnivorous, ferocious and filthy animals like pig and dog are prohibited to
consume as their meat causes heart diseases, Asthma, Alzheimer and several types of worms.
Likewise, the societies with the culture of alcohol consumption have comparatively higher
rate of diseases like Aids, paralysis, cancer; social problems like divorce, domestic violence;
and crimes like rape and homicide.147
4.2 Adaptability, Pragmatism and Removal of Hardship: Some Other Distinctive
Characteristics of Islam
Islam is a religion of nature (deen-e-fitrah). It has qualities of being flexible and adaptable
according to the demand of time and circumstances. Bringing ease, removing hardship and
converting prohibited things into permissible in case of extreme necessity (with certain rules)
are the striking principles of general application in Shari’ah and they manifest the greatest
mercy of Allah. These principles are present at many places in the Qur’an and Prophetic
Traditions in different contexts, some of them are as follows: “Allah intends for you ease and
does not intend for you hardship”.148 “He (Allah) has not placed upon you any hardship in the
religion”.149
Religious, ethical and legal restrictions are compulsory for the development of a
righteous and peaceful society150, however relief, alleviation (takhfeef) and concession
(rukhsah) have been granted by Shari’ah in the state of dire necessity.151 Following verse of
Surah Baqarah is the best illustration of this lenience and ease. “He (Allah) has only
forbidden you what dies of itself (carrion) and blood and the flesh of pig, and that which is
slaughtered as a sacrifice for others than Allah. But if one is forced by necessity without
willful disobedience or transgressing due limits, then there is no sin on him”.152
Examples of removal of hardship, adaptability and pragmatism of Islam include
performing tayammum (ablution with dust) in case of unavailability of water, not observing
saum (obligatory fast in Ramadan) during journey or sickness, consuming haram food in case
of complete absence of halal food or an alcohol-based medicine in order to save a life153,
organ transplantation & blood transfusion to save a life, test-tube babies for the parents who
can’t have children with certain religious and ethical conditions determined by Muslim
scholars.154
147 Zakir Abdul Karim Naik, Gosht Khori Jaiz Ya Na-jaiz, trans. Sayyad Imtiyaz Aahmad (Lahore, Pakistan:
Dar-ul-Nawadir, 2006), 68-74.
148 Al-Qur’an: 2:185.
149 Al-Qur’an: 22:78.
150 Muhammad Taqi Ameeni, Fiqh-e-Islami Ka Tarikhi Pas-e-Manzir (Lahore, Pakistan: Islamic Publications
PVT, LTD, 1996), 289.
151 Abdul Malik Irfani, Islami Qanoon Key Kulyaat (Lahore, Pakistan: Qanooni Kutab Khana, n.d), 117.
152 Al-Qur’an: 2:173.
153 Mehmood Ahmad Ghazi, Muhaziraat-e-Fiqh (Lahore, Pakistan: Al-Faisal Nashiraan, 2005), 143-151.
154Mohammad Hashim Kamali, “A Collective Ijtihad For Solving Society’s Problems”, last modified 2006,
https://www.irfi.org/articles4/articles_5001_6000/a%20collective%20ijtihad%20for%20solving%20societyhtml
.html.
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4.3 The Objectives of Shari’ah (Maqasid-e-6KDU)L¶DK
The Objectives of Shari’ah are the fundamental goals aspired by Islamic law in connection
with shielding and strengthening the benefits of mankind and guarding them against every
damage and corruption.155
From Magna Carta to the French Revolution, the Universal Declaration of Human
Rights (UDHR) and Cairo Declaration of Human Rights (CDHR), attempts have always been
made in order to safeguard the rights of people on national and global level.156 The
Objectives of Shari’ah is a multi-dimensional Islamic version of protection system of
fundamental human rights. The primary purpose and outcome of these Objectives is
elimination of harm and enforcing what is beneficial for mankind157 as declared by the
Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him): “There should be neither harming nor reciprocating
harm”.158
As Shari’ah has expressed utmost abhorrence of cruelty, injustice and violating one’s
right of life, honour and property, it has formulated strict laws to preserve those fundamental
human rights. The required steps for the execution of these laws and removal of all
prospective hindrances to the enforcement of these laws are also the part of the Objectives of
Shari’ah. They are total six in number and their relevance to the protection of six human
rights is explained here.159
4.3.1 Preservation of Life
It lies in the law of retribution (qisas). The Qur’an emphasises the sanctity of life in the
following verse: “O Believers! Retribution is prescribed for you in case of murder; if a
freeman is guilty then the freeman; if a slave is guilty then the slave; if a female is guilty,
then the female. But if any remission is made by the brother of the slain (heir of the victim),
then grant any reasonable demand and compensate him with handsome gratitude (payment of
the blood money)”.160
The law of qisas, on the one hand, grants security to the individuals of society by
deterring people from the offence of murder and on the other hand, it provides justice to the
family of the victim avoiding the possible chances of vengeance by the heir himself and
taking law in his own hands.161
4.3.2 Preservation of Honour
It is engraved in the law against false allegation of adultery in the Qur’an i.e. fixed
punishment (hadd-e-qadhaf): “And those who accuse chaste women and then do not produce
four witnesses, flog them with eighty lashes and do not accept their testimony ever after, for
they are the wicked transgressors”.162
155 Shihabuddin al-Qarafi, Al-Dhakheerah (Beirut, Lebanon: Dar al-Arab, 1994), 478.
156 Ibid., 23.
157 Abdul Haq Ansari, “Islamic Ethics: Concept and Prospect”, The American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences
6, no. 1 (1989): 86.
158 Abu Zakariya Yahya bin Sharf An-Nawawi, Arba’in an-Nawawi, Hadith no. 32, trans. Ameer-ud-Din Meher,
(Lahore, Pakistan: Al-Badar Publications, 2009), 170.
159 Jasser Auda, Maqasid Al-Shariah as Philosophy of Islamic Law-A Systems Approach (London: International
Institute Of Islamic Thought, 2008), 1.
160 Al-Qur’an: 2:178.
161 Sayyad Qutab Shaheed, Fi-Zilal-al-Qur’an, trans. Sayyad Maroof Shah Sheerazi (Lahore, Pakistan: Idarah
Manshoorat-e-Islami, 1997), 247.
162 Al-Qur’an: 24: 4
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Slandering a chaste person for adultery without valid proofs is a despicable offence in
Islam. That is why it has a severe punishment in Islamic law which guarantees the reputation
and dignity of the individuals of a society and prevent others to violate the limits of Allah.163
Some other guiding principles suggested by Islam for the protection of the honour of
human beings include prohibition of spying, suspicions, mockery, backbiting and calling one
another by offensive nicknames, respecting others’ privacy, keeping one’s secret and
verification of news about others.164
4.3.3 Preservation of Lineage
This objective is achieved through prohibition of free mixing between two genders and a
cautious, dignified and responsible relationship between them i.e. marriage which will protect
them from immorality and indecency like a castle protects the people inside. Islam has
blocked the way of fornication as it leads towards many social problems including “birth of
illegitimate children, confusion with respect to ascertaining the paternity of such children,
irresponsible parents, spread of sexual diseases and immorality in a society”. Following
penalty (hadd-e-zina) has been enforced by Allah Almighty in case of fornication by an
unmarried person: “Those who fornicate whether female or male, flog each one of them with
hundred lashes”.165
However, for the married fornicators, penalty is stoning to death which is specified in
Hadith as such people transgress the limits of Allah even when they have legal means to
gratify their sexual desire.166 These penalties have been prescribed to secure one’s lineage,
family system as well as stability of human race.
4.3.4 Preservation of Property
The wisdom behind the fixed punishments of theft (hadd-e-sariqah) and robbery (hadd-e-
harabah) is to protect the right of ownership of wealth. “As for the thief, male or female, cut
off the hands of both. This is a recompense for what they have done and an exemplary
punishment from Allah”.167 “The recompense of those who wage war against Allah and His
Messenger and do mischief in the land is only that they shall be killed or crucified or their
hands and their feet be cut off on the opposite sides, or be exiled from the land.”168
These punishments set an example for people and terminate the threat to the belongings
of every individual in a community by hindering the way of illegitimate means of acquiring
property.
4.3.5 Preservation of Intellect
This objective contributes in mental health of human beings and this purpose is fulfilled by
avoiding intoxication to preserve the functions of brain169 as well as indulging in time-
wasting and aimless activities; pondering over the signs of Allah, practicing Ijtihad to resolve
the issues faced by Muslims; and seeking knowledge, conducting research, making
163 Abu Abdullah Muhammad bin Ahmad al-Qurtabi, Tafseer-e-Qurtabi, trans. Peer Muhammad Karam Shah
(Lahore, Pakistan: Zia-ul-Qur’an Publications, 2012), 486-492.
164 Al-Qur’an: 49: 6-12.
165 Al-Qur’an: 24:2.
166Muhammad bin Ismail Bukhari, “Kitab al-Hudood” in Sahih Bukhari, Hadith No. 6814, trans. Muhammad
Dawood Raaz (Lahore, Pakistan: Maktabah Tarjuman, 2004), 174.
167 Al-Qur’an: 5: 38.
168 Al-Qur’an: 5: 33.
169 Mohammad Kamal al-Din Imam, Al-Daleel Al-IrshadiIla Maqasid al-Shari'ah al-Islamiyyah (London: al-
Maqasid Research Centre, 2007), 3.
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innovations and discoveries.170 Guidelines to achieve this objective are mentioned in the
following verses: “And those who, when reminded of the ayaat (signs, verses, evidences,
lessons) of their Lord, do not fall upon them deaf and blind (they do not act upon them
without knowledge rather they reflect on and try to understand them).”171 “O believers!
Indeed, intoxicants, gambling, [sacrificing on] stone alters [to other than Allah] and divining
arrows are defilement from the work of Satan, so avoid (all of) it so that you may be
successful.”172
The penalty (hadd-e-shurb-ul-khamr) for the consumption of alcohol is eighty lashes
which has been specified through the consensus of the Companions during the era of the
Caliph Umar (may Allah be pleased with him).173
4.3.6 Preservation of Religion
Faith is a matter of vital importance in everyone’s life as it helps to determine the religious
identity of an individual and shapes his/her course of life. Everyone has a right as well as
responsibility to protect and propagate his/her religion. This objective of Shari’ah can be
achieved, on a personal level, through the observance of diverse obligatory and voluntary
worships like prayer, fasting, charity, hajj, umrah, recitation of Qur’an, remembrance of
Allah and preaching (dawah);174 and it can be carried out by government and law-
enforcement authorities through legislation and implementation of Islamic laws and jihad to
defend Muslim territories etc.175 Negligence in preservation of religion leads towards
spreading evil, social and moral decline and eventually fall of Muslim Ummah. Significance
and strategies to be carried out for the preservation of religion has been described in many
Qur’anic verses and Ahadeeth: “Fight in the cause of Allah ‘only’ against those who wage
war against you, but do not exceed the limits. Allah does not like transgressors”.176 “He who
amongst you sees something evil should modify it with the help of his hand (using force); and
if he has not power enough to do it, then he should do it (change the evil) with his tongue
(advising, preaching), and if he is unable to do so, (even) then he should (abhor it) in his
heart, and that is the least of faith.”177
Those who are unprejudiced and have knowledge and proper understanding of Islamic
laws, will be able to comprehend that the wisdom of Allah behind the severe penalties of
above-mentioned offences is to deter people from violation of fundamental human rights and
consequently to protect the interests of people and build up a peaceful society which is the
primary objective of Shari’ah.
4.4 Enjoining Good and Forbidding Evil (Amr-e-%LO 0D¶UXI :D )1DKL $QLO
Dawah (preaching and propagation of Deen-e-Islam) is a collective responsibility of the
Believers. Amr-e-Bil Ma’ruf Wa Nahi Anil Munkir is a continuous jihad and this Islamic
notion possesses the elements of peace, mercy and security in itself. Conveying the true
message of Islam to people results into the improvement of their social and ethical condition.
They will avoid immorality, corruption and crimes and adopt ethical and peaceful life style
170 Mohamad Akram Laldin, Islamic Law: An Introduction (Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: International Islamic
University Malaysia, 2006), 25.
171 Al-Qur’an: 25:73.
172 Al-Qur’an: 5:90.
173 Anwarullah, The Criminal Law of Islam (Islamabad, Pakistan: Shari’ah Academy, International Islamic
University, 2005), 202.
174 Al-Qur’an: 3: 110.
175 Mohamad Akram Laldin, Islamic Law: An Introduction (Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: International Islamic
University Malaysia, 2006), 18.
176 Al-Qur’an: 2:190.
177 Muslim bin Hajjaj, “Faith”, in Sahih Muslim, Hadith no. 49(a).
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by following the blessed role model of the Messenger of Allah.178 That’s why, Allah
Almighty said: “Let there be a group among you who call others to good, and enjoin what is
right, and forbid what is wrong: those who do this shall be successful”.179
For inter-faith and intra-faith dialogue, Dawah strategies should be based on the
following principles of Shari’ah so that it could be resulted into religious tolerance and
peaceful coexistence: “Call people to the path of your Lord with wisdom and good advice
and argue with them in the most courteous way.”180 Also: “there is no compulsion in
religion”.181
4.5 Islamic Rules of War: Jihad Vs. Terrorism
Terrorism, putting someone’s life, dignity and belongings in danger or causing chaos and
instability in a state has no room in Islam. With respect to the strong bonding among the
Believers, the Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him) said: “You see the believers as
regards their being merciful among themselves and showing love among themselves and
being kind, resembling one body, therefore, when any part of the body is not well then the
whole body shares the sleeplessness and fever with it”.182
Islamic term “Jihad” has many types and one of them is jihad-bil-saif which means to
fight in the way of Allah with the intention of self-defense as well as to end the persecution
and tyranny of the disbelieving enemies to defend Muslim territories which is exactly in
compliance with the principles of Shari’ah and that’s why, Allah Almighty has permitted
Jihad in the following verse: “Permission (to fight for self-defense) is given to those against
whom fighting has been launched (first) because they have been wronged and Allah is
powerful to give them victory.”183
Following Hadith is related to the ethical rules of war which eradicated the roots of the
previous unethical and barbaric practices of the winning parties in war: “D o not kill women
or children or an aged, infirm person. Do not cut down fruit-bearing trees. Do not destroy an
inhabited place. Do not slaughter sheep or camels except for food. Do not burn bees and do
not scatter them. Do not steal from the booty, and do not be cowardly”.184
The ten phenomenal instructions of war given by Caliph Abu Bakr (may Allah be
pleased with him) to the military commander Usama bin Zayd (may Allah be pleased with
him) at the time of departure are stated here:
(1) Always fear Allah as He knows what the hearts conceal.
(2) Never become deceitful and treacherous.
(3) You must not mutilate the dead bodies of the slain enemies.
(4) Do not damage worship places.
(5) Do not slay a woman, old man, children and the civilians who did not participate
in fight and do not harm saints / priests and followers of other religions.
(6) Do not cut or burn the flowers’ trees or the fruit bearing trees (Do not ruin or burn
gardens).
(7) Do not destroy populated areas.
(8) Do not kill goats, camels and cattle belonged to the enemy except what you need
as food.
178 Khalid Mahmood Shaikh, Da’wah in Modern Times (Karachi, Pakistan: Royal Book Company, 2000), 97-
99.
179 Al-Qur’an: 3:104.
180 Al-Qur’an: 14:125.
181 Al-Qur’an: 2:256.
182 Muhammad bin Ismail Bukhari, “Al-Adab”, in Sahih Bukhari, Hadith no.6011.
183 Al-Qur’an: 22:39.
184 Malik bin Anas, Muwatta Imam Malik, Hadith no.10.
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(9) Do not act cowardly.
(10) Do not be fraudulent in the booty.185
Some more Islamic rules of war are mentioned here. Nonaligned individuals and
countries will not be dragged in war. Traders, farmers, representative of enemies, servants,
sick and handicapped people, injured and war-captives from conquered territories will not be
harmed. Attack at night or unannounced attack, home invasion, looting, dishonoring women
of enemies is strictly forbidden.186
Above-mentioned Qur’anic Injunctions, Ahadeeth and rules of war clearly prove that
Islam has no tolerance for terrorism and violence and those who accuse Islam being a religion
of aggression and terrorism, it is either due to their lack of knowledge and misunderstanding
of verses and Ahadeeth about Jihad or their claims are based on propaganda to defame the
peaceful nature of Islam.
4.6 Universality of Peace and Security Promulgated by Islam
Muslims are directed to fulfill their obligations at home as well as in community and on
national as well as international level; show respect to other’s religious and political
ideologies and sentiments; and be kind, constructive and responsible citizens of society and
towards environment (which demands cessation of deforestation, unethical deadly scientific
experiments and several types of pollution e.g. throwing trash, biohazard waste and
chemicals on land and in seas and oceans)187 as wishing for the wellbeing of the creatures of
Allah and relieving their pain is exactly in accordance with the obedience of Allah and His
Messenger and this is the real purpose and message of Islam. The kind, peaceful, productive
and cooperative nature of a Muslim is well-portrayed in the following Hadith: “Your smiling
in the face of your brother is sadqah (charity, virtue) for you, commanding good and
forbidding evil is sadqah, your giving directions to a man lost in the land is sadqah for you,
your seeing for a man with bad sight is a sadqah for you, your removal of a rock, a thorn or a
bone from the road is sadqah for you. Your pouring what remains from your bucket into the
bucket of your brother is sadqah for you.”188
V. PROPHET MUHAMMAD’S EXALTED ROLE MODEL AS A PIONEER OF
PEACE AND SECURITY
Some noteworthy examples from the blessed Seerah of the Messenger of Allah (peace be
upon him) are given here which prove him to be a pioneer and advocate of peace, kindness,
humanity and security. The fact is asserted in the following verse 128 of Surah Tawbah:
“There certainly has come to you a messenger from among yourselves. He is concerned by
your suffering, anxious for your well-being, and gracious and merciful to the believers.”189
5.1 Reconstruction of the Holy Ka’bah and Fixing of the Black Stone (Hajr al-Aswad)
Before the advent of Islam, reconstruction of the Holy Ka’bah is a well-known and
inspirational incident of Prophet Muhammad’s arbitration and conflict resolution strategy
when he came up with an amazing and peaceful solution to fix the Black Stone in the Ka’bah
by placing it on a sheet of cloth, lifting up the sheet by all leaders of Quraish and then fixing
185 Muhammad Sohail Bhatti, Political and Cultural History of Islam (Lahore, Pakistan: Bhatti Sons Publishers,
n.d.), 176-177.
186Muhammad Tahir-ul-Qadri, Dehshat Gardi aur Fitnah-e-Khawarij (Lahore, Pakistan: Minhaj-ul-Qur’an
Publications, 2010), 73-201.
187Muhammad Ramzan Akhtar, “Towards an Islamic Approach for Environmental Balance”, Islamic Economic
Studies 3, no. 2 (June 1996): 65-68. http://iesjournal.org/english/Docs/137.pdf.
188Muhammad ibn Isa Tirmidhi, “Righteousness and Maintaining Good Relations with Relatives”, in Jami’
Tirmidhi, Hadith no.1956.
189 Al-Qur’an: 9:128.
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the Black Stone in the Ka’bah by himself, thus hindering the serious consequences of the
possible uproar among the tribes of Quraish.190
5.2 Persecution by the Disbelievers of Makkah
The occasion of Ta’if is an evidence of Prophet Muhammad’s vision, patience and tolerance.
He visited the major tribes of Ta’if with the purpose of preaching Islam but instead of
showing their traditional hospitality, they made the street urchins chase him, who stoned and
injured him until his footwear were drenched in blood. Even after this cold-hearted act by the
people of Ta’if, the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) neither cursed them nor did he
implore Allah to punish them,191 rather he said: “I rather hope that Allah will raise such
people from among their descendants who will worship Allah alone and will not associate
partners to Him”.192
In the Battle of Uhad, the Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him) was badly injured
and his front teeth were damaged, still he did not harbor grudge against his antagonists. Not
only did he forgive them but he also prayed for them:193 “O Lord, forgive my people, for they
do not know (what are they doing)”.194
Habbar bin Aswad inflicted serious injury to Hazrat Zainab (Prophet’s eldest daughter),
which caused her miscarriage and later death. He was granted forgiveness when he came to
the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) and confessed his crime.195
He did not penalise Abdullah bin Ubay bin Salul, the leader of hypocrites in Madinah
who falsely accused Hazrat Ayesha (Prophet’s beloved wife) and spread spiteful rumours
about her. He gave his shirt to enshroud him196 and also offered funeral prayer for him.197
Due to this benevolence and generosity of the Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him), one
thousand people from the family of Abdullah bin Ubay embraced Islam.198
Prophet Muhammad’s beloved uncle Hamza (may Allah be pleased with him) was
martyred by the hands of a Sahabi Wahshi (during his days of disbelief) in the Battle of Uhad
and his dead body was mutilated by a Sahabiyah Hind bin Utbah, wife of Sahabi Abu Sufyan
(during her days of disbelief). They were pardoned by the Messenger of Allah (peace be upon
him) after their repentance and acceptance of Islam.199
5.3 Brotherhood (0X¶DN-e-KMDadWinah), Pact of Madinah (Mithaq-e-Madinah) and
Treaty of Hudaibiyah (Sulah Hudaibiyah)
These are Prophet Muhammad’s strategies for the establishment of a peaceful society. After
his arrival to Madinah, the Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him) established brotherhood
(Mu’akhat) between the Emigrants of Makkah and the natives of Madinah (the Helpers)
190 Naseem Akhter, “Islamic History”, in Hadrat Muhammad (peace be upon him) to Caliphs (Karachi,
Pakistan: Hafiz Muhammad Abid Sayed, 2016), 104-105.
191 Naseem Akhter and Abdul Qadoos, “Islam Is The Religion of Peace: Analytical Review from the Life of
Holy Prophet (peace be upon him)”, Burjis 4, no.2 (December 2017): 8-9.
192 Muhammad bin Ismail Bukhari, “Beginning of Creation”, in Sahih Bukhari, Hadith no.3231.
193 Ustaz Ridhwan Mohd Basor, “4 Lessons of Love and Mercy from Prophet Muhammad tehporP ;ﷺ
Muhammad was a Mercy to the Worlds and Showed Enduring Love to God's Creations”, last modified 2021,
https://muslim.sg/articles/4-lessons-of-love-and-mercy-from-prophet-muhammad.
194 Muslim bin Hajjaj, “The Book of Jihad and Expeditions”, in Sahih Muslim, Hadith no.1792(a).
195 Maulana Wahiduddin Khan, Muhammad: A Prophet for All Humanity (n.d.), 331.
196 Abd al-Rahman Nasa’i, “Funerals”, in Sunan Nasa’i, Hadith no.2020.
197 Muhammad ibn Isa Tirmidhi, “Tafsir”, in Jami’ Tirmidhi, Hadith no. 3098.
198 Muhammad ibn Jareer al-Tabari, Tafsir al-Tabari, (Cairo, Egypt: Markaz al-Buhooth wal-Darasaat al-
‘Arabiyah wal-Islamiyah, 2001), 206.
199“Five People the Prophet Muhammad Forgave That No One Else Would”, last modified 2017,
https://Onepathnetwork.Com/Five-People-The-Prophet-Muhammad-Forgave-That-No-One-Else-Would/.
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which is a remarkable demonstration of social justice of Islam.200 The objective of instituting
this bond of brotherhood in faith201 was to settle the emigrants socially and financially,
overcome the economic crisis, inculcate the significance of self-sacrifice, cooperation and
cordiality among the Believers for the sake of a peaceful and harmonious society.202
The Pact of Madinah was the world’s first codified Constitution of an independent
Islamic state which included rights and responsibilities of both Muslims and Non-muslims,
administration, law and order situation and laws related to diverse fields of life.203 This Pact
was the Prophet Muhammad’s attempt of development of a peaceful religious and socio-
political coexistence among the Believers and other communities of Madinah.204 This
landmark Pact had served as a Code to ensure mutual respect and religious freedom205 of the
multi-religious and multi-ethnic society of Madinah206 as well as a contract among all
inhabitants of Madinah to join forces against the intrusion and armed attack of the
disbelievers of Makkah.207
In the sixth year of hijrah, the Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him) departed for
Makkah along with his Companions with the intention of paying the visit to the House of
Allah. Sahabi Uthman (may Allah be please with him) was sent as an envoy to inform the
disbelievers of Makkah that the Muslims did not wish to subjugate them. His delayed arrival
was presumed his possible death and a pledge was taken place by the Companions at the hand
of Allah’s Messenger (peace be upon him) known as Bayt-e-Ridwan with the purpose of
taking revenge for Sahabi Uthman’s death.208 Realising the seriousness of the situation, the
disbelievers of Makkah sent their envoy to the Muslims for dialogue, this is when the Treaty
of Hudaibiyah was documented. Although, most of the conditions of this treaty were
apparently offensive and unfavorable yet it proved to be in the wider interest of the Muslims
later. This treaty was an evidence of enormous patience and tolerance of the Muslims;
profound expediency and prudent approach of Allah’s Messenger (peace be upon him) and
his conflict-resolution skills.209
200 Mustafa as-Sibaa’ie, The life of Prophet Muhammad; Highlights and Lessons, trans. Nasiruddin al-Khattab
(Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: International Islamic Publishing House, 2004), 78-79.
201 Saifur Rahman al-Mubarakpuri, Al Raheeq Al Makhtum (Lahore, Pakistan: Al-Maktabah al-Salfiyyah, 2000),
94.
202 Muhammad al-Ghazali, Fiqh-us-Seerah (Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: International Islamic Publishing House,
1999), 202-205.
203 Riaz Aahmed Saeed, “Mithaq-e-Madinah; A Universal Charter of Peace, An Analytical Study in the Modern
Socio-Political Context”, Al-Basirah 3, no.2 (2014): 32, https://iri.aiou.edu.pk/wp-content/uploads/
2016/07/misaq-almadinah-a-universal-charter-of-peace.pdf.
204 Reeza Bustami, Reevany Bustami and Bustami Sharbani, “Medina Constitution: Exploration of Foundational
Tenants for Multi Ethnic Business Community”, Asian CSR and Sustainability Review 2, no. 1 (November
2011): 29-43,
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/343006139_Medina_Constitution_Exploration_of_Foundational_Tena
nts_for_Multi_Ethnic_Business_Community_Medina_Constitution_Exploration_of_Foundational_Tenants_for
_Multi_Ethnic_Business_Community.
205 Al-Qur’an: 6:109.
206 Ismail Albayrak, “Signposts in Interfaith Relations”, Australian e-Journal of Theology 16, no. 1 (August
2010).
207Maulana Wahiduddin Khan, Paighambar-e-Inqilab (New Delhi, India: Good Word Books, 2011).
208 Saifur Rahman al-Mubarakpuri, Al Raheeq Al Makhtum (Lahore, Pakistan: Al-Maktabah al-Salfiyyah, 2000),
171.
209 Fida Ur Rahman, “Role of Islam in Global Peace-Building and Harmony: An Analysis of Pacts of Madina
and Hudaibiya”, Abhaath 3, no.10 (June 2018): 56.
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5.4 Prophet Muhammad’s Graciousness to the Non-Muslim Prisoners of the Battle of
Badar
From the times of the ancient civilisations to the modern era, war captives have never been
shown mercy. For the first time, in the history of mankind, the Messenger of Allah (peace be
upon him) altered this practice when instead of taking revenge from the war captives of the
Battle of Badar, he treated them with ultimate kindness and generosity. He decided to grant
them freedom in exchange of ransom and those who could not pay ransom due to poverty,
they were released after teaching reading and writing to the ten children of the Believers.210
During that time, when the Believers were going through financial crisis and extreme
shortage of resources, the Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him) was insightful enough to
see the bigger picture and preferred education over wealth.
5.5 Conquest of Makkah and General Amnesty
Throughout the history of mankind, not even once did it happen that after gaining victory
over a country, the conquered party would let the defeating nation go so easily. Those who
always denied, mocked and disrespected the Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him), tried
to execute him, took precious lives of his beloved ones in battles, who tortured the Believers
by every means, starved them, boycotted them and forced them to migrate, the Messenger of
Allah (peace be upon him) had the magnanimity to grant general amnesty to his blood-thirsty
adversaries.211 He asked from them: “O Quraish, how do you think I am going to deal with
you?” They said: “We hope for good treatment as you are a noble brother and son of a noble
brother”. Allah’s Messenger (peace be upon him) said: “Today I say to you what my brother
Prophet Yousuf said before me (to his brothers):212 “Today, there is no blame on you. May
Allah forgive you!”213 “Go, for you are free”.
5.6 Last Sermon (Khutbah Hajjat-ul-Wida) of the Prophet Muhammad (Peace Be Upon
Him): The First Ever Universal Charter of Human Rights214
The Last Sermon of the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him), delivered in 10th Hijri on
the occasion of Hajjat-ul-Wida, is not only a gist of entire Deen but also a charter of principle
human rights in Islam. Some of them are as follows:
(1) Right of life, honour and property.
(2) Rights of women, servants and individuals in the community.
(3) Eradication of racial bias and prejudice and maintaining social justice.
(4) Maintaining law and order.215
If we compare the Last Sermon (a charter which was given 1400 years ago) with
UDHR (Universal Declaration of Human Rights, which was presented in 1948), it can be
analysed that both are considered crucial from the perspective of individual and collective
human rights.216 However, some main differences are highlighted here.
210 Muhammad Sohail Bhutti, Political & Cultural History of Islam (Lahore, Pakistan: Bhutti Sons Publishers,
n.d.), 59.
211 Mustafa as-Sibaa’ie, The Life of Prophet Muhammad; Highlights and Lessons (Riyad, Saudi Arabia:
International Islamic Publishing House, 2003), 112-113.
212 Abu al-Fida Ismail Bin Umar, Tafseer Ibn-e-Kathir (Beirut, Lebanon: Dar-e-Tayyiba Lalnashru Altuze,
2005).
213 Al-Qur’an: 12:92.
214 Riaz Ahmad Saeed, “Human Rights in Islam and the West (The Last Sermon of the Prophet and UDHR)”,
Jihat al-Islam 6, no.2 (June 2013): 21.
215 Muhammad Selman Mansurpuri, Rahmatal-lil-Alameen, (Lahore, Pakistan: Maktaba Islamiah, n.d.), 229.
216 Ali Ahmari Moghaddam, “Towards International Islamic Human Rights: A Comparative Study of Islamic
Law with Universal Human Rights” (MA diss., University of Toronto, 2012), 94.
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The derivation source of human rights in Islam is the Divine Revelation (the Qur’an
and Hadith) which makes them more comprehensive, substantial and universal. On the other
hand, the derivation source of human rights mentioned in UDHR is human mentality and
legislation.
Human rights suggested by Islam are ethically, socially and legally binding and
practical. They have a mechanism for its execution and their violation is liable to penalty as
already explained under the point of the Objectives of Shari’ah and we find its practical
instances under the point of the Prophetic Seerah.
According to Dr. Abdul Qadir Khan: “The Last Sermon comes up with a system of
enforceable human rights. Each Islamic state on national level and each Muslim on individual
level is responsible to implement these human rights in their individual and collective life and
they are accountable to Allah in respect to these rights”.217
This law of accountability in front of Allah can be understood by the following Hadith:
“Surely! Everyone of you is a guardian and is responsible for his subjects”.218
Dr. Anis Ahmad has stated: “The reality that the United Nations has failed to enforce
human rights in its own member states makes it inevitable to review the human rights in the
West critically; to focus on the problems in their implementation; and to evaluate the very
philosophy and concept on which they are based”.219
In the West, there are a lot of controversies regarding basic human rights due to unclear
limitations in those rights and there are no specified limits and differences between freedom
of expression and freedom of religion, likewise right of privacy and right of a person’s
honour.220 While in Islam, human rights are reciprocal as they are obligations at the same
time. The primary objective of Islamic human rights, as it is evident from the Prophet’s Last
Sermon, is to form and uphold a society which administers peace, harmony and security on
personal as well as constitutional level without any discrimination.221 The Messenger of
Allah (peace be upon him) said: “Verily there is no superiority of an Arab over a non-Arab or
of a non-Arab over an Arab, or of a red man over a black man, or of a black man over a red
man, except the superiority gained through piety”.222
The above-mentioned unparalleled instances from the blessed Seerah are the evidences
that the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) is an embodiment of graciousness, peace
and forgiveness even in front of his staunch opponents. Such kind of forbearance,
compassion and sympathy is impossible to find in the history of mankind and the
unprejudiced critics also acknowledge this fact. “Surely, in the (life of) the Messenger of
Allah, there is a perfect example for you (to follow)”.223
Islam emphasises peacemaking and forgiveness more than revenge in order to maintain
mutual harmony, brotherhood and security in a society as proclaimed in the verse 34 of Surah
Fussilat: “(O Prophet), good and evil are not equal. Repel (evil) with that which is good; and
you will see that he, between whom and you there was enmity, shall become as if he were a
bosom friend (of yours).” 224
217 Abdu Qadir Khan, Pakistan Studies, (Islamabad, Pakistan: National Book Foundation, 2011), 89.
218 Muhammad bin Ismail Bukhari, “Ahkaam”, in Sahih Bukhari, Hadith no. 7138.
219 Anis Ahmad, “Human Rights: An Islamic Perspective”, Journal of Policy Perspectives 3, no. 1, 6.
220 Riaz Ahmad Saeed, “Human Rights in Islam and the West (The Last Sermon of the Prophet and UDHR)”,
Jihat al-Islam 6, no.2 (June 2013): 23.
221 Sultan Khan and Hassan Chaudhry, Social studies, (Lahore, Pakistan: Ashraf Brothers, 2011), 65.
222 Ahmad bin Hanbal, Musnad Ahmad, Hadith no. 22978.
223 Al-Qur’an: 33:21.
224 Al-Qur’an: 41:34.
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Islam as a Religion of International Peace and Security: An Analytical Study
VI. KINDNESS AND JUSTICE OF THE RIGHTLY GUIDED CALIPHS
The most accomplished rulers in the world’s history, personally trained by the Messenger of
Allah (peace be upon him), the four Rightly-Guided Caliphs are recognised for their reforms
and their humanity, justice and peaceful nature while treating their subjects:
After assuming the office as a Caliph, Hazrat Abu Bakr Siddique (may Allah be pleased
with him) said in his first speech: “The weakest among you shall be considered the strongest
by me until I secure his rights, if Allah wills; and the strongest among you shall be considered
the weakest by me until I take from him what is rightfully someone else’s, if Allah wills”.225
After his appointment as a Caliph, Hazrat Abu Bakr Siddique (may Allah be pleased
with him) was asked by a little girl while her eyes were filled with tears: “Who will milk our
goats as you have been appointed as Ameer-ul-Mu’mineen now”? On this, Caliph Abu Bakr
responded affectionately: “My dear daughter! I’ll not stop milking your goats. The position of
caliphate will never deter me to serve my people”.226
A Coptic Egyptian came to Caliph Umar (may Allah be pleased with him) with the
complaint of the son of Egyptian governor. He lost to the Coptic Egyptian in race but not
only did he claim the contrary but also he beat him by proclaiming: “You deserve this as I
am the son of nobles.” Hearing this plea of that oppressed boy, Caliph Umar handed over his
staff to him and told him: “Beat the son of nobles! He only bullied you because of his father’s
rank (of governance)”. However the Egyptian boy forgave him. That is when Caliph Umar
addressed his father (Egyptian governor) with these historical words: “O Amr, since when did
you start enslaving people while their mothers bore them free?”227
It was a practice of Caliph Umar to listen to the complaints of the people in the mosque.
Also he used to patrol on the streets at night in order to find out the problems of his subjects
and that how they were spending their life.228
Caliph Ali (may Allah be pleased with him) also used to have check on people and take
rounds of the markets to personally observe the behavior of the traders in their dealings with
customers.229
These earliest leaders of Islam spent their life with utmost simplicity and poverty and
never once let their status prevent them from serving people. The peaceful and merciful
nature of Islam implanted in their hearts and minds transformed them completely and they
ruled over the Islamic state in such a way that they are considered to be role model as ideal
statesmen even in today’s world by fair and neutral critics.
VII. CONCLUSION
The Western world and unfortunately many Muslims also have misconceptions about Islam
and they connect it to violence and oppression due to misinterpretation of religious texts as
well as the negative rumours spread by media against Islam and Muslims through a malicious
propaganda. Those who commit violent activities and spread disorder in the name of Islam,
have nothing to do with this Deen. Islam, in its every aspect including dogmas, religious
practices, values and laws, is mercy and peace for every creature of the world. The advocate
of Islam Muhammad (peace be upon him) has been entitled and demonstrated as the mercy
225 Imad Uddin Abul-Fida ibn Kathir, Al-Bidayah wal-Nihayah (Karachi, Pakistan: Nafees Academy, 1987),
305-306.
226 Ishtiaq Ahmad, Short History of 1st Caliph Abu Bakr, trans. Suhail Babar (Rawalpindi, Pakistan: Romail
House of Publications, 2012), 3.
227“Governing Lessons from The Second Caliph”, accessed September 2, 2022, https://medium.com/
@a.greish1/governing-lessons-from-the-second-caliph-b33205d21f33.
228 Ishtiaq Ahmad, Short History of 2nd Caliph Omar Farooq, trans. by Suhail Babar, (Rawalpindi, Pakistan:
Romail House of Publications, Rawalpindi, 2012), 9.
229 Sayyad Abul A’ala Maudoodi, Khilafat-o-Mulookiyat, (Lahore, Pakistan, Idarah Tarjuman al-Qur’an, n.d),
94.
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International Peace and Security: The Achievement of the United Nations and the Way Forward
for entire world. The pioneers of the Islamic state, Rightly-Guided Caliphs, established
exceptional and exemplary governance with the predominant characteristics of peace,
harmony, justice and security. It is a crucial demand of time to understand the actual nature of
Islam and discourage the conspiracies of the enemies of Islam who are trying to defame and
degrade it. For that purpose, acquiring sufficient knowledge about the teachings of Islam and
spreading awareness among people through print media, electronic media, curriculum for
students and legislation by Muslim states are essential steps to be taken.
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International Peace and Security: The Achievement of the United Nations and the Way Forward
22 October 2022
E-ISBN 978-967-491-267-3
p. 65-76
7. PROMOTING PEACE JOURNALISM DURING
CONFLICT SITUATIONS: CHALLENGES AND
PROSPECTS
Ahmad Masum
Senior Assistant Professor, Faculty of Shariah & Law,
Sultan Sharif Ali Islamic University, Negara Brunei Durussalam
Email: [email protected]
Seeni Mohamed Nafees
Assistant Professor, Faculty of Shariah & Law,
Sultan Sharif Ali Islamic University, Negara Brunei Darussalam
Email: [email protected]
Muhamad Hassan Ahmad
Assistant Professor, Ahmad Ibrahim Kulliyyah of Laws,
International Islamic University Malaysia
Email: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
The traditional approach of the media to conflict has been shaped by power,
politics, and profit. However, in recent decades, the debate over “peace
journalism” as a conflict resolution strategy has gained traction, with several
scholars arguing in favour of the concept. Most wars would have gone unnoticed
if there were no journalists to report on them and no news organisations to send
reporters to conflict zones. At the same time, the media frequently prioritises
conflict and war over playing a positive role in efforts to achieve peace. As a
result, peace journalism is viewed as an alternative model to traditional methods
of war reporting. Many questions about the effectiveness of peace journalism and
its application to other forms of media, however, remain unanswered. Despite its
noble goal, it ignores the media’s numerous nuances and tends to highlight the
exceptional, spectacular, and negative aspects of war coverage. This paper
attempts to find answers to these questions. The paper relies on available data and
thematic discourse on peace journalism during conflict situations. The paper
contends that the traditional media’s approach to conflict situations is undergoing
a paradigm shift. Additionally, the paper concludes that while peace journalism
has traditionally been associated with conflict resolution and advocacy, it is now
more widely accepted as an attitude that frames a news story. Finally, the paper
recommends that the media should play a role in conflict situations. The nature of
that role—as a perpetrator of a conflict or an agent of peace—is heavily
influenced by the media’s framing and agenda-setting. In addition, the paper also
recommends that to have any influence on how news is produced and scrutinised,
Proceedings: International Conference on Peace and Conflict Resolution (ICPCR) 2022
International Peace and Security: The Achievement of the United Nations and the Way Forward
it is necessary to address the structural constraints of news production. Peace
journalism, and especially its practical implications, must be discussed in the
context of journalism studies, where it resonates with ongoing efforts to promote
excellence in journalism.
Keywords: Conflict situations, journalists, media, peace journalism, war, media.
I. INTRODUCTION
Peace journalism is not a novel idea. It began in the 1970s, when Johan Galtung drew
parallels and contrasts between peace and war reporting.230 War journalism, he argued, is
biassed toward violence because it focuses on the events of a conflict and their physical
details, such as the number of people killed or the type of weaponry used.231 It does not
investigate the processes that led to the conflict, including its causes, consequences, and
impact on human lives. Furthermore, war journalism frequently portrays conflicts in terms of
defeat or victory for either side. Peace journalism, on the other hand, provides journalists
with an alternative approach.232 While providing a physical account of the conflict, they
should also provide structural and cultural causes of violence as they affect people's lives.
Such news stories aim to provide a platform for communication among all conflicting parties
while also suggesting potential solutions or initiatives to reduce the intensity of the conflict.
In other words, peace journalism inherits a normative impetus, with “peace” as its central
value and analytical starting point.233 Peace journalism, as a subset of socially responsible
journalism, can be defined as a programme or framework of journalistic news coverage that
contributes to the process of making and maintaining peace, or the nonviolent resolution of
conflicts. In summary, peace journalism seeks to provide more balanced news coverage by
seeking alternative interpretations, focusing on context, humanising all sides of a conflict,
exposing the deception of various actors, revealing the suffering, pain, and trauma of warfare,
and de-anonymising evildoers.
It is unavoidable to state from the outset that recent developments in war reporting,
particularly the conflict situation between Russia and Ukraine, have played a critical role in
igniting a critical debate on conflict and war coverage. Generally, there seem to be two ways
of looking at a conflict: the high road and the low road, depending on whether the focus is on
the conflict and its peaceful transformation or on the meta-conflict that comes after the root
conflict, created by violence and war, and the question of who wins. The media even confuse
the two, talking about ‘conflict’ when they mean ‘violence’. At the backdrop of this
confusion, the paper aims to examine the issue of whether peace journalism could be
effectively promulgated and spread. In other words, if journalists were convinced of peace
journalism desirability, could they implement it in their daily professional work? In order to
examine this issue, the paper is divided into four parts, excluding the introduction. The first
230 Johan Galtung and Mari Holmboe Ruge, “The Structure of Foreign News: The Presentation of the Congo,
Cuba and Cyprus Crises in Four Norwegian Newspapers,” Journal of Peace Research 2, no. 1 (1965):64-77,
https://doi:10.1177/002234336500200104 (accessed August 8, 2022).
231 Ibid.
232 Johan Galtung, “High Road, Low Road – Charting the Road for Peace Journalism,” Cross Cultural Research
7, no.4 (1998): 2, https://journals.co.za/doi/pdf/10.10520/EJC111753 (accessed August 8, 2022).
233 Thomas Hanistzsch, “Journalists as Peacekeeping Force? Peace Journalism and Mass Communication
Theory,” Journalism Studies 5, no. 4 (2004): 483, https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/
14616700412331296419 (accessed August 8, 2022). See also Johan Galtung, “Peace Journalism—A
Challenge”, in Journalism and the New World Order Vol. II: Studying War and the Media, eds. W. Kempf & H.
Luostarinen (Goteborg, Sweden: Nordicom, 2002), pp 259-272.
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Promoting Peace Journalism During Conflict Situations: Challenges and Prospects
part addresses the definition of peace journalism in terms of media coverage during conflict
situations, i.e., internal and international. The second part deals with peace journalism and
other forms of media. For example, what is the difference between good journalism and
peace journalism? It is important for us to know whether the two can basically be put under
one roof. The third part analyses the challenges and prospects in advocating for peace
journalism during conflict situations. By promoting peace journalism, for example, we run
the risk of devolving into a subjective endeavour that disregards long-held journalistic norms
of objectivity, neutrality, and impartiality. Regardless of the challenge, the paper submits that
there is no argument that violence should not be reported. However, the first victim in a war
is not the truth; the truth is only the second victim. The first victim is, of course, peace.
Therefore, the idea of peace journalism should not be viewed as a threat to information
suppression in conflict situations. What really matters is balanced reporting by the media
houses. The fourth part focuses on the conclusion. This part will embrace some
recommendations in terms of media coverage of news during conflict situations.
II. DEFINITION OF PEACE JOURNALISM
Peace journalism has received increased attention from academics and practitioners in recent
decades as a useful tool for de-escalation of wars and violence. Peace journalism is a field
with a wide range of perspectives and, at times, it encompasses interdisciplinary approaches.
Several scholars have worked in this area and developed the concept of peace journalism as a
way to give journalists covering conflicts a more meaningful role, and such studies are
gaining traction. Peace journalism is a type of journalism dedicated to investigating the root
causes of conflict in order to create opportunities for society at large to consider and value
non-violent responses to conflict. The paper highlights the following definitions of peace
journalism put forward by scholars and practitioners in the field of journalism.
Lynch and McGoldrick define “peace journalism” as the process by which editors and
reporters make decisions about what to report and how to report it that allow society at large
to consider and value nonviolent conflict resolution.234 At its core, peace journalism seeks to
revolutionise the lines of dispute, and it does so by attending to and looking for nonviolent
voices, as well as voices that are not magnifying or using conflict-oriented tonalities such as
“our causalities,” “their attackers”. Beyond that, it delves into the underlying level of physical
violence (which can include the use of weapons, burning, or even killing) to investigate
cultural issues such as racism, economic gain, religion, nationalism, and revenge.235 It is
worth noting that Lynch and McGoldrick went beyond the conceptual definition to define
“peace journalism” as a method. In their words, “peace journalism is an analytical method for
evaluating reportage of conflicts, a set of practices and ethical norms that journalism could
employ to improve itself, and a rallying call for change”.236 The peace journalism approach
proposes the use of dispute management to overhaul the long-standing tenets of journalism,
which are accuracy, balance, and non-partisanship candor in reporting.237 In addition, peace
journalism allows audience members and news receivers to anticipate, look forward, and see
the value in nonviolence. Furthermore, Lynch and McGoldrick suggest that peace journalism
creates a novel part that connects storytellers, their sources, the stories they tell, and their
234 See Jake Lynch and Annabel McGoldrick, Peace Journalism (Gloucestershire: Hawthorn Press Limited,
2005), p 5.
235 Robert A. Hackett, “Is Peace Journalism Possible? Three Frameworks for Assessing Structure and Agency in
News Media,” Conflict and Communication Online 5, no. 2 (2006):1, https://regener-
online.de/journalcco/2006_2/pdf/hackett.pdf (accessed August 8, 2022). See also Robert A. Hackett and
Schroeder Birgitta, “Does anybody Practice Peace Journalism? A Cross-National Comparison of Press Coverage
of the Afghanistan and Israeli-Hezbollah Wars 1,” Peace and Policy 13, no. 1(2017): 26.
236 Lynch and McGoldrick, Peace Journalism, above, p 5.
237 Ibid.
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consequences.238 Also, it incorporates a sensitivity to nonviolence for editors and
newsmakers.
Peace journalism, according to Hanitzsch, inherits a normative impetus; it prioritises
“peace” as its central value and analytical starting point.239 Peace journalism, as a subset of
socially responsible journalism, can be defined as a programme or framework of journalistic
news coverage that contributes to the process of making and maintaining peace, or the
nonviolent resolution of conflicts.240
Galtung defines “peace journalism” as a type of journalism that allows journalists and
scholars to examine conflict from two perspectives: the “high road” and the “low road”.241
The former refers to the focus of attention on the peace possibilities surrounding a specific
conflict situation. In other words, the “high road” the path of peace journalism, would centre
on conflict resolution. Conflicts would be viewed as a challenge to the world, similar to 2,000
nations desiring a nation-state in a world with only 200 countries and 20 nation-states. There
is a clear danger of violence as people, groups, countries, and groups of countries appear to
stand in each other’s way (this is what conflict is about). However, there is a clear
opportunity for human progress in conflict, using the conflict to find new ways, transforming
the conflict creatively so that opportunities win—without violence.242 On the other hand, the
latter refers to the focus of attention on the conflict situations that emerge from one conflict.
In other words, the “low road,” dominant in the media, sees a conflict as a battle, as a sports
arena, or a gladiator circus. The parties, usually reduced to two, are combatants in a struggle
to impose their goals. The reporting model is that of a military command: who advances, who
capitulates short of their goals; losses are counted in terms of numbers killed or wounded and
material damage. The zero-sum perspective draws upon sports reporting where “winning is
not everything; it is the only thing.” The same perspective is applied to negotiations as to
verbal battles: who outsmarts the other, who comes out closest to his original position? War
journalism has sports journalism and court journalism as models. The phrase “low road”
pervades news coverage of people, issues, and events. In many cases, opposition is reduced to
two individuals or collectives fighting to be the victor or to overpower the other. Because it
involves the numericalisation of losses, wounded, and property destruction, this style of
reporting is similar to army instructions. The zero-sum approach used in war journalism is
more sports-oriented, with winning not being the goal.243
Galtung opined that “peace journalism” is the high road, and the high road is the road
of peace journalism. Conflicts are inevitable in human life; individuals and collectives will
continue to impede each other’s processes, which speak to an obvious hazard of violence. To
Galtung, “there is also a clear opportunity for human progress, using the conflict to find new
ways, being imaginative, creative, and transforming the conflict so that opportunities take the
upper hand without violence.”244 In peace journalism practice, it would suffice to note that
“peace” is intended as an end and “nonviolence” is intended as a means or practice. Armed
with these two, they are considered the organising principles of news-making and the
238 Ibid.
239 Hanistzsch, “Journalists as Peacekeeping Force? Peace Journalism and Mass Communication Theory,”
above, p 482.
240 Ibid.
241 Johan Galtung, “Peace Journalism,” Media Asia 30, no. 3 (2003): 177, https:// doi:10.1080/
01296612.2003.11726720 (accessed August 8, 2022). See Johan Galtung, “High Road, Low Road – Charting
the Road for Peace Journalism,” Cross Cultural Research 7, no.4 (1998), https://journals.co.za/
doi/pdf/10.10520/EJC111753 (accessed August 8, 2022).
242 Ibid.
243 Ibid.
244 Ibid., p 177.
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Promoting Peace Journalism During Conflict Situations: Challenges and Prospects
fundamental moral codes that all societies should aim towards, nationally and globally.245
Based on that assertion, peace journalism can be viewed as both a methodical tool for
communication and media studies research. Hence, it constitutes a medium for exploring the
aspects and dynamics of physical, cultural, and structural violence, an exploration that is
considered vital for the orientation of knowledge and production of actions, which are needed
to build more peaceful societies.246
In a nutshell, the paper submits that it is possible for peace journalism to apply to other
forms of media. This is because peace journalism ideals do not fundamentally alter
journalistic good practise, and as an approach, it is adaptable to other forms of media.
Journalists and journalism are critical components of our democracy. Democracy is based on
citizens' ability to make informed decisions about policies and politicians. This would be
impossible without the news, information, and analysis provided by journalists. This is the
essence of journalism and why good journalism is important. Investigative journalism is the
foundation of good journalism; it uncovers, digs deep, and exposes societal malfeasance. It
names, shames, purges, cleanses, and restores society to wholeness. Good journalism does
more than just inform; it gives people information that has meaning in their lives. It provides
important and relevant information. It provides context as well as perspective. It clarifies
issues and assists in educating and enlightening audiences. It provides analysis as well as
depth.
III. CHALLENGES AND PROSPECTS IN ADVOCATING FOR PEACE
JOURNALISM
Peace journalism is a bold attempt to redefine and reconstruct the role of journalists who
cover conflicts. Peace journalism, as a new field of study, draws on a variety of theories and
disciplines to enhance its validity and applicability. Conflict theory is a major source that
peace journalism can turn to for analytical and normative rigour. Based on this variety of
theories and disciplines to enhance the validity and applicability of peace journalism, it is
important to note that there are both challenges and prospects in advocating for peace
journalism. The paper has highlighted some of the main challenges the media faces in terms
of practising peace journalism. This is also followed by acknowledging the existence of some
prospects which are indicative of benefits in practising peace journalism in conflict situations.
It cannot be denied that for the vast majority of people, the media is their primary source of
information about what is going on in society. What people know about public events is
largely through the media, unless they are witnesses to the events. Apart from information,
the media educate and maintain surveillance on society. They are also a transmitter of
cultural and societal norms and provide a platform for all, no matter their differences and
ideas. The media also plays the role of watch dog, especially over the government. Given
these crucial and decisive roles that the media play in society, how the media discharge their
responsibilities in times when a community, society, or nation is facing conflict situations can
have profound implications. Therefore, the call to practise peace journalism as opposed to
traditional journalism is an inevitable one since peace journalism advocates that the choices
that journalists make in reporting conflicts should be such that will contribute to peace
making.247 The following are some of the challenges and prospects of practising peace
journalism during conflict situations:
245 Silvia De Michelis, “Peace Journalism in Theory and Practice,” E-International Relations (2018),
https://www.e-ir.info/pdf/76907 (assessed August 8, 2022).
246 Ibid.
247 See Hafsa Khalid, “Role of Peace Journalism in Indo-Pak Relations: A Case Study of ‘Aman Ki Asha,”
National Defence University Journal 12, no. 1(2014): 91.
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International Peace and Security: The Achievement of the United Nations and the Way Forward
3.1 Challenges
One of the major challenges to peace journalism is that it is seen as a threat in terms of
practising fair and objective reporting. Fairness and objectivity are the universally accepted
tenets of the journalism profession.248 Without objectivity, journalism loses respect.
However, objectivity without sensitive reporting can often be the bane of journalism. As Lee
points out, objectivity is possibly one of the biggest obstacles to journalists’ playing a more
responsible and beneficial role in public life.249 Objectivity, by emphasising facts and
manifest events, devalues ideas, fragments experience and makes complex social phenomena
more difficult to understand. Hackett notes that there are certain positive connotations
associated with the term objectivity, such as fairness and the pursuit of truth without
favour.250 He argues, however, that objectivity is not fixed but is relative, because whether or
not objectivity is a desirable and achievable goal for reporting in a democratic society is
debatable.251
Apart from the charge that peace journalism lacks objectivity due to its involvement in
a conflict, Hanitzsch also points out that peace journalism is a normative theory rooted in
peace and conflict research rather than journalism, and thus fails to take into account the
reality and imperatives imposed on news production, such as professional values and
organisational culture.252 He claims that peace journalism ascribes to journalism a power it
does not have—that of powerful media effects theory—and that its emphasis is too much on
individual journalists, ignoring structural impediments to journalists' work.253 Thus, the major
criticisms of peace journalism are its advocacy journalism proposal and its emphasis on the
journalist while ignoring the structures of news production and the general media
environment. This is argued because peace journalism is based on peace and conflict studies
rather than journalism.
Scholars have criticised peace journalism for its advocacy journalism for peace, which
abandons objectivity and ignores the realities of journalistic practises that are responsible for
most of traditional journalism's perceived shortcomings in covering conflict. Loyn calls peace
journalism the opposite of good journalism and in a sweeping criticism states that “peace
journalism is at best meaningless, and at worst a uniquely unhelpful and misleading
prescription for journalism in general and broadcast journalism in particular”.254 He rejects
the prescription that journalists should be active participants in a conflict, even if on the side
of peace, because that is not their role. He criticises the notion that journalists can contribute
to peace by reporting in a specific way that encourages peace and peace-makers. He argues
that the proper stance of reporters is as observers not players in a conflict.255 However, even
Loyn admits that journalism could be better practiced and conceded that objectivity, for
example, has its drawbacks as when “objectivity distorted what was happening because it
248 Seow Ting Lee, “Peace Journalism: Principles and Structural Limitations in the News Coverage of Three
Conflicts,” Mass Communication and Society 13, no. 4 (2010): 361, https://www.tandfonline.com/
doi/full/10.1080/15205430903348829 (accessed August 8, 2022).
249 Ibid., p 363.
250 Robert A. Hackett, “Journalism for Peace and Justice: Towards a Comparative Analysis of Media
Paradigms,” Studies in Social Science 4, no. 2 (2010):180, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/
50864678_Journalism_for_Peace_and_Justice_Towards_a_Comparative_Analysis_of_Media_Paradigms
(accessed August 16, 2022).
251 Ibid. See also Lee, “Peace Journalism: Principles and Structural Limitations in the News Coverage of Three
Conflicts,” above, p 361.
252 Hanistzsch, “Journalists as Peacekeeping Force? Peace Journalism and Mass Communication Theory,”
above, p 482.
253 Ibid.
254 David Loyn, “Good Journalism or Peace Journalism?” Conflict & Communication Online 6, no. 2 (2007): 2,
https://regener-online.de/journalcco/2007_2/pdf/loyn.pdf (accessed August 16, 2022).
255 Ibid.
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Promoting Peace Journalism During Conflict Situations: Challenges and Prospects
meant that official account was not challenged”.256 He also emphasises the difficulty of
reporting the truth because there can be no single truth, but he maintains that journalists'
pursuit of the ideal of truth is important if done sincerely. Therefore, it would suffice to note
that a careful examination of Loyn’s position would suggest that the biggest problem with
peace journalism is where it puts the reporter. The primary duty of a reporter is to be an
observer and not a participant in a conflict situation or, indeed, any issue of social relevance.
The reporter or journalist is not there to make peace or to take sides in a dispute, but to
address and explain the complexity of a messy world and construct a narrative.257
Another challenge to peace journalism is news framing. News framing is seen as one of
the major obstacles to peace journalism. Many journalists habitually use the “self and other”
frame in conflict news as it proves to be the most practical and least complex frame to use.
The basic reason for this kind of framing is the inherent news values of conventional
journalism. In the1980s Todd Gitlin first discussed “news framing” as a concept.258 Today,
news framing is more important than ever, especially when it comes to conflict between and
within communities. As a matter of fact, different journalists will give different coverage of
similar news when they report the news in different ways. Peace journalists should take care
to frame and word the story in such a way that, at a minimum, it does not exacerbate the
situation.259 Journalists should not hold back certain facts, but they should not sensationalise
them either. These facts should be presented alongside voices that offer nonviolent
solutions.260 Therefore, the presentation of news is the task of the media, and therefore they
create the media frame. The understanding of news takes place in the individual, from the
internal mind structures, the individual frames, but for this to be possible there has to be a
common frame shared by journalists and audience.
It is also critical to address the issue of newspaper ownership structure as another type
of challenge in promoting peace journalism. Although editors play an active role in the
selection process, editors frequently follow the policies of the newspaper's owner. This
qualifies it for direct intervention by the newspaper's owner. This may imply that peace
journalists must first persuade their owners before engaging in peace journalism. If the
commercial interests of the newspaper owner appear to be jeopardised, it will be much more
difficult for peace journalism initiatives to gain traction. In other words, it is extremely
difficult to achieve peace journalism at the micro level if an institution’s editorial staff does
not support the use of ethical values in collecting, selecting, writing, and publishing news.261
In some cases, even if the editorial staff wishes to practise peace journalism, the ownership
structure of traditional media does not permit it due to commercial or political concerns.262
Apart from the issue of newspaper ownership structure as one of the challenges faced in
promoting peace journalism, it cannot be denied that the media have commercial interests and
these interests play into the construction of their news policies. Peace journalism does not
accept this as the last word. While conflict and violence do tend to play into the ratings game
it is nevertheless possible to construct stories about conflict and war that compel readers and
256 Ibid., p 4.
257 Ibid., p 2.
258 See Todd Gitlin, The Whole World is Watching: Mass Media in the Making and Unmaking of the New Left
(Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980).
259 Steven Youngblood, “Kenyan Media Test Peace Journalism Principles,” Peace Review A Journal of Social
Justice 29, no. 4 (2017):440, https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10402659.2017.1381503 (accessed
August 16, 2022).
260 Ibid.
261 Metin Ersoy, “Implementing Peace Journalism in the Media,” Peace Review A Journal of Social Justice 29,
no. 4(2017): 464, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/320918549_Implementing_Peace_Journalism_
in_the_Media (accessed August 16, 2022).
262 Ibid.
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Proceedings: International Conference on Peace and Conflict Resolution (ICPCR) 2022
International Peace and Security: The Achievement of the United Nations and the Way Forward
viewers while providing more detailed and comprehensive accounts that highlight process
over event. Nevertheless, the focus on sensationalism and conflict continue to be obstacles to
peace journalism practice. In other words, the media at times tend to put more emphasis on
the commercialisation aspect, i.e., to sell such a story to the members of the public. This
problem is escalated by the language use in newspapers. Journalists must prioritise the
selection and use of words in order to practise peace journalism. Peace journalists must be
mindful of their word choice when reporting on conflict and violence.
As mentioned earlier, it is also very difficult to practise peace journalism if journalists
still insist on reporting news based on event reporting. The traditional journalist’s catchphrase
is “we just report the facts.” Even if such a claim were valid, it would be insufficient to
advance the peace process. As a result, the media has an obligation to pursue “process-based
reporting” in order to highlight the invisible effects of conflict/violence rather than just the
visible effects.263 Peace journalists will use process-based reporting to gain a historical and
cultural understanding of the conflict. On the other hand, the conventional media would
rather emphasise the number of deaths and injuries—all of which are far more visible and
sensational—than discuss the process and long-term (often invisible) effects of war and
violence.
The proliferation of uncontrolled social media platforms is another challenge for peace
journalism. Journalists evaluate them in two ways. On the one hand, social media is effective
at spreading messages despite the fact that it lacks editors; on the other hand, it can
exacerbate conflicts if used destructively. As a result, they necessitate a specific regulation or
other vigilant individuals to respond to and counter rumours, destructive ideas, and messages
that may be intended to cause conflict. Because everyone has a smartphone nowadays,
everyone is a reporter or a journalist. Everything is available in stores; you can go buy
equipment, begin filming, and become a journalist. It's simply observing how things are done.
You do not even need to write a script.
Furthermore, there are many structural constraints which shape and limit the work of
journalists, such as constant time pressure, chronic lack of space, limited budget, censorship
and disinformation, competing for breaking the news, etc. For example, the industrial time
limits encourage many otherwise fine journalists to make concessions in quality in order to
convey their news faster to readers and audiences. There is strong competition among
journalists and media outlets themselves.264 They struggle to be the first to publish a unique
story, a not-yet-told or untold story. It has a positive connotation when a journalist breaks a
story that has all the elements of a professional news story. In some cases, traditional media
compete with new media outlets, and consequently, some stories are published without all the
facts. There is also the negative connotation of that competition, especially when reporters
fabricate stories or publish wrong facts to attract an audience, viewership, or readership.265
Besides ethical-based challenges, some media houses face financial constraints. This
challenge prevents the media from accessing rural areas and covering conflicts that persist in
the community. It is also important to note that a chronic lack of space hinders the promotion
of peace journalism. For instance, due to a word-limit set by media houses, it is difficult to
provide accurate information about what is happening on the ground during conflict
situations.
263 Metin Ersoy, “Obstacles to Peace Journalism in North Cyprus,” Global Media Journal: Mediterranean
Edition 1, no. 2 (2006): 72, https://www.academia.edu/1080675/Obstacles_to_Peace_Journalism
_in_North_Cyprus (accessed August 16, 2022).
264 Gratien Hakorimana, “Exploring Peace Journalism Practices for Conflict Prevention in Rwanda” (Master’s
thesis, University of Rwanda, 2020), p 76, http://dr.ur.ac.rw/bitstream/handle/123456789/1368/
Gratien%20Hakorimana.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y (accessed August 16, 2022).
265 Ibid.
72
Promoting Peace Journalism During Conflict Situations: Challenges and Prospects
In addition to the above point, it would suffice to note that commercial concerns and
increased competition among news organisations have put additional strain on journalists.
They are caught between professional obligations and the demands of their organisations to
produce stories that will appeal to an audience. Speed has become more important in the
digital media environment, and journalists are struggling to balance it with accuracy. The
race to be the first to break the news has reduced the amount of time spent on news
production and verification. However, journalists are aware that if their information is
incorrect, it may negatively impact the public mood and support for the ongoing peace
process as well as public trust in journalists.
3.2 Prospects
One of the most important aspects of peace journalism is its ability to frame stories in such a
way that society has enough information to respond non-violently to conflict or conflict
situations. Peace journalism is not only relevant in conflict situations; it can also be relevant
in efforts to maintain social peace by providing diverse perspectives that will assist a large
segment of the citizenry in making informed decisions about issues that concern them. The
UNESCO Media Declaration from 1979, 102, Art. 3 states that “the media have an important
contribution to make to the strengthening of peace and international understanding and in
countering racialism, apartheid, and incitement to war”. Since the beginning of the 21st
century, academics and NGOs have been gradually paying attention to peace studies,
theories, and discourses. Regardless of the challenges that the media faces in promoting
peace journalism, it is impossible to deny that the future prospects of practising peace
journalism are bright. As a result, the prospects for promoting peace journalism during
conflict situations are enormous, as evidenced by the following discussions.
First, people rely on the media in order to acquire information and participate in
debates, activities that result in their orientation in society as well as self-government. The
media provide their audiences with a ‘map’ of the social and political world beyond their own
immediate experience.266 Furthermore, it is frequently argued that the media construct rather
than mirror reality;267 because they are unable to cover all events from all perspectives, the
media offer a representation of reality, and, as outlined by Kohring and Matthes,268 selectivity
is a central practice within news media. Given the reliance on the media and their
characteristic coverage practices, it is vital to point out that when reporting on conflicts and
crises, journalists need to be aware of both the negative consequences their reporting can
have, as well as the potential their coverage has to promote peace in their communities. Peace
journalism advocates for journalists to be conscious of their use of words while they write
news about both conflict and violence. During peace negotiations, words, particularly
terminology, can encourage conflict or provide a positive contribution to the solution of
conflict.
Second, reporters who cover conflicts have the potential to change the course and
intensity of events. The media’s influence on war is quite obvious: the media can be an
instrument of restraint or can exhibit patriotic ethno-cultural bias. The role of the media has
been noticed in the development of the conflict, in highlighting political uncertainty and
incompetence and accelerating the pace at which politicians must respond to crises. The task
266 Robert A. Hackett, “Journalism versus Peace? Notes on a Problematic Relationship,” Global Media Journal:
Mediterranean Edition 2, no. 1 (2007), p 47.
267 Hanistzsch, “Journalists as Peacekeeping Force? Peace Journalism and Mass Communication Theory,”
above, p 487.
268 Kohring Mathias and Jog Matthes, “Trust in News Media: Development and Validation of Multidimensional
Scale,” Communication Research 34, no. 2 (2007): 231, https://doi.org/10.5167/uzh-94842 (accessed August 16,
2022).
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Proceedings: International Conference on Peace and Conflict Resolution (ICPCR) 2022
International Peace and Security: The Achievement of the United Nations and the Way Forward
of peace journalism is not the de-escalation or resolution of conflicts (only conflict parties
themselves can do this), but rather the de-escalation of conflict perception and the reduction
of communication barriers between conflict parties. The paper submits that the prospect of
peace journalism is very bright for peace journalists, provided that they want to give peace a
chance, they must be clear about whom they address and how they can address them.
Journalists should not hold back certain facts, but they should not sensationalise them either.
These facts should be presented alongside voices that offer non-violent solutions.
Third, it is possible to bring together peace-making and journalism. By facilitating
communication and arbitrating the situation, it is argued that journalists go between the
environment of a conflict situation and the audience.269 By being fully informed, the audience
is brought inside the conflict, so that they can take sides or interfere, and finally get mobilised
to replace “the ecstasy of combat with the harmony of concord”.270 There is no doubt that the
news media “can be a weapon of war, or can uphold prospects for peace”.271 The media “may
be the most important buffer within civil society against war”.272 In recent years, with the rise
of the 24-hour news cycle and technological developments, views have emerged regarding
the media’s power to actually shape government decision-making. The media have more
influence than journalists seem to realise.273 The paper argues that the prospect of peace
journalism is there but subject to journalists attaching importance to the selection and use of
words. In other words, journalists should be mindful of the language they use in their
reporting and how it can contribute to pre-emption, containment, and de-escalation of
conflict. Peace journalism is a tool to bolster the joint effort to expose violence and fighting
for what they are and to align people across borders, cultures and loyalties in a common
crusade to diminish the exultation of war.274
Fourth, the future of peace journalism is bright as long as there is a need for a holistic
approach to news reporting during conflict situations. Journalists should not reduce human
conflict to two parties. There are many participants in any conflict, and limiting them to two
prevents the journalist from considering all of the positions that are relevant to the issues at
hand. We must identify all parties’ points of view and interests. We should be able to give
voice to the oppressed and peacemakers in this type of journalism in order to represent and
empower them. Journalists should avoid focusing on what divides parties and instead work to
uncover areas of common ground and goals that can be shared.
Fifth, the prospect of peace journalism can be seen from the fact that it must be local
and community-based, which means that peace journalists cannot afford to be aloof.
Journalists are involved because they are members of the community, even if they are not
affiliated with the “warring” parties. Journalists who intervene are also attempting to protect
their own interests. There is nothing exceptional about journalists as members of a given
society, and that peace journalism can only evolve within a culture of peace. It is in
everyone’s interest, including the media’s, to maintain a conducive environment for
continuous and productive activities and interaction. Because the media are corporate citizens
of the community, the rule of detachment (emphasised in mainstream journalism for the sake
of “objectivity”) would not apply here. They must be committed to initiating and promoting
269 Samuel Plege, “In Defence of Peace Journalism,” Conflict and Communication Online 6, no. 2 (2007):1,
https://regener-online.de/journalcco/2007_2/pdf/peleg.pdf (accessed August 17, 2022).
270 Ibid., p 5.
271 Ross Howard, “The Media’s Role in War and Peace Building”. (Paper presented at the Democratic Armed
Forces Conference, Budapest, February 6-9, 2003), p 1, http://docplayer.net/170887440-Dcaf-media-s-role-in-
war-and-peacebuilding-ross-howard-draft-1.html (accessed August 17, 2022).
272 Hackett, “Journalism versus Peace? Notes on a Problematic Relationship,” above, p 47.
273 Phillip Knightley, “Journalism, Conflict and War: An Introduction,” Journalism Studies 3, no. 2 (2002): 168,
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14616700220129946 (accessed August 17, 2022).
274 Plege, “In Defence of Peace Journalism,” above, p 9.
74
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