book Layot

(1992) states that the weight of the variable meaningful for a
given sample size when the value is more than 0.45. The
microclimate variables that have most weight at the axis of the
PC I was light intensity (-), while in PC axis II is air
temperature (-), relative humidity (-) and wind speed (+).
Sample points are identified by distance and plotted on the
axis of PC I and PC II by difference of the value of the
microclimate variable. Graph shows the PCA grouping of
sample points (Figure 2). Sample points that are less than 40
m from the edge, clustered on the PC I axis and indicate areas
with high light intensity, high temperatures, high wind speeds
and humidity low air. Sample points within over 40 m grouped
under PC axis II and indicate the conditions microclimate
otherwise.

Figure. PCA ordination for every sample points based on
micrclimate variable on Mt. Pohen Bedugul Bali

Tabel 2. Results from Principal Component Analysis (PCA) 0f
the microclimate variable.

Component 12

Eigenvalue 0.902 1.506

% explained cumulative 22.6 63.0
variance

Variable quantification

Air temperature 0.354 –0.503

Relative air humidity 0.354 –0.503

Wind velocity 0.494 0.524

Light intensity –0.702 0.408

Road corridor through the forest of Bukit Pohen
affects microclimate on the edge of the forest. Edge effect is
detected from the microclimate gradient from the edge to the
forest interior. Light intensity gradients are very sharp near the
edge of the forest. Matlack (1993) states that exposure to
sunlight in the edge area is main controller microclimate
variables such as air temperature and air humidity and soil

moisture. Air temperature, air humidity and the wind speed at
the edge of the area shows that the gradient is not so sharp
compared to the intensity of the light. This suggests that these
three variables are playing more control for the depth of edge
effects in Bukit Pohen forest. Trees vegetation patterns in the
forest tend not to be controlled by edge effects, but more
influenced by other factors such as disturbance and planting
activities. Edge of the forest in this region is Rasamala
(Altingia excelsa) tree plantations of the same age, while the
interior is disturbed forest by wildfires in 1994 and is currently
undergoing a process of secondary succession.

Based on the PCA analysis, the edge effect as
measured by microclimate variable was detected to a depth of
40 m from the edge of the road. These results are in line with
the Young and Mitchell (1994) and Davies-Colley et al. (2000)
who found that the influence of the edge of the microclimate
measured to depths 40-50 m in Podocarpus forest fragments
adjacent to the open land. Effect of roadside measured to a
depth of 40 m implies to the conservation of forests in the

Bukit Pohen interior. Based on the results study, Fardilla &
Sutomo (2011) suggest that the forest has Pohen Hill area
buffer with a width of at least 40 m to protect the interior
condition of the forest from ecological changes of microclimate
due to the opening of the forest for road construction.

B. Landscape planning for “Tri-Danau/three lakes” area of
Bedugul

In general, landscape means the whole character of
the land or site as part of the earth with all life activities and
whatever is in it either natural, non-natural or both that are part
of the environment (Rachman, 1981). Lake can be defined as
a vast pool of water with high water fluctuations (Ilyas et al
1989).
Landscape management, defined as an action to ensure the
regularity of the landscape and to harmonize the changes
deemed necessary for economic and social reasons (Philips,
2000).
There are many aspects that can be used as consideration in
making landscape planning such as from land use aspect.

Determination of suitable land use at site is done through
landscape assessment. This assessment aims to establish a
balance between the needs of land use that will be built so
that communities benefit without destruction of the natural
resources and culture of the local community. In the
landscape assessment, assessments of four major landscape
issues are (Hanum and Darma 2005): 1. Landscape
resources; 2. Landscape hazard; 3. Development suitability
4. Human impact on environment.

In this chapter we will examine the landscape hazards
caused by nature ie landslides. In the year 2017 landslide
from Bukit Tapak in Bedugul hit part of Bali Botanical Garden
which is located adjacent. The impact of the landslide were
several bridges at Bali Botanical Garden, and some trees fell.
In early 2018, a landslide recurred around Pohen Hill and
caused two casualties. According Sutyarto (2002), based on
the conditions of lithology, the structure of the stratricgraphy
and topography of the Bedugul area is an area prone to
landslides. Avalanches can occur in caldera edge, remaining

hill and sub-resen cones. While the land slide type can be
mud flow, soil creeps, slumping and debris avalanches. The
problem of landslide is closely related to the use of land above
it. As the population increases and the pressures faced by the
land will make it easy to switch functions. The picture below
gives an overview of land use change in Bedugul area
between 2000 and 2017. In just 18 years, there has been
changes in land use in Bedugul area (Figure). As many as
16,869 ha of Bedugul forest areas decrease land filed or
“tegalan” also decrease from 10,678 ha in year 2000 to 891
ha in year 2017. Whereas Rice field or “Sawah” in Bedugul
area is increasing from 6,402 ha in 2000 then increse more
than five fold (33,459 ha) in 2017. Among the three lakes in
Bedugul, Lake Beratan is the most strategic location because
it is located on the edge of the highway. This situation resulted
in a lot of land around the lake that has undergone a change
of function.

Year 2000
Year 2017

Figure. Graph showing size change of several landuse in
Bedugul area, based on the two maps created (Figure).

Figure. Land use change in Bedugul area between year 2000
and 2017. Map created by Sutomo and Luthfi Wahab based
on Landsat image analysis using ENVI and ARCGIS.

The management concept that can be applied in Bedugul area
(starting from the lakes) can generally be adjusted to zoning
concept. Zoning system is done in order to distinguish the
location to be managed later. The purpose of this system is to
avoid conflicts between tourism interests and conservation.

Figure. Concept of zonation that can be applied for Bedugul
area (Hanum and Darma 2005)

The core zone. The core zone is a closed area and may only
be entered with certain permits, among them is to conduct
research.
Buffer zone. Buffer zone is an area that serves to protect the
core area from damage caused by human activities. This
location can be a place for research, training and education
experiments as well as ecotourism and sustainable use of
renewable natural resources.

Buffer zone management is aimed at sustainable use of
natural resources while providing benefits to local
communities. Local residents can enter to pick up wooden
branches for firewood, but are not allowed to cut down trees.
In addition, local residents can also take non-timber forest
products such as passion fruit and also asplenium. Buffer area
is a limited area, open to visitors in a limited number so that
the facilities provided are very simple such as footpaths and
camping places. Various activities that are ecologically
accountable can be done here. In this area tourists can do
activities such as enjoying the scenery of trees and lakes,
camping and observing the bird life in the area.
Zone of utilization. This zone is an area devoted to various
types of activities such as intensive tourism, agriculture and
housing. The placement should be based on the land
capability class for a specific designation.

Currently, the land around the Beratan lake is filled
with houses, stalls, intensive tourism and agriculture. The
surrounding slopes were still covered with trees. If referring to

the concept of zoning, then the area around the lake should
be used as border. Ideally the border width is 50 m and
planted with trees, so that the erosion that can occur can be
minimized. The area around Lake Buyan and Tamblingan can
still be managed well according to the existing planning
because there is still not much development going on around
the area. If the area will be used as a tourist place it should be
done in the buffer zone. For farms with a slope of less than
15% it is advisable to use agroforestry systems. Agroforestry
is defined as a common name for land use systems and
technologies where woody plants such as trees are
intentionally planted in the same land management unit as
agricultural land. Therefore, within this system, there are
ecological and economic links.

3. Vegetation Ecology of Bedugul
Sutomo, I Dewa Pt. Darma, Wawan Sujarwo & Arief Priyadi

Bali Botanical Garden-Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI),
Candikuning Baturiti Tabanan 82191

A. Vegetation on the periphery of three lakes Beratan,
Buyan and Tamblingan Bedugul

Darnaedi et al. (2005) states that the Tri-Danau
Beratan, Buyan and Tamblingan areas are catchments of
rainwater catchments which are very important for people's
lives in Bali. Communities around the Tri-Lake area use lake
water for household use, farming, fishing, tourist attraction and
also as research place (Sudji, 2005). The types of plants that
are naturally encountered in the forest area around Tri-Lake,
and can maintain the water cycle cycle among them, Cemara
Pandak (Dacrycarpus imbricatus (Blume) de Laub.), Cemara
Geseng (Casuarina junghuhniana Miq.), And several types of
bamboo such as Dendrocalamus asper (Schult.) Backer,
Gigantochloa apus (Schult.) Kurz, and Schizostachyum
brachycladum (Kurz) Kurz. (BLH Bali, 2012). On the other
hand, the presence of vegetation that grows and develops
around the waters of the lake can determine the quality of

water and its environment. Augusta (2015) states that
conservation of water resources needs to be managed
properly because some aquatic plants have rapid growth, and
can affect ecosystems and sedimentation of the lake. Ward et
al. (1993) reveals the diversity of aquatic plants can enrich the
diversity of their established habitat, including the aquatic
fauna community. Darma et al (2017) have conducted
research into vegetation analysis on the periphery of the three
lakes tri-danau Beratan, Buyan dan Tamblingan. Their study
aimed to determine the diversity of vegetation plants that
grow and develop in the waters Tri-Lake Beratan, Buyan,
Tamblingan and surrounding locations.

Table. Physical environment of the three lakes in Bedugul
Basin

Observation of vegetation conducted at the edge of
the waters In Beratan Lake, Buyan and Tamblingan found 35
aquatic and terrestrial plants species, consisting of 19 tribes
and 24 genera. In general, Shannon-Wiener (H ') diversity
index values are moderate. The diversity indexes in each lake
are of Beratan Lake (2.56), Tamblingan (2.31), and Buyan
(2.25), respectively, with a total H value of 2.69. The value of
H 'is showing that the vegetation of the lake is regenerated
due to disturbance by natural conditions and human activities.

Based on the growth site, the plant species in the Tri-
Lake area can be grouped into three, ie 1) plants growing on
the shore of the lake, grouped into two: a) upright growing

plants: Ageratum conyzoides, Colocasia sp., Cyperus
digitatus, C. distans , C. haspan, C. imbricatus, Echinochloa
colona, Echinochloa sp, Oenanthe javanica, Plantago major,
Polygonum spp, Schoenoplectiella mucronata, Kepupung
(local name in Bali), and b) growing plants: Alternanthera
philoxeroides, Centella asiatica, Commelina diffusa, Drymaria
villosa, Mentha arvensis, Myriophyllum aquaticum, Panicum
repens, Potentilla sp., Lindernia sp., L. ciliata, L. adscendens
and Spilanthes sp .; 2) plants grown with roots in mud and
floating leaves on the surface of water: Nymphoides indica;
and 3) plants that grow free floating: Azolla pinnata,
Eichhornia crassipes, Pistia stratiotes and Salvinia adnata.

Figure. Rank abundance curve of plant species on the
periphery of the three lakes Beratan, Buyan and Tamblingan.
Note: Altphi = Alternanthera philoxeroides, Oejav = Oenanthe
javanica, Saladn = Salvinia adnata

Figure shows that the existing 35 species rank in

three lakes, the types of vegetation constituents are not evenly

distributed. In other words, there are dominating species

types. Based on the calculation of the proportion in the

abundance curve, there are nine types of constituents that

almost 80% dominate in the three lakes. The types of

sequence of the highest ranking are Oenanthe javanica,
Alternathera philoxeroides, Salvinia adnata, Myriophyllum
aquaticum, Echinochloa sp., Mentha arvensis, Azolla pinnata,
Centella asiatica, and Cyperus imbricatus. The first three
types cumulatively compile 50.9% of dominance.

The types of plants found in this study are mostly
known as a weed (Soerjani et al., 1987), which in essence, its
existence does not desired. The explosion of certain plant
populations on the surface of the lake such as S. Adnata
causes many losses. Lehmusluoto et al. (1997) explains that
floating plants may hinder the development of other plants. As
obstructed oxygen circulation from air to water, the rate of
water loss due to evapotranspiration is much greater than
evaporation, biomass of plants doubled in a week or two. In
addition, floating plants such as Salvinia also play a role in
blocking the infiltration of sunlight that is indispensable in the
process of photosynthesis of other aquatic plants, and on

eventually leading to reduced dissolved oxygen levels in water
bodies (Owens et al.2005). Salvinia adnata in Lake Buyan
needs to be observed as invasive.

This plant reportedly originated in Brazil, was
identified outside its original habitat for the first time in 1939
and in 2014 designated as the 100th most invasive species in
the world (Luque et al., 2014). Salvinia adnata is a sterile fern
water plant and reproduce itself with ramet. The combination
of high growth rates with slow decomposition rates decreases
the availability of nutrients for other plant species (Koutika &
Rainey 2015). This seems to be related to the dominant
phenomenon of the species in Lake Buyan. The invasive
nature of S. adnata in Indonesia is also reported in Ranu Pani,
Bromo-Tengger-Semeru National Park area (Hakim &
Miyakawa, 2015). This species was observed in mid-2011 as
a small population on the outskirts of the lake and by the end
of the same year had closed 75% of the lake body. This is
believed to be an indicator of water eutrophication in Lake
Ranu Pani. The dominance of S. adnata in Lake Buyan

appears to be related to indication of eutrophication process in
the lake.

B. Community ecology of forest plants in Bedugul
All organisms and their environment are dynamic,

meaning that between them there is always an interaction that
produces change. The community is a living and growing
system, as well as a dynamic system. Soerianegara and
Indrawan (1982) stated that forest community is a living and
growing system because the community is formed gradually
through several stages of plant invasion, adaptation,
aggregation, competition and mastery, a reaction to the place
of growth and stabilization. Changes in forest communities
always occur even in a stable forest. For example, when there
is a fallen tree, it is created by the sun where it can reach the
forest floor so that the seeds inside the seed bank in the soil
can germinate and other plant species emerge from the fallen
tree. Community structure is always changing every time and
place. There are changes that can be observed in a short time
but there are also changes that can only be observed in the
next few years. One of the approach in studying the

community structure is through observation in a permanent
plot.

Mountain forests in Bedugul are one of the last
remaining refuges of biodiversity on the island of Bali as well
as in Java. This type of ecosystem is important as most of
Indonesia's lowland forests have ecologically damaged and
the extinction of their biodiversity. Currently estimated at
31,817.75 hectares or 25 percent of the total land area in Bali,
which is 127,271.01 hectares, undergoes conversion of land
functions. Changes in the function of forest land are caused by
several things, such as the encroachment of forest areas by
community groups living near the forest and the use of forest
areas for development outside the forestry sector, illegal
logging and fires, specifically for fires, is estimated to average
350 ha forest land in Bali burns annually (Anonymous 2005).
Similarly, the condition of the forest of Mount Pohen Batukahu
Nature Reserve. Forest fires that occurred in 1994 ago has
caused damage to some forest ecosystems in Mount Pohen is
about 30.5 ha. So that it is important to do inventory and

floristic analysis in the forest area of Mount Pohen Batukahu
Nature Reserve to monitor the dynamics of vegetation
population in a span of time. Monitoring will be devoted to a
relatively intact part of the forest. It is intended that this intact
forest area could become a reference area in the restoration
of forest areas damaged by forest fires in 1994 in other parts
of Mount Pohen.

The permanent sample plots have proven to be very
useful for introducing plant species and monitoring forest
dynamics over time (Condit et al., 1996). Quantitative
inventories using permanent sample plots (PSPs) have also
been widely applied in forests in Indonesia, but most of them
are made in lowland forests in Kalimantan (Clearly et al.,
2006; Cleary and Mooers 2004; Kartawinata et al., 2006;
Riswan and Kartawinata 1991). However, nowadays,
mountainous forests are increasingly threatened because of
human activities, such as mountain forests in India (Davidar et
al. 2007) and also in Indonesia, such as in Java, for example
in the area of Halimun Mountain National Park. So that the

making of permanent plot has been done this area (Suzuki et
al., 1997), but for mountain forest area in Bali, this has never
been done. Given the permanent sample plot in the Pohen
Mountain area will facilitate the monitoring of plant biodiversity
and vegetation dynamics after the forest fire in 1994. The
permanent sample plot is a very important tool in monitoring
the changes and structure of forest dynamics, long-term tree
growth , and other important data that will be used in
evaluating ecological models. While from the silvicultural
aspect, permanent sample plots will be able to provide data on
the increment of volumes as well as the dynamics of the forest
structure. These results are very important information in the
planning of forest management and restoration activities.

Sutomo et al. (2012) conducted a study using PSP on
Mt. Pohen. Their method and results is elaborated as follow.
The plot location was chosen based on the preliminary survey
and the literature study was also completed with a study of the
area map. One of the criteria is the location that still has a
forest that is still intact. The location of the plot to the north or

the back of the mountain because the area of the face or
south of the mountain has been damaged by fire. The plot is
made with a 1 ha size with a sub-plot of size 20 x 20 m, based
on the calculation of area-type curves and calibrations with
similar area in other locations which also have permanent
sample plots (Herben 1996; Suzuki et al., 1997) . The plot is
made on an average slope of 60-70 ° with an altitude between
1,600 - 1,700 m. The coordinates of the outer plots of 1 ha plot
and each sub-plot are recorded by GPS device (Garmin GPS
Map 76 csx). There are five lines with different altitudes with
distances between rows of different height 20 m so the first 5
sub plots at altitude ± 1,600 mdpl, 5 sub plots next in row 2 at
an altitude of 1620 mdpl, row to 3 at an altitude of 1640 mdpl,
row to 4 on altitude 1660 mdpl and row to 5 at an altitude of
1680 - 1700 mdpl. This difference in altitude is used as the
differentiating factor of each sub-plot on each line, so it will be
seen whether there are differences in the structure and
composition of tree vegetation on each line at different heights
in this 1 ha permanent plot.

Figure. Lay outing of the PSP with sub-plots inside a one ha
PSP on Mt. Pohen, Bedugul.

Figure. Trees inventory inside PSP on Mt. Pohen, Bedugul.
Photo credit: Sutomo

Trees inventory is in diameter equal to or more than
10 cm. The total height and height of the free branch (TBBC)
were also measured. Next the tree is marked by indicating plot
numbers and tree numbers that are inventoried eg IV. 6
means plot to 4 and tree no to 6. The tree position in the plot
20 x 20 m is also drawn on millimeter block paper and
redrawn with Corel Draw. Their results showed that a plot of 1
ha with 25 sub-plots of size 20 x 20 m is sufficient to represent

the vegetation type on Mount Pohen, as seen in the species-
area curve (Figure). There were 24 species of trees included
in 19 tribes in 1 ha plot (Table).

Figure. Species Area Curve (SAC) of trees in a 1 ha PSP on
Mt. Pohen

Table 1. List of tree species inside 1 ha PSP on Mt. Pohen
Bedugul

In terms of floristic composition, highland forest does
have a lower tree species diversity than lowland forests

(Krishnamurthy et al. 2010). In a 2-hectare plot in the
highlands of India, for example, there are 46 tree species
(Krishnamurthy et al. 2010), which is approximately equal to
the results obtained in Pohen Mountain. In montana zone
(above 1,500 mdpl) in West Halimun Mountain area in
permanent plot 1 ha also found as many as 46 tree species
(Suzuki et al. 1997). Several species or genera found in Mount
Halimun, also found in a permanent plot of 1 ha on Mount
Pohen in Bali (1,600 - 1,700 mdpl) are Myrsine hasseltii,
Homalanthus giganteus, Platea sp., Podocarpus imbricatus,
Polyosma integrifolia, Symplocos sp. Weinmannia blumei,
Acronychia trifoliata Breynia microphylla Claoxylon sp.,
Engelhardia spicata, Glochidion rubrum, and Litsea sp.
Nevertheless, many species of trees that are not found in the
forest area of Mount Pohen Nature Reserve but found in
Mount Halimun such as Altingia excelsa and Schima wallichii.
Both types according to van Steenis (1972) is indeed a
characteristic tree of forests in West Java.

Most of the species found in Mount Pohen such as
Homalanthus giganteus, Platea sp., And Podocarpus
imbricatus are the species of plant that the area is secondary
forest, which has been disturbed in the past. These types are
present as a result of the response to both natural and human
disturbance events in the past such as landslides, volcanic
activity or fire (van Steenis 1972; Whitten et al., 1996). Still
according to van Steenis (1972), Podocarpus imbricatus and
Casuarina junghuhniana are actually long-lived pioneer types
present due to past disturbances in the region. This type of
dominance is only temporary and will be replaced by other
species so that forest composition will be more diverse,
because this type of regeneration can not grow in a dense
forest. However, this species turn over into more diverse
forests, taking the assumption that "no further disturbances
occur". This change will take centuries to last, and perhaps
the forests will remain dominated by the long-lived ponir
species in the event of recurring disturbances and will likely
never be a climax forest (Hobbs et al. 2009; van Steenis 1972;

Walker and Paul 2006; Walker and del Moral 2008; Whitten et
al., 1996).

Pioneer trees such as Podocarpus imbricatus are
found coexist with Claoxylon-Homalanthus-Vernonea-
Cryptomeria-Polyosma-Myrsine and Acronycia. Spatial
patterns of distribution and plant associations are important
characteristics of an ecological community (Kershaw and
Looney 1985). The phenomenon that most of these species
live together with groups of certain species may occur as a
result of biological interactions between such species as either
positive or negative associations, or as a result of the same or
different responses of a species to its environment or its
abiotic factors as well as the response to disturbance to the
forest ecosystem (Dukat 2006). In terms of groundcover
plants, Sutomo (2014) found as many as 69 species which
belongs to 47 families inside the 1 ha PSP on Mt. Pohen
Bedugul (Tabel).

Table. Groundcover species and their Families with their
Importance Value Index/IVI in a 1 ha permanent sample plot
on Mt. Pohen

Species Family IVI

Selaginella sp. Selaginaceae 40.28
Athyrium esculentum (Retz.) Copel
Ardisia humilis Vahl. Woodsiaceae 11.07
Piper sp.1
Pteris sp. Myrsinaceae 9.76
Pilea sp.
Polypodium sp.2 Piperaceae 8.81
Polypodium sp.1
Polyosma integrifolia Bl. Pteridaceae 7.28
Cyclosorus sp.1
Rubiaceae Urticaceae 7.02
Clauxylon sp.
Cyathea sp. Polypodiaceae 6.85
Flacourtia sp.
Polypodiaceae 6.59

Saxifragaceae 6.48

Thelypteridaceae 6.44

Rubiaceae 6.03

Euphorbiaceae 5.86

Cyatheaceae 5.42

Flacourtiaceae 4.85

Symplocos odoratissima (Bl.) Choisy. Symplocaceae 4.56

Hedychium coronarium Koen. Zingiberaceae 4.52

Asplenium tenerum Forst. Aspleniaceae 4.17

Cyperus sp.1 Cyperaceae 3.96

Helicia sp. Proteaceae 3.79

Strobilanthes sp. Acanthaceae 3.42

Athyrium asperum (Bl.) Mild. Woodsiaceae 3.22

Nephrolepis coerdifolia (L.) Pr. Woodsiaceae 2.92

Calamus ciliaris Bl. Arecaceae 2.70

Poaceae Poaceae 2.35

Rubus sp. Rosaceae 2.06

Acronychia trifoliata Zoll. Rutaceae 1.80

Pandanus sp. Pandanaceae 1.72

Goodyera reticulata (Bl.) Bl. Orchidaceae 1.43

Smilax sp. Smilacaceae 1.43

Laportea sp. Urticaceae 1.42

Litsea sp. Lauraceae 1.38

Cyclosorus sp.2 Thelypteridaceae 1.32

Medinilla sp. Melastomaceae 1.26
Asplenium sp.1
Omalanthus giganteus Z & M. Aspleniaceae 1.16
Gynura sp.
Melastoma sp. Euphorbiaceae 1.06
Piper sp.2
Desmodium sp. Asteraceae 1.01
Pteris tripartita Sw.
Asplenium nidus L. Melastomaceae 0.84
Crypteronia sp.
Dysoxylum nutans (Bl.) Miq. Piperaceae 0.78
Podocarpus imbricatus Bl.
Psyhotria sp. Fabaceae 0.74
Vernonia arborea Buc. Ham.
Asplenium sp.2 Pteridaceae 0.69
Vittaria ensiformis Sw.
Blumea sp. Aspleniaceae 0.64
Cyperus sp.2
Crypteroniaceae 0.64

Meliaceae 0.64

Podocarpaceae 0.64

Rubiaceae 0.64

Asteraceae 0.64

Aspleniaceae 0.42

Vittariaceae 0.42

Asteraceae 0.37

Cyperaceae 0.37

Platea sp. Lauraceae 0.37
0.37
Urticaceae spesies 3 Urticaceae 0.32
0.32
Acanthaceae spesies 4 Acanthaceae 0.32
0.32
Adiantum sp. Pteridaceae 0.32
0.32
Arisaema sp. Araceae 0.32
0.32
Begonia sp. Begoniaceae 0.32
0.32
Breynia sp. Euphorbiaceae 0.32
0.32
Calanthe sp. Orchidaceae 0.32
0.32
Gynostemma sp. Cucurbitaceae 0.32
0.32
Cyathea latebrosa (Wall.) Copel. Cyatheaceae

Elaeocarpus sp. Elaeocarpaceae

Ficus sp. Moraceae

Geniostoma sp. Loganiaceae

Belum teridentifikasi -

Lophopetalum javanicum (Zoll.) Turcz. Celastraceae

Malvaceae spesies 5 Malvaceae

Myrsine hasseltii Bl. ex. K. Scheffer. Myrsinaceae

Pinanga kuhlii Blume. Arecaceae

Polygala sp. Polygalaceae 0.32

Figure shows result Non metric Multidimensional
Scalling (NMDS) ordination analysis from Sutomo (2014). In
general, most of the groundcover species lives in clumped
patterns with only a few that show solitaire pattern.

Figure. Ordination analysis using NMDS of groundcover
species distribution in a 1 ha permanent sampel plot on Mt.
Pohen

According to Barbour et al. (1980) the Shannon 0 - 2

index is categorized as a low biodiversity level, so the diversity

of lower plants in the Pohen area is low at ± 2.6 (based on the
Shannon Diversity Index). The low diversity of groundcover
vegetation (lower vegetation) in this PSP is due to this plot
within the intact part of Bukit Pohen forest, with a fairly dense
canopy cover. Thus the intensity of sunlight that touches the
forest floor is not so abundant so that not many species that
can grow other than the type of tolerant to shade such as
ferns, among others, Selaginella spp. (Barata 2000; Gomez-
Pompa and Vazquez-Yanes 1981).

In another location, the Buyan and Tamblingan Lake
forests area, Sutomo & Darma (2011) also investigate the
relationship of plant community with their environmental
factors. Vegetation was sampled by establishing transects
through the forest and using circular plots of 10 m radial to
measure the existing tree species (number of individual,
height and girth). Within the 10 m circular plot, a nested
circular plot with 2 m radial was also made to measure the
groundcover species (species, number of individual) (Kent and
Coker 1992). A total of 30 plots in Buyan and Tamblingan

were developed and the distance between plots was 50 m.
Data were assessed using a multivariate analysis with
CANOCO. A Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CCA) was
used to identify the distribution of species along the
environmental gradients (ter Braak 1986). The CCA axes were
evaluated statistically using a Monte Carlo permutation test.
The CCA analysis was done using CANOCO program V.4.5
(ter Braak and Smilauer 2002).

Their results shows that species diversity was
different between these communities. Buyan area had higher
diversity index (Shannon 2,00) compare to Tamblingan (1,60).
Their Canonical Correspondence Analysis provide clearer
views of the species distribution along some environmental
gradients. Species are distributed mainly along two gradients
namely elevation and slope (Figure). The influence of altitude
to species distribution was significant. Elevation gradients in
axes 1 were capable to explain 42.8% of the total variability of
species with a correlation value of 0.8. The sloppiness of the
area also plays significant role to the species distribution.

Slope gradient in axes 2 was capable to explain 19.1% of the
total variability of species with a correlation value of 0.7.

3 Buyan
2.5 Tamblingan

2 Simpson
1.5

1
0.5

0
Shannon

Figure. Graph showing species diversity index based on
Shannon and Simpson index at Buyan and Tamblingan.

Overall the diagram revealed that all species located
in the right of the vertical axis are the species that are
positively affected by elevation and those which are located on
the left side of the axis are less affected by elevation.
Furthermore, species which are located at the above of the
horizontal axis are species which are positively affected by
slope and the reverse was true for those which are located

below the horizontal axis. The length of the environmental
arrows also indicated the significance. So the further the
distance from the central axis reflected the condition of the
environmental gradients changes. For example, Rauvolfia was
found at the lowest altitude, and then as the elevation became
higher, we found species such as Ficus benjamina, Erythrina
sp, Homalanthus sp., Panicum reptans, Leucaena
leucocephala and Phyllanthus sp. which was found at the
highest elevation. Similar concept was also applied for the
slope arrow. Rauvolfia sp. was not only found at the lowest
elevation but also found on the less steep areas. As the slope
became steeper, we found species such as Laportea
stimulans, Solanum sp., Lucuma sp. and Eucalyptus sp. at the
most steep area in the sampling sites.

Results from this study are important as baseline data
for the managers of conservation areas in order to develop a
management and site rehabilitation plan. For rehabilitation
purposes, species selection is an important part of the
process. Native species or species that are less aggressive

are preferred than exotic and aggressive invasive species and
such species should also positively be correlated with
elevation and slope gradients (Fierke and Kauffman 2006;
Keeley et al. 2005; Kunwar 2003). This can be drawn from the
CCA diagram. Eucalyptus, Homalanthus, Rauvolfia,
Leucaena, and Erythrina are the tree species that are
correlated with the two gradients and are potentially to be
used as favourable species for rehabilitation purposes.

-1.0 Slope
1.5
Eucalypt

MeliaceLaucuma l

Apocynac

Solanum LeucPaheynlalaAntltitude
Panicum
Trema or Homalant
Erythrin
AcanthacLaportea
Syzygium Rauvolfi
Ficus sp
ZingiberPinanga
Rubiacea

Sauraria Altingia Lauracea

Myrtacea Mescereh Sterculi
Michelia
Eupatori Gleichin
Podocarp
Araceae Persea a
Cinnamom
Malaxis Toona su

Coffea s

-1.0 1.5

Figure. Ordination diagram derived from the Canonical
Correspondence Analysis showing distribution of species on
the gradients of slope and altitude.

C. Autecology of plant species in Bedugul
Invasive Species Cyperus rotundus

Autecology is the study of one species in relation to its
environment which comprises other organism and abiotic
factors (Jongman et al. 1987). Invasive species caused

problems for local ecosystems and their native species.
Invasive species affecting the soil nitrogen availability in China
(Bao et al. 2009), threaten the mangrove ecosystem in
Bangladesh (Biswas et al. 2007), and influencing plant
diversity in riparian ecosystem in Oregon (Fierke and
Kauffman 2006). In order to be able to control other potentially
troublesome exotic invasive species first we have to
understand what factors limiting their growth and
development. However, information regarding limiting
environmental factors for other problematic alien invasive
species is still inadequate (Kunwar 2003) particularly in
Indonesia, thus, to remove invasive species, encourage
natives, further studies and assessment of the invasive
species are required. Therefore autecology study is of
important value because the data resulted in studying invasive
species autecology will act as baseline data that will be useful
to generate management program including rehabilitation and
restoration program. One example is weed management to
reduce the domination of exotic pioneer species and promotes

the establishment of native species (Fardilla and Sutomo
2013).

Fardilla and Sutomo (2013) conducted autecology
study on Mt. Pohen Bedugul. Their research was conducted to
study the autecology of nutgrass (Cyperus rotundus L.), one of
the most invasive weeds in the world, in relation with other
plant species in forest edge of Pohen Mountain forest.
Nutgrass or C. rotundus is a very invasive weed. It has purple-
brown, bisexual flowers. The fruits are achenes; purple nut
sedge grows up to 2½' tall. The leaves are dark green, grass-
like, with a prominent vein on the underside. It has red-brown
spikelet with up to 40 individual flowers (Backer and van den
Brink 1963; van Steenis 1972). C. rotundus is distributed
throughout Atlantic Europe, western and eastern
Mediterranean, Balkan Peninsula, Minor and Central Asia,
tropical Arabia, Africa, North and Southern America, and
Australia (Anonym 2010; Pagad 2011). Physical or
environment measurement which correlated with invasive
species distribution is of important value to understand the

autecology of these species in order to control and manage
them.

Figure. Research site location and sampling points on Pohen
mountain forest as seen with Google Earth and Google
MapsTM 2011.

Fardilla and Sutomo (2013) used linear mixed-effect
model to show the relationship between the distance from
forest edge with the measured microclimatic variables, and the
relationship between C. rotundus abundance with the main
microclimatic variables. They also conducted canonical
correspondence analysis (CCA) ordination to see the
influence of microclimatic factors on vegetation composition

and association of C. rotundus with other plant species. Their
result suggested that light intensity was significantly
decreased from forest edge to interior. We also found similar
result for the temperature data. Wind speed was also
significantly decreased along the forest edge. For the humidity
data, we used the arcsine square-root transformation. In
contrary, humidity was significantly increased along the forest
edge to interior. Detailed results of microclimatic gradients
from forest edge to interior can be seen in Figure.

Figure. Microclimatic gradients along forest edge to interior in

Pohen mountain forest.

Their Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CCA)
ordination suggested that CCA axis 1 explained 46% of the
total variance, while CCA axis 2 explained 29.5%.
Temperature and wind speed were the microclimate factors
that mainly explained vegetation composition in the study site
(Figure). Referring to Figure, plot A1 and B1 which were plots
that near the road showed highest light intensity and
temperature values. This value was decreasing as the plots
moved to forest interior. In Figure, C. rotundus was located
near light intensity and temperature arrows. Therefore C.
rotundus seemed might have some kind relationship with light
availability and temperature as the main microclimatic factors
that regulate its abundance and distribution. We further tested
the correlation between C. rotundus abundance with the main
microclimatic factors. Figure showed that C. rotundus
abundance had a significant correlation with light availability,
but not with temperature

Figure . CCA ordination of vegetation and microclimatic
factors at the study site in Pohen mountain forest in relation to
the first two CCA axes.

Figure. Relationship between light intensity and temperature
with C. rotundus abundance in the study site.

Cyperus rotundus in their sampling location on Mt.
Pohen tends to present close together with Imperata cylindrica
and Bidens biternata. Other group also apparent such as
Lantana camara and Glichenia linearis, and group of trees and
their seedling such as Litsea sp. and Acronychia trifoliata.
There was also species that were tends to solitaire such as
fern species Athyrium asperum, and for tree species it was
Homalanthus gigantheus which is known as characterizing
species for disturbed sites in Indonesia (Kebler 2001). The
phenomenon that some species tends to co-occur together
may be the result from biological interaction between them or
perhaps indicating similarity in responding to disturbances and
abiotic factor changes in their habitat (Dukat 2006). Therefore,
species co-occurrence observations may be seen as the first
attempt to detect species interaction (i.e. Facilitation and
inhibition) and niche process that structuring the community
(Walker and del Moral 2003; Widyatmoko and Burgman
2006). By taking the advantage of the results from exploring
the few species that are strongly associated, the study into the