Cereal_grains_for_the_food_and_beverage_industries_2075944_z_lib

Barley 171

Table 4.6 Amino acid composition (g/Kg) of hulled
and hull-less barley (% w/w)

Protein and amino acids Hulled Hull-less

Protein (N x 6.25) 13.2 14.0
Amino acid
Alanine 0.44 0.47
Arginine 0.60 0.64
Aspartic acid 0.71 0.75
Cysteine 0.28 0.31
Glutamic acid 2.98 3.27
Glycine 0.42 0.44
Histidine 0.26 0.28
Isoleucine 0.43 0.46
Leucine 0.79 0.84
Lysine 0.41 0.41
Methionine 0.20 0.28
Phenylalanine 0.68 0.73
Proline 1.32 1.43
Serine 0.54 0.57
Threonine 0.42 0.45
Tryptophan 0.22 0.23
Tyrosine 0.37 0.42
Valine 0.59 0.63

Source: Adapted from Newman and Newman (2005).

hull has the effect of increasing the protein and amino acid levels in the
remainder of the kernel. In particular, hulled barley protein is slightly
higher in lysine than that of hull-less barley (Newman and Newman, 2005).

4.3.2 Lipids
Barley kernels contain low levels of lipids (approximately 2–4 % of total
grain weight) (Price and Parsons, 1975; Welch, 1978) when compared to oats
(2–18 % lipids of the total grain weight) (Price and Parsons, 1975; Frey and
Holland, 1999) and maize (5–22 % of the total grain weight) (Price and
Parsons, 1975; Zheng et al., 2008).

The distribution of lipids in the main anatomical parts of the barley
kernel is similar to that of wheat. About 30 % of the grain lipid in barley is
concentrated in the embryo (Price and Parsons, 1975; Welch, 1978), while
the remaining 70 % is located in the endosperm (Bhatty and Rossnagel,
1980). Price and Parsons (1979) report a slightly different distribution with
77 % of the total lipid deposited in the endosperm (most of the endosperm
lipid is found in the aleurone layer), 18 % in the germ region and the
remaining 5 % of the total kernel lipid is found in the hull.

© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013

172 Cereal grains for the food and beverage industries

Linoleic acid is the major fatty acid present in barley, with an overall
mean of 52.4–58.3 %, followed in decreasing amounts by palmitic acid
(21.4–28.7 %), oleic acid (10.4–16.9 %), linolenic acid (4.5–7.3 %) and stearic
acid (0.6–1.8 %) (Welch, 1978). Morrison (1993) also observed that the fatty
acids composition in the barley kernel are comparable to those in wheat
except that the former tends to have more linolenic acid.

Lipids are classified into two basic fractions – non-starch lipids and starch
lipids. Non-starch lipids are stored in oil droplets called spherosomes (Mor-
rison, 1993). They contain polar lipids, mainly phospholipids, and non-polar
lipids, mainly triacylglycerol (palmitic, oleic, linoleic and linolenic).

Starch lipids include those lipids (mostly comprising lysophospholipids
and saturated FFA) that are associated with the starch granules in the
kernels of barley. Starch lipids are more tightly bound than most lipids, and
are commonly extracted with hot butanol or other polar solvent mixtures
(Morrison, 1993). Their concentration is positively correlated with the
amylose content (Morrison et al., 1984). It has been suggested that lipids
likely have a regulatory function in the synthesis of amylose; however, their
precise role is not known (Tester et al., 1991). The starch lipids are almost
exclusively phospholipids and a small amount of FFA (Morrison, 1993).

While variety, growing environments and nitrogen fertilization are
reported to have a minor effect on fatty acid composition (Deman and
Dondeyne, 1985), environmental conditions seem to induce significant dif-
ferences in lipid content of barley kernels (Fedak and Delaroche, 1977).
Tocopherols and tocotrienols, collectively called tocols or vitamin E
complex, are an important group of nutrients associated with barley lipids
due to their solubility in lipid solvents and will be discussed further in the
following section.

4.3.3 Vitamins
Vitamins are nutritional components produced by plants. Cereal grains are
well known to be good sources of certain vitamins, particularly some of the
B-complex vitamins. The barley kernels contain all the vitamins and choline
with the exception of vitamins A, D, K, B12 and C (or these are present in
very small amounts).

Of the major cereals, barley contains the highest amount of fat-soluble
vitamin E (tocols) (Kerckhoffs et al., 2002) which represents an important
antioxidant in foods (Moreau et al., 2007). The tocols are associated with
lipid components in the aleurone, endosperm and embryo tissue, and con-
centrations are positively correlated with oil content (Newman and
Newman, 2008). Moreover, unlike wheat and rye, barley grains contain all
eight isomers – four tocopherols (α-T, β-T, γ-T and δ-T) and four tocotri-
enols (α-T3, β-T3, γ-T3 and δ-T3) (Morrison, 1978), with α-T3 and γ-T3
being the most dominant (Moreau et al., 2007; Nielsen and Hansen, 2008).
While the majority of tocopherols are found in the embryo, tocotrienols are

© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013

Barley 173

more evenly dispersed throughout the kernel (Peterson, 1994). Andersson
et al. (2008) report that the average proportion of tocotrienol was 76.8 %
of total tocols, indicating that barley is one of the richest sources of
tocotrienols among cereal grains (Ward et al., 2008).

Vitamin B1 (thiamine) is deposited mainly in the aleurone layer (32 %)
and scutellum (62 %) of the grain, while vitamin B2 (riboflavin) is mainly
found in the aleurone layer (37 %) and endosperm (32 %). Barley contains
the highest nicotinic acid level of all cereals, and this is concentrated in the
aleurone layer (61 %) (Newman and Newman, 2008). An overview of the
vitamin content of hulled barley is given in Table 4.7.

Table 4.7 Mineral and vitamin composition of hulled
barley (% w/w)

Item Unit Value
(μg or mg/100 g)

Minerals mg 33
Macronutrients mg 133
Calcium mg 264
Magnesium mg 452
Phosphorus mg 12
Potassium mg 330
Sodium mg 200
Silicon
Sulphur μg 7
mg 3.6
Micronutrients mg 2.77
Cobalt mg 0.498
Iron mg 1.943
Zinc μg 37.7
Copper
Manganese
Selenium

Vitamins mg 0
Vitamin C mg 0.646
Thiamin mg 0.285
Riboflavin mg 4.604
Niacin mg 0.282
Pantothenic acid mg 0.318
Vitamin B6 μg 19
Folate, total μg 0
Vitamin B12 μg 13
Carotene, β μg 0
Carotene, α μg 160
Lutein + zeaxanthin mg 0.57
Vitamin E (α-tocopherol) μg 0
Vitamin D μg 2.2
Vitamin K (phylloquinone)

Sources: USDA/ARS (2012), Newman and Newman (2008).

© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013

174 Cereal grains for the food and beverage industries

4.3.4 Minerals
Barley contains between 2 and 3 % minerals (Newman and Newman, 2008).
Minerals are classified into two main groups, macro- and micro-elements,
on the basis of their concentration in foods.

Mineral elements in barley are mainly concentrated in the embryo, peri-
carp and aleurone regions (Liu et al., 1974; Marconi et al., 2000). In this
regard, Lombi et al. (2010) studied the gradient and distribution of some of
the essential elements present in the barley grain using high-definition
synchrotron X-ray fluorescence (XRF). This study shows that the embryo
and the external parts of the grain were enriched in nutrients in comparison
with the endosperm. The embryo exhibits high concentrations of Mn
(>30 %) while the aleurone sub-fractions had the highest concentration of
Mg. Cu, Zn and Fe distribution is also much greater in the ventral side
compared with the dorsal side. The most abundant macro-elements found
in barley are P, K and Si, while among the micro-elements, Fe, Mn and Zn
are the main representatives (Table 4.7). Silicates occur abundantly in the
husk but are also present in starch.

Phosphorus is the most important element, in nutritional terms, and in
the barley kernel it is present in the form of phytic acid (myoinositol),
mainly localized in barley embryo and aleurone tissues representing
65–75 % of total kernel phosphorus (Raboy, 1990). Its capacity to chelate
divalent metal ions, such as Ca, Cu and Zn, definitely gives it an antinutri-
tional role, perhaps more specifically for monogastric animals. However,
preparing foods with alkali treatment or lactic acid bacteria (LAB) fermen-
tation renders the P in phytic acid biologically available.

4.3.5 Phytochemicals
Phytochemicals are non-nutritive components present in a plant-based
diet (‘phyto’ is from the Greek word meaning plant) that exert protective
or disease-preventing effects. They have been associated with protection
from and/or treatment of chronic diseases such as heart disease, cancer,
hypertension, diabetes and other medical conditions (Surh, 2003). A range
of different phytochemicals, including tocols, folate, sterols, phenolic acids
and alkylresorcinols, are found in barley in small amounts (Table 4.8). The
folate content in the barley grain is higher than that observed for wheat and
oats (Andersson et al., 2008). Andersson et al. (2008) showed that the levels
of phytochemicals in barley can be manipulated by breeding and that the
contents of single phytochemicals may easily be adjusted by careful selection
of a genotype.

4.4 Barley milling

Barley milling comprises preliminary cleaning and tempering, blocking and
pearling, roller milling and air classification.

© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013

Barley 175

Table 4.8 Phytochemical content of barley (% w/w)

Phytochemicals Mean Range

Total tocol content (μg/g) 55.0 46.2–68.8
Folate (ng/g) 657 518–789
Alkylresorcinols (μg/g) 55 32–103
Sterols (μg/g) 1048 899–1153
Phenolic acids (μg/g) 463 254–675

Source: Andersson et al. (2008).

4.4.1 Preliminary cleaning and tempering
The first step in milling barley is cleaning, the process carried out to elimi-
nate foreign grains and vegetable matter (weed seeds, straw, chaff), animal
(rodent, excreta and hairs, insects and insect frass, mites) and mineral impu-
rities (mud, dust, stones, sand, metal objects, nails, nuts), as well as to remove
broken kernels. Grain cleaning is carried out either by an oscillating sieve
mechanism or by the pneumatic method using specialized equipment, such
as screens, magnets, de-stoners, gravity tables, separators and scourers, in
conjunction with air current aspiration (Kent and Evers, 1994b). After
cleaning, in most processing centres, barley kernels are subjected to the
conditioning/tempering process to add moisture in a controlled fashion.
This process is performed to alter some of the physical properties of the
barley kernel by adding a certain volume of water at a certain temperature.
The tempering step for barley consists of adjusting the moisture content of
the kernel to 15 % followed by a rest of 24 h prior to pearling (Kent and
Evers, 1994b).

4.4.2 Blocking and pearling
Both blocking (dehulling) and pearling (rounding) of barley are abrasive
scouring processes, differing from each other merely in degree of removal
of the superficial layers of the grain (Kent and Evers, 1994b). Blocking
removes part of the fibrous and largely indigestible hull that adheres
strongly to the kernel and is accomplished with minimum injury to the
grains. This abrasive scouring process is performed using circular emery
stones (rotating on a vertical or horizontal axis) which revolve rapidly
within a perforated cylinder. The hull and other fractions of the kernel are
progressively grated off by rubbing against the stones and the perforated
cylinder. The degree of abrasion is governed collectively by the residence
period in the abrasion chamber, the abrasiveness of the stones and by the
distance between the rotor and the surrounding screens (Vorwerck, 1992).

Pearling, carried out in several steps, removes the remainder of the husk
and other components present in the outer layers of the barley kernel. Thus,

© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013

176 Cereal grains for the food and beverage industries

the content of insoluble dietary fibre in pearled barley decreases with
increasing pearling rates (Izydorczyk and Dexter, 2004).

The by-products obtained during the pearling process represent concen-
trated sources of bioactive components such as phytate, vitamin E, phenolic
compounds and insoluble dietary fibre. It has been reported that the pearl-
ing by-products of hull-less barley obtained at 20 % pearling rate were
enriched in tocols and contained 2.7–4.4 times more α-tocotrienols,
α-tocopherols and vitamin E activity than the whole barley grain
(Izydorczyk and Dexter, 2004).

4.4.3 Roller milling
Unlike wheat and oats, barley is not roller-milled into flour and bran. This
is because it reacts differently to conventional roller-milling (see Chapter
1: wheat and other triticum grains). Unlike wheat bran, which is easy to
remove from the endosperm tissue in large flakes, barley bran is more
brittle and prone to shattering regardless of the tempering conditions and
thus is not readily separated from the endosperm. This is due to the plastic-
ity of the thick endosperm walls of the high-β-glucan barleys (Izydorczyk
et al., 2003) and results in the production of fine particles during roller-
milling. These increase the ash content and result in the flour having a dark
colour. However, barley can be roller-milled using equipment more com-
monly associated with wheat, such as the Buhler mill, Allis-Chalmers mill
and Miag-Multomat mill, as long as proper milling conditions are met
(Izydorczyk and Dexter, 2004). This means the use of several break pas-
sages, sizing passages that have corrugated rolls and reduction passages with
either smooth, frosted or corrugated rolls. To separate the starchy endo-
sperm from the cell wall and release flour, shorter duster passages are used
(Jadhav et al., 1998). An average extraction rate of 82 % of barley flour is
obtained from pearl barley representing 67 % of the grain, i.e. an overall
extraction rate of 55 % based on the original whole grain (including the
hull). By using blocked grain, an overall extraction rate of 59 % of the whole
grain could be obtained, but the product would be considerably less pure
than that produced from pearl barley (Kent and Evers, 1994b).

The importance of obtaining better separation of cell wall material from
the starch stems not only from the need to obtain greater yields of whiter
barley flour, but also from the demand for pure and highly concentrated
barley fractions enriched in β-glucan and/or other bioactive nutrients
(Izydorczyk and Dexter, 2004).

4.4.4 Air classification
Air classification is a separation technique that uses moving air in a con-
fined space to separate non-homogeneous particles into groups or classes
of fairly uniform size ranging from 2 μm to a maximum of 100 μm, referred

© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013

Barley 177

to as cut points or cut sizes (Newman and Newman, 2008). The use of air
classification to separate barley fractions was originally developed to
produce nutritious high-protein fractions for food uses (Pomeranz et al.,
1971). Air classification has also been useful in the separation of barley
fractions in the brewing industry, with research carried out into the air clas-
sification of malting barley and barley flour to produce low-fibre, low-
protein starchy flours with amylolytic activities, which are particularly useful
grist characteristics for brewing (Izydorczyk and Dexter, 2004).

Air classification of three barley types, waxy, regular and high-amylose,
was conducted by Vasanthan and Bhatty (1995) in order to obtain fractions
rich in large starch granules. Barley was passed through a pin-mill (type of
impact mill that reduces the material through loss of kinetic energy by
means of a high-velocity beating of the particles, thus stressing it beyond
its elastic limits) (Hibbs et al., 1947), and the resulting meals were then
passed through a screen and separated into coarse and fine fractions. The
two fractions were then air classified by passing them through two vanes,
set at 15 mm and 30 mm, respectively. In all three barleys, air classification
separated the large starch granules from the smaller ones and concentrated
them into the fine fraction after the final air classification step. β-glucans
of the three barley types were also separated and concentrated by using
this method, and were found in the coarse fraction at concentrations of
23.8 %, 13.1 % and 21.8 %, after the final air classification step, compared
with 7.2 %, 5.9 % and 7.8 %, respectively, in the whole grain of the three
barley types. Ferrari et al. (2009) optimized the air classification process in
order to produce β-glucan-enriched barley flours. The authors used a com-
bination of micronization and air classification to produce a standard curve
from which they could predict barley flour yields and β-glucan concentra-
tion. This allowed the process to be tailored to produce flours of a particu-
lar β-glucan concentration, or to achieve a particular flour yield. The
process allowed the β-glucan enrichment of the barley flours to a concen-
tration twice that found in the original grain (11.2–15.6 %), with a barley
flour yield of approximately 30 %. The use of barley fractionation therefore
has potential for use in the commercial production of β-glucan-enriched
foods.

4.5 Applications of barley in foods

Barley has a long history of use as food and is currently used to make baked
products, pasta, noodles, tortillas and tarhana.

4.5.1 Historical observation on the use of barley as food
Morocco, Latvia and Algeria currently have the highest average annual
national consumption of barley as a food or food ingredient (FAO/UN,

© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013

178 Cereal grains for the food and beverage industries

Table 4.9 Human consumption of barley in 2009 in
different continents and in the top 10 barley consumer
countries

Continents/countries kg/capita/year

Africa 3.0
Europe 1.3
Americas 0.4
Asia 0.5
Oceania 0.1
Australia and New Zealand 0.0
Morocco 28.9
Latvia 19.0
Algeria 14.3
Ethiopia 13.2
Eritrea 11.2
Libya 11.2
Sao Tome and Principe 8.6
Kazakhstan 7.9
Georgia 7.4

Source: FAO/UN (2012).

2012), with levels of 29.9, 19.0, 19.0 and 14.3 kg/person, respectively (Table
4.9). The consumption of barley as food has decreased considerably in the
last 40 years with the increase of urban populations and, often, the introduc-
tion of national policies supporting wheat consumption. This is the case
in Morocco where consumption of barley as food has decreased from
87 kg/person/year in 1961 to 39.15 in 2007. In Europe, the average con-
sumption of food barley decreased from 1.6 kg/person/year in 1961 to a
minimum of 0.9 in 1991, at which point it started to increase again reaching
1.37 kg/person/year in 2007 (Table 4.9).

In the ancient world, barley was one of the most important food grains.
However, as other food grains such as wheat, rye and oats became more
abundant, barley was relegated to the ‘poor man’s bread’ status (Zohary
and Hopf, 1993). Currently, the health and nutritional properties of barley
have begun to restore its status in the human diet. Ancient texts from many
cultures in Asia, Africa and Europe refer to barley as an important dietary
constituent (Newman and Newman, 2006). In Egyptian literature, barley is
mentioned as early as the first dynasty during which ale, a beverage with
low alcohol content, was made from ‘red barley of the Nile’ (Darby et al.,
1976).

Barley heads appeared on many Egyptian coins and the grain was inti-
mately entwined in Egyptian religious rites and celebrations, being used as
an offering to their gods, in funerals, and even becoming a part of Egyptian
legends.Ancient Egyptian records proclaimed barley as a gift of the goddess

© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013

Barley 179

Isis, and germinated barley kernels symbolized the resurrection of the
goddess Osiris (Weaver, 1950).

Barley was also used as medium of exchange, and in therapeutic applica-
tions, when ground and mixed with oil, as a purgative, applied to wounds
to decrease the healing time, used as anal suppositories, to treat eye diseases
and as a diagnostic agent for pregnancy, and even to determine the sex of
unborn children (Darby et al., 1976). The effectiveness of, and scientific
support for, the latter two is unknown.

Barley grain helped the Oromo, an ethnic Ethiopian people, to improve
their quality of life, transforming these nomads into a settled farming society
(Mohammed, 1983). The Oromo incorporated barley into their food life-
style because they believed it to give strength, bravery and courage. Raw
and roasted unripe barley was also a favourite food for children (Asfaw,
1990). Other barley foods such as porridge (merqa and kinche), and
fermented/unfermented beverages of various consistency (tella, zurbegonie,
bequre, borde and arequie) are still today associated with prosperity, harvest
and marriage rituals.

In Europe, barley was a common constituent of unleavened bread and
porridge eaten by the ancient Greeks. Pliny the Elder and Hippocrates
spoke of the medical properties of barley in the treatment of ulcers and as
an energy drink. Several barley products, such as bread called krimnitas or
chondrinos and biscuits called paximadia, were quite popular in ancient
Greece (Kremezi, 1997). Even though barley was considered to be a desir-
able food, the Roman soldiers considered barley as ‘punishment rations’
and it was consumed predominantly by slaves and the poor. In contrast,
wheat bread was considered more digestible and nourishing. Barley was
also the food of Roman gladiators, who were called hordearii or ‘barley
men’ because this was the main component of their training diet (Grando
and Macpherson, 2005), and believed to give greater strength and increased
resistance in comparison to other foods (Percival, 1921).

Barley was also cultivated in the Caucasus Mountains district for thou-
sands of years (Percival, 1921) and used to make flat cake, soup and low
alcoholic beverages (buza) from fermented hull-less barley cakes and malt
(Percival, 1921).

In the fifth millennium BC, barley reached Spain and then barley-
containing food products spread to France (bread called bolon or boulon),
Scotland (Scotch broth or barley broth, mashlum, a mixture of pea and
barley meal), Norway (porridge called vassgraut – water porridge), and
Sweden (flat bread called drylur). The popular scone served at tea in the
UK was originally made from bere barley meal (a variety of food barley)
and oat meal. From the Mediterranean region, barley moved rapidly to the
east reaching Asia in the second and third millennia BC (Davidson, 1999)
where was used to produce a flat cake (tsamba) in Tibet, cooked meal (king
bori bob) in Korea and tea in China, Korea, Japan, India and Tibet (Newman
and Newman, 2006).

© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013

180 Cereal grains for the food and beverage industries

4.5.2 Introduction to modern food uses of barley
As stated in the introduction, barley has been used across the globe, in the
preparation of many traditional dishes in Russia, Poland, Tibet, Japan and
India (Chatterjee and Abrol, 1977), and in other food products in Western
countries such as stews, soups and baby foods (Bhatty, 1993). Barley is
utilized in a variety of forms, including whole-grain, pearled grain, raw-grain
flour (fine and coarse), whole roasted grain and roasted-grain flour (fine
and coarse) and mature grain flour. Pearled barley is used as a rice substi-
tute and for the production of soy paste and soy sauce in Korea (Ryu, 1979),
while in Middle Eastern and North African countries barley is pearled and
ground for use in soups, flat bread and porridge (Bhatty, 1993).

4.5.3 Bakery products from barley
Barley flour can easily be incorporated into wheat-based products, includ-
ing bread, cakes, cookies, noodles and extruded snack foods (Newman and
Newman, 1991). Compared to wheat flour, barley flour is less able to form
a gluten complex upon hydration and mixing, owing to the substitution
of gliadins with hordeins. Mixograph analysis of wheat dough admixed
with these sulphur-poor prolamins has revealed dough weakening, with a
decrease in mixing time and peak dough resistance and an increase in
resistance breakdown (Greenfield et al., 1998). As shown by Holtekjølen
et al. (2008b), several investigations have focused on the proportion of
barley flour that can be blended with wheat flour to produce acceptable
breads. These studies have established a clear correlation between an
increase in barley flour content and decreases in dough gas retention
(Dhingra and Jood, 2002), specific bread-loaf volume (Bhatty, 1986;
Dhingra and Jood, 2002; Zannini et al., 2006), crumb firmness (Gill et al.,
2002b) and end-product acceptability (Basman and Koksel, 2001; Ereifej
et al., 2006).

However, the dilution of wheat gluten is not the only cause of these
effects. Fibre, especially insoluble fibre, may mechanically interfere with
gluten network formation in the dough (Salmenkallio-Marttila et al., 2001;
Gill et al., 2002b), causing gas cell rupture (Courtin and Delcour, 2002)
resulting in a reduction of bread volume (Anjum et al., 1991). Both soluble
and insoluble fibres tightly bind high amounts of water, which may make
water less available for the development of the gluten network and may
result in less steam production during baking (Gill et al., 2002b). On the
other hand, the incorporation of barley flour into wheat dough has been
shown to have anti-staling effects on bread crumb texture (Gujral et al.,
2003; Trogh et al., 2005).

Swanson and Penfield (1988) and Dhingra and Jood (2004) both reported
that a 15–20 % addition of barley flour to wheat bread was acceptable from
the perspectives of overall flavour, appearance and texture. However,
increased levels caused a reduction in loaf volume, a grey brown colour and

© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013

Barley 181

hard crumb texture. Niffenegger (1964) also reported that a barley substitu-
tion higher than 75 % decreased the loaf volume and negatively influenced
the sensory parameters such as poor flavour and texture.

Another approach for improving the quality of wheat bread containing
barley flour was investigated by Zannini and co-workers (2009) who studied
the microbiological and technological characterization of laboratory-made
sourdoughs for use in barley flour-based bread-making. They demonstrated
that the sourdough technique is a reliable alternative to baker’s yeast for
bread-making with barley flour added as an improver. They also suggest
that, besides the technological and functional features, the strain’s robust-
ness against environmental conditions and microbial competitors has to be
considered as a crucial criterion during selection. The LAB Lactobacillus
brevis and L. plantarum and the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae were rec-
ognized as the most suitable starter cultures for barley sourdough fermenta-
tion. The utilization of sourdough technology for bread-making with barley
flour resulted in an appealing approach since the highest acetic acid content
normally detected in barley sourdough allowed the amelioration of the
negative impact of barley odour and taste on the final products (Marklinder
et al., 1996).

Gill et al. (2002b) showed how the amylose content of barley flour and
its pretreatment remarkably influenced the bread quality of the final prod-
ucts. The waxy (very low amylose) Candle barley flour produced better
quality breads, in terms of loaf volume, crumb firmness and crust colour,
than the regular amylose-containing counterpart (Phoenix). The baking
functionality of Candle flour was also markedly improved when added after
heat treatment (Gill et al., 2002a) or extrusion (Gill et al., 2002b). The
authors conclude that the addition of cooked or extruded waxy barley flour
could be an effective way to increase the level of substitution, and perhaps
the total and soluble dietary fibre of barley bread, without significantly
changing its desirable physical properties.

Research work aimed at increasing the content of dietary fibre in wheat
bread by adding barley middling into the formulation has been recently
performed by Sullivan et al. (2011). The middling fraction is composed of
particles that are too big to pass through sieves designed to allow flour
through, but small enough to pass through sieves designed to separate out
bran. This fraction is of particular interest in the production of barley-
containing breads, as in a previous study by Sullivan et al. (2010) who found
the barley middling fraction to have a high fibre content and, in particular,
a high β-glucan content. Bread quality factors such as loaf volume and
textural properties were not significantly affected by the addition of up to
30 % barley middling while the fibre and β-glucan contents of the barley-
containing breads was increased significantly (Sullivan et al., 2011).

The increased dietary fibre level especially the soluble (1→3,1→4)-β-
d-glucan and total arabinoxylan portion are considered to be strong
cholesterol- and blood glucose-lowering agents (Lu et al., 2000; Trogh et al.,

© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013

182 Cereal grains for the food and beverage industries

2004). Additionally, the incorporation of barley flour in a wheat bread for-
mulation also improves the antioxidant properties by increasing the amount
of phenolic compounds in the breads; however, this will largely depend on
the barley variety (Holtekjølen et al., 2008a).

Satisfactory loaf volume and crumb structure can be also achieved using
enzyme technology. In particular, Trogh et al. (2004) showed that xylanase
addition in a composite dough consisting of 60 % wheat flour and 40 %
hull-less barley flour not only markedly improved loaf volume and palat-
ability of the bread, but also increased the soluble arabinoxylan content
because of conversion of water-unextractable arabinoxylan into soluble
arabinoxylan.

In the production of Turkish flat bread, Basman and Koksel (1999)
observed a decrease in sensory properties, including the colour, texture,
taste and aroma, when barley flour was included (up to 40 %) in the bread
formulation, although the overall quality of the bread was acceptable.
Ereifej et al. (2006) reported that the incorporation of 30–45 % barley flour
into wheat balady, a typical Jordanian wheat bread, did not affect consumer
acceptability. However, when increasing barley flour content beyond these
limits, the resulting bread loaves become harder, darker and non-uniformly
shaped and are therefore less acceptable breads.

Colour and appearance of the food products are the first factors consid-
ered by the consumers before purchase and consumption. If the food
product deviates from the expected colour, it loses favour regardless of
other quality characteristics (Baik and Ullrich, 2008). The discolouration of
bread by barley so that it has a dark grey colour is one of the obstacles that
prevent the use of barley in food products. This colour is present not only
when the barley grain is used as a rice substitute (Theuer, 2002) but also
when barley is used as a replacement in other wheat-based products
(Knuckles et al., 1997; Basman and Koksel, 1999; Marconi et al., 2000;
Izydorczyk et al., 2005; Ereifej et al., 2006; Erkan et al., 2006; Lagasse et al.,
2006; Quinde-Axtell and Baik, 2006).

Two possible causes of barley discolouration are enzymatic and non-
enzymatic reactions. In non-enzymatic reactions, the polymerization of
endogenous phenolic compounds is the cause of barley flour discolouration.
Enzymatic discolouration results from amino acids and phenolic com-
pounds reacting with other phenolic compounds that have been subject to
polyphenol oxidase activity, and have been converted into o-quinones
(Mcevily et al., 1992; Sapers, 1993). Due to this, barley grains have a higher
phenolic compound content, ranging from 0.2 to 0.4 %, than other cereal
grains (Bendelow and LaBerge, 1979); the polyphenol content and level of
polyphenol oxidase activity has been shown to vary dramatically between
different barley genotypes (Quinde-Axtell and Baik, 2006). In other cereal
grains, the phenolic compounds are mainly found in the hull, testa and
aleurone (Nordviskt et al., 1984), whereas in the barley kernel they are
dispersed throughout (Jerumanis et al., 1976).

© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013

Barley 183

A solution to reduce the discolouration of barley-containing foods has
been proposed by Quinde-Axtell and Baik (2006). They subjected barley
flour to heat-treatment in order to denature the polyphenol oxidase, which
resulted in less decolouration compared to unheated flour. However, this
process results in a reduction of all polyphenolic content in the barley flour.
Quind-Axtell and Baik (2006) also noted that some barley polyphenols
have potential antioxidant properties. They therefore proposed further
research to identify which specific polyphenols have antioxidant properties,
so that the development of barley genotypes that lack the discolouring
polyphenols but have a high antioxidant polyphenol count can occur.

4.5.4 Pasta
Recent interest in whole grains and fibre-rich foods has generated interest
in development of novel pasta products containing whole-wheat and sup-
plemented fibre sources, including barley flour or barley milling fractions.

Marconi et al. (2000) assessed the possibility of using barley pearling
by-products for incorporation into functional pasta formulations. Compos-
ite flours were made using durum wheat semolina blended with pearling
by-products, each substituted 50 % of the total, with 5 % vital wheat gluten
added. Additional composite flour was made with milled residual pearled
barley kernels. Although darker than durum wheat pasta, these pastas had
good cooking qualities with regard to stickiness, bulkiness, firmness, total
organic matter released in rinsing water, dietary fibre content (13.1–16.1 %
w/w) and β-glucan (4.3–5.0 % wb) which was much higher than the control
(4.0 and 0.3 % w/w, respectively).

Lamacchia et al. (2011) produced barley-containing spaghetti by blend-
ing wheat semolina with increasing amounts of barley flour. During pasta-
making, dough sample analysis revealed that there was development of
protein-based polymers of high molecular weight with a simultaneous
decrease of both S–S bonds and –SH free groups, thus suggesting that
polymerization among the different classes of proteins involves a new
bonding arrangement. The replacement of increasing amounts of semolina
with barley flour caused an increase in the optimal cooking time, mainly
due to β-glucan hydrophilicity and its competition with starch for water.
The sensory properties of composite spaghetti were judged as better than
the control because of the higher firmness and the lower bulkiness and
stickiness.

4.5.5 Noodles
Noodles are very popular in Asia, and 50 % of wheat consumed in Asia is
in the form of noodle products (Delcour and Hoseney, 2010b). Several
studies have reported the incorporation of barley flour (Kim et al., 1973;
Change and Lee, 1974; Han, 1996) and barley flours with different amylose

© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013

184 Cereal grains for the food and beverage industries

content (Baik and Czuchajowska, 1997; Hatcher et al., 2005; Izydorczyk
et al., 2005) in the production of noodles. Generally the 20 or 40 % level of
wheat substitution with barley flour to either white salted (Japanese type)
or yellow alkaline noodles (Chinese type) gave products with acceptable
appearance, although the colour was considered dark and greyish (Change
and Lee, 1974). Baik and Czuchajowska (1997) observed a general shorten-
ing of the cook time for all of the noodles containing barley, with no cor-
relation with the amylose content of the barley flour. However, texture
profile analysis parameters were poorer in noodles made with barley that
had a high amylopectin content.

4.5.6 Tortillas
Ames et al. (2006) used barley flour fractions from selected barley geno-
types to make tortillas. Overall, they report that barley tortillas maintained
their texture and nutritional content for at least 29 days of frozen storage,
and 90 % of the consumer panellists scored the barley tortillas highly in
terms of texture and taste, when compared with their wheat counterpart.
Interestingly, approximately 80 % of consumers indicated that knowledge
of the nutritional content of barley tortillas would affect their purchasing
decisions.

4.5.7 Tarhana
Tarhana is a popular traditional LAB and yeast fermented food product in
Turkey. It is prepared by mixing yoghurt, wheat flour, yeast and a variety
of vegetables and spices (tomatoes, onions, salt, mint, paprika) followed by
fermentation for one to seven days. Tarhana has an acidic and sour taste
with a yeasty flavour and is used for making soup (Ibanoglu et al., 1995).
Erkan et al. (2006) produced a high-β-glucan tarhana using barley flour. The
use of barley flours affected the colour and the viscosity of the tarhana
samples. However, the overall sensory analysis results indicated that using
barley flours in the tarhana formulation resulted in acceptable soup proper-
ties in terms of most of the sensory properties.

4.6 Applications of barley in beverages

Barley is used to make coffee-like beverages and through malting to make
a number of beers and speciality malts.

4.6.1 Non-alcoholic coffee-like beverages
Roasted barley can be incorporated into coffee-like beverages (Zannini
et al., 2009). ‘Barley coffee’ is very popular in Europe. In Italy, it is known

© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013

Barley 185

as caffe d’orzo and is commonly used as a breakfast drink for children when
mixed with milk.

Papetti et al. (2006) found that that barley coffee consumption may
decrease the buildup of cariogenic bacteria on teeth. The research showed
that barley coffee possesses antimicrobial and bactericidal activity as well
as high anti-adhesive properties, that are active against oral pathogens such
as Streptococcus mutans and S. sobrinus. The α-dicarbonyl compounds
formed during the roasting process (green coffee did not show any antibac-
terial activity) were identified as being responsible for the antibacterial and
anti-adhesive properties (Daglia et al., 2007, 2011).

4.6.2 Beer-making process
Beer represents one of the most commonly consumed alcoholic beverages
and is defined as an alcoholic beverage derived from barley malt, either
with or without adjuncts (other cereal grains), and flavoured using hops.
The Beer Purity Law from 1516, the Bavarian Reinheitsgebot, states that
traditional German beer (also parts of Switzerland and Greece) is made
only from barley, hops and water, with the addition of yeast (Gerhäuser,
2005). This was intended as a means to tax and control beer production by
prohibiting its production outside the beerhouse.

Malting precedes brewing and its purpose is to transform the physical
structure of the barley kernel and allow synthesis or activation of enzymes
such that the final product, barley malt, is more readily useable in the next
stages of brewing (or distilling or food manufacture) (MacLeod, 2004). A
basic industrial western beer-making process involves three separate but
correlated stages: firstly, barley malt is mashed (4–10 h) to make wort, a
sugar-rich malt extract which will be subsequently fermented (3–10 days),
in the second stage of brewing, by yeast (typically S. cerevisiae) into alcohol
(beer) in cylindro-conical tanks (to allow yeast expulsion by gravity into
the lower conical portion of the vessel). In the final stage the beer is refined
(2–25 days) by lautering (filtration) and ageing (flavour development). Due
to the many permutations at each of these three stages, in addition to the
variation in raw materials such as malt (see Table 4.10 for some more
common malt types), hops, yeast and the possibility of adjunct incorpora-
tion, many beers exist and thus only the most common types will be men-
tioned herein.

4.6.3 Barley malt as a brewing raw material
Barley malt, or ‘malt’ as it is commonly known due to its use in produc-
tion as brewing malt, is the primary ingredient in beer-making and pro-
vides all of the constituents essential to brewing, save water and yeast.
Malt has a high starch to protein ratio and an adhering husk that allows
efficient malting to occur while protecting the modified grain after malting,

© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013

Table 4.10 Traditional barley foods and beverages

Type of product Origin: name References

© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013 Malt (for most Belgium, Holland and northern France: Abbey beer, Flavoured Buglass, 2010
famous Western beer, Germany: Altbier, Bock, Doppelbock, Kölsch, Malzbier,
beer style) Märzenbier, München, Pilsener, Rauchbier, Roggenbier, Kerssie and Goitom, 1996; Molla, 1998; Yallew,
Steinbier, England: Old ale, Strong ale, Stock ale, Barley 1998; Nigusse, 2005; Tashi, 2005; Upreti, 2002
Beer wine, Bitter, Brown ale, Honey beers, Mild ale, Pale ale,
Porter, France: Bière de Garde, US: Cream ale, Flavoured Molla, 1998; Yallew, 1998; Bekele et al., 2005;
Bread beers, Steam beer, Belgium: Honey beers, Lambic beer, Nigusse, 2005
Saison, Scotland: Scotch ales, Ireland: Red beer, Stout,
Cakes Finland: Sahti, Estonia: Saaremaa Island – Kodüolu, Sweden: Tashi, 2005
Couscous Gotland – Gotlandsdricke, Russia: Sourish shchi Molla, 1998; Bekele et al., 2005
Flour of roasted Nigusse, 2005
Tibet: Sanchang, Lenmar, Nepal: Chang, Chhyang, Ethiopia:
ground grain Borde, Areki, Tella, Eritrea: Siwa Molla, 1998; Nigusse, 2005
Fermented pancake Molla, 1998; Bekele et al., 2005; Nigusse, 2005;
Porridge Morocco: Toughrift, Tunisia: Kisra, Eritrea: Kicha, Ethiopia:
Dabbo, Kitta/Torosho Tashi, 2005; Upreti, 2002
Roasted whole Bekele et al., 2005; Nigusse, 2005; Upreti, 2002
grains Tibet: Chima, Magsan Tsog
Morocco: Ibrine azenbou, Aftal, Birkoukss, Tunisia: Malthouth Yallew, 1998
Sauce Eritrea: Tihni Tashi, 2005
Snack foods Molla, 1998; Bekele et al., 2005; Tashi, 2005
Soup Eritrea, Ethiopia: Injera (taita)
Eritrea: Geat, Shirba, Tibet: Yuetub, Sanchak tukba, Ethiopia: Zannini et al., 2009
Coffee Kerssie and Goitom, 1996; Molla, 1998; Yallew,
Traditional dishes Genfo, Kinche, Nepal: Dhido
Ethiopia: Kolo, Nepal: Tiffin 1998; Bekele et al., 2005; Nigusse, 2005;
Tashi, 2005
Ethiopia: Wot
Tibet: Yue, Drubdrub
Morocco: Soup, Tiberkouksine, Tibet: Changuel, Tsangtub,

Tunisia: Fric, Mermez, Ethiopia: Atmit/Muk, Shorba
Italy: Caffè d’orzo
Tibet: Tsangpa, Morocco: Labsiss, Toumit, Lamriss, Tagla,

Bouffi, Belghmane, Tagla, Tiharblattine, Ethiopia: Chiko,
Besso, Tunisia: Bazine, Assida, B’sissa, Dardoura, Hail,
Tihilo, Eritrea: Birkutta

Barley 187

which prevents moulding and provides a natural filter bed later in the
brewing process. The husk also produces the characteristic flavours associ-
ated with malt. Malt provides starch and sugars which will be fermented
to alcohol, protein and amino acids which will feed the yeast and contrib-
ute to colour, flavour (both through Maillard and non-Maillard browning
reactions) and foam.

The most suitable barley varieties for brewing are the 2R spring barleys.
Over the last century, these varieties have been specifically bred through
cross-cultivation to improve the quality and attributes necessary to obtain
optimized malt for beer production. A large number of varieties have excel-
lent technological properties from a brewing perspective (Kunze, 2010).
Within countries from the EBC (European Brewery Convention), there are
about 300 spring barleys, 100 2R winter barleys and 100 6R winter barleys
registered (Kunze, 2010).

The goal of the malting process is to produce high enzyme activity, sig-
nificant endosperm modification and a characteristic flavour with a minimum
loss of dry weight. The malting process includes three key stages – steeping,
germination and kilning. In the steeping stage, the acquiescent grain absorbs
aerated water (which is replenished several times during the process) from
its soaking tank from a moisture content of approximately 13 % up to
approximately 42–46 %, hydrating the embryo and endosperm. Steeping is
performed at approximately 15 °C to induce synthesis of the hydrolytic
enzymes (Jadhav et al., 1998). In the germination phase enzymes are syn-
thesized and activated and seed reserves are mobilized to allow the start of
embryo development.

Subsequently, the metabolically awakened barley is germinated in moist
air tunnels (four to six days), and the embryo obtains the required energy
and sugars necessary through enzymatic breakdown (amylolysis) of starch
that takes place during the respiration process. Enzymes produced or acti-
vated during this stage include α-amylase, β-amylase, limit dextrinase,
α-glucosidase, β-glucanase/cellulase, proteinase and xylanase (MacLeod,
2004). Figure 4.4 clearly shows the enzymatic effect of amylases on the
barley starch granule during the germination step. The starch granules
have the same shape and size throughout germination; however, the hydro-
lysis results in starch granule damage. From a malting point of view, the
respiration process results in a partial loss of starch which would otherwise
contribute to wort extract. Maltsters therefore wish to limit respiration as
much as possible to reduce losses (Kunze, 2010). Thus, in the final stage of
malting, the grains are kilned to halt growth using heat treatment which
dries the grain to lower moisture for storage (MacLeod, 2004). Kilning
removes the water from the germinated grain and is generally initiated at
a relatively low temperature to avoid immediate inactivation of the heat-
sensitive enzymes, followed by a progressive rise in temperature to intro-
duce the desired flavour and colour characteristics (Jadhav et al., 1998).
However, the temperature and time of exposure can be used to modulate

© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013

188 Cereal grains for the food and beverage industries

5 kV ×1, 100 10 μm AMRF, UCC
(a)

5 kV ×2, 200 10 μm AMRF, UCC

(b)

Fig. 4.4 Scanning electron microscope (SEM) micrographs representative of
unmalted (a) and malted (b) barley starch granules. Reprinted from Oliveira, P.M.
et al., Fundamental study on the influence of Fusarium infection on quality and
ultrastructure of barley malt, International Journal of Food Microbiology (2012),
doi:10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2012.02.019. Copyright (2012), with permission from

Elsevier.

the colour, flavour and final beer type that this malt will be responsible for
(Table 4.10).

Malt is used in brewing and additionally in distilling, vinegar production
and commercially as a food ingredient to enhance colour, enzyme activity,
flavour and sweetness and for nutritional amelioration. In bakery products,
diastatic malts (containing active enzymes) are used as dough conditioners

© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013

Barley 189

Table 4.11 Food uses of barley malt

Foodstuff nutrition Use of malt
Enzymes Flavour
Colour Sweetness

Biscuits and crackers + + + +
Bread + + + +
Breakfast cereal + +
Cakes + + +
Coffee alternative + + + +
Confectionery + +
Desserts + Soluble + +
Gravy + extract +
Ice-cream + of flour +
Infant food + +
Malted food drinks + +
Meat products + Soluble
Mincemeat + + extract of
Pickles + flour, flake
Preserves + Soluble
Sauces + extract of
Soft drinks + flour, flake
Soup +
Stock cubes +
Type of malt product Soluble

used extract

Source: Reprinted from Jadhav, S.J., Lutz, S.E., Ghorpade, V.M. and Salunkhe, D.K. 1998.
Barley: Chemistry and Value-Added Processing. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition
38:123–171. Copyright (1998), with permission from Elsevier.

at very low levels (1–3 %), imparting a unique flavour and crumb colour
(Hansen and Wasdovitch, 2005). Non-diastatic malts (roasted malts) are
used to provide a warm colour and strong flavours (Table 4.11). Traditional
barley beer is produced in different areas of Europe, Africa, Asia and
Europe, and is shown in Table 4.10.

4.6.4 Speciality malts
Speciality malts can be produced by modifying the kilning process, thus
allowing the production of a range of malts with varying properties (Table
4.10). The main differences are associated with colour, flavour and aroma.
Caramel (or Crystal) malt in made by kilning wet malt under steam pres-
sure and is used in the production of dark beers. Chocolate malt is a darker
variation of Caramel malt. Increasing kilning temperatures and time also
imparts a deeper colour to the malt, and hence the resultant beer.

© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013

190 Cereal grains for the food and beverage industries

4.7 Conclusions

Since the 1990s, the number of research studies into barley foods has
increased significantly. The factors driving this trend include greater aware-
ness of the link between health and diet as well as the newly granted health
claims for foods high in soluble fibre (β-glucan) such as oats and barley.
Historically, barley has been a staple food in many civilizations. Currently,
in the western countries barley is primarily used for animal fodder or more
commonly as an ingredient in malt for the production of beer and, on a
smaller scale, is used directly as a food. In contrast, it is still a major staple
food in several regions of the world characterized by harsh living conditions,
such as Africa and the Near East, in the highlands of Central Asia, in the
Andean countries and in the Baltic states. When flaked, hulled or pearled,
barley is used in many different types of food, including breakfast cereals,
soups and bakery flour blends, and it is used in many traditional dishes in
places such as Russia, Poland, Tibet, Japan and India.

Barley grain is characterized by a low fat content, high complex carbo-
hydrates (mainly starch) for energy, fairly well-balanced protein capable of
meeting amino acid requirements, minerals, vitamins (particularly vitamin
E and antioxidant polyphenols), as well as insoluble and soluble fibre with
general and specific health benefits. However, its revival is mainly due to
the acknowledgement of its health-enhancing nutritional components, par-
ticularly β-glucan which has been shown to reduce blood cholesterol levels
and to produce a lowered glucose response. These positive attributes of
barley have increased funding and investment in the area of functional
foods development, thus providing excellent opportunities for the introduc-
tion of several novel barley food uses.

4.8 Future trends

To increase barley consumption so that it is a larger portion of the diet,
common staple food products, such as bread and pasta, must be considered.
Wheat possesses the suitable technological properties for bread and pasta
production, mainly due to its protein (gluten) fraction, whereas barley does
not fulfil these requirements. However, several studies show clear evidence
supporting partial substitution of wheat flour with barley flour during bread-
making. This substitution provides sufficient soluble dietary fibre in the diet
to bring about a remarkable improvement in human health indicators.

Selecting appropriate barley genotypes is a crucial process when the
intention is to take full advantage of the nutritional and functional proper-
ties of barley during the development of new and ameliorated consumer-
acceptable products. The improvement of barley for food can be reached
through, for example, the genetic control of β-glucan and protein contents,
kernel colour and hardness, and amylose/amylopectin ratios.

© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013

Barley 191

Current research into the positive traits of barley and its components,
along with the current attributes of common barley and its optimized cul-
tivars, suggests that there are many possibilities of using barley in food
products, and indeed that scope for its use in the future will increase.

4.9 References

aman, p. and newman, c.w. (1986). Chemical composition of some different types
of barley grown in Montana, USA. Journal of Cereal Science, 4, 133–141.

ames, n., rhymer, c., rossnagel, b., therrien, m., ryland, d., dua, s. and ross, k.
(2006). Utilization of diverse hulless barley properties to maximize food product
quality. Cereal Foods World, 51, 23–28.

andersson, a.a.m., andersson, r., autio, k. and aman, p. (1999). Chemical composi-
tion and microstructure of two naked waxy barleys. Journal of Cereal Science, 30,
183–191.

andersson, a.a.m., lampi, a.-m., nyström, l., piironen, v., li, l., ward, j.l., gebruers,
k., courtin, c.m., delcour, j.a., boros, d., fras´, a., dynkowska, w., rakszegi, m.,
bedő, z., shewry, p.r. and åman, p. (2008). Phytochemical and dietary fiber com-
ponents in barley varieties in the HEALTHGRAIN diversity screen. Journal of
Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 56, 9767–9776.

anjum, f.m., ali, a. and chaudhry, n.m. (1991). Fatty-acids, mineral-composition and
functional (bread and chapati) properties of high protein and high lysine barley
lines. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 55, 511–519.

asfaw, z. (1990). An ethnobotanical study of barley in the Central Highlands of
Ethiopia. Biologisches Zentralblatt, 109, 51–62.

aspinall, g.o. and ross, k.m. (1963). 315. The degradation of two periodate-oxidised
arabinoxylans. Journal of the Chemical Society (Resumed), 1963, 1681–1686.

bacic, a. and stone, b.a. (1981). Chemistry and organization of aleurone cell-wall
components from wheat and barley. Australian Journal of Plant Physiology, 8,
475–495.

baik, b.k. and czuchajowska, z. (1997). Barley in udon noodles. Food Science and
Technology International, 3, 423–435.

baik, b.-k. and ullrich, s.e. (2008). Barley for food: Characteristics, improvement,
and renewed interest. Journal of Cereal Science, 48, 233–242.

basman, a. and koksel, h. (1999). Properties and composition of Turkish flat bread
(Bazlama) supplemented with barley flour and wheat bran. Cereal Chemistry, 76,
506–511.

basman, a. and koksel, h. (2001). Effects of barley flour and wheat bran supplemen-
tation on the properties and composition of Turkish flat bread, yufka. European
Food Research and Technology, 212, 198–202.

bekele, b., alemayehu, f. and lakew, b. (2005). Food barley in Ethiopia. In: grando,
s. and gomez macpherson, h. (eds) International Workshop on Food Barley
Improvement. Aleppo: ICARDA.

bendelow, v.m. and laberge, d.e. (1979). Relationship among barley, malt and beer
phenolics. Journal of the American Society of Brewing Chemists, 37, 89–90.

bhatty, r.s. (1986). Physiochemical and functional (breadmaking) properties of hull-
less barley fractions. Cereal Chemistry, 63, 31–35.

bhatty, r.s. (1993). Nonmalting uses of barley. In: macgregor, a.w. and bhatty, r.s.
(eds) Barley: Chemistry and Technology. St Paul, MN: AACC International, Inc.,
355–417.

bhatty, r.s. and rossnagel, b.g. (1980). Lipids and fatty-acid composition of riso
1508 and normal barley. Cereal Chemistry, 57, 382–386.

© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013

192 Cereal grains for the food and beverage industries

brothwell, d.r. and brothwell, p. (1998). Food in Antiquity: A Survey of the Diet
of Early Peoples. Baltimore MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 164–165.

buglass, a.j. (2010). Beer. In: buglass, a.j. (ed.) Handbook of Alcoholic Beverages.
Chichester: Wiley, 132–210.

casiraghi, m.c., garsetti, m., testolin, g. and brighenti, f. (2006). Post-prandial
responses to cereal products enriched with barley beta-glucan. Journal of the
American College of Nutrition, 25, 313–320.

cavallero, a., empilli, s., brighenti, f. and stanca, a.m. (2002). High (1 -> 3,1 ->
4)-beta-glucan barley fractions in bread making and their effects on human gly-
cemic response. Journal of Cereal Science, 36, 59–66.

cerning, j. and guilbot, a. (1973). Changes in carbohydrate composition during
development and maturation of wheat and barley kernel. Cereal Chemistry, 50(2),
220–232.

change, k.j. and lee, s. r. (1974). Development of composite flours and their prod-
ucts utilizing domestic raw materials: IV. Textural characteristics of noodles made
of composite flours based on barley and sweet potatoes. Korean Journal of Food
Science and Technology, 6, 65–66.

chatterjee, s.r. and abrol, y.p. (1977). Protein quality evaluation of popped
barley grains (Sattu). Journal of Food Science and Technology–Mysore, 14,
247–250.

courtin, c.m. and delcour, j.a. (2002). Arabinoxylans and endoxylanases in wheat
flour bread-making. Journal of Cereal Science, 35, 225–243.

daglia, m., papetti, a., grisoli, p., aceti, c., spini, v., dacarro, c. and gazzani, g.
(2007). Isolation, identification, and quantification of roasted coffee antibacterial
compounds. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 55, 10208–10213.

daglia, m., papetti, a., mascherpa, d., grisoli, p., giusto, g., lingstrom, p., pratten,
j., signoretto, c., spratt, d.a., wilson, m., zaura, e. and gazzani, g. (2011). Plant
and fungal food components with potential activity on the development of micro-
bial oral diseases. Journal of Biomedicine and Biotechnology, 2011, 1–9.

darby, w.j., ghalioungui, h. and grivetti, g. (1976). Food: The Gift of Osiris. New
York: Academic Press.

davidson, a. (1999). The Oxford Companion to Food. Oxford: Oxford University
Press.

delcour, j. and hoseney r.c. (2010a). Starch. In: delcour, j. and hoseney r.c. (eds)
Principles of Cereal Science and Technology (3rd edn). AACC International, Inc.,
23–51.

delcour, j. and hoseney, r.c. (2010). Principles of Cereal Science and Technology
(3rd edn). St Paul, MN: AACC International, Inc.

deman, w. and dondeyne, p. (1985). Effect of nitrogen-fertilization on protein-
content, total fatty-acid content and composition of barley (Hordeum Vulgare L)
grains. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 36, 186–190.

dhingra, s. and jood, s. (2002). Organoleptic and nutritional evaluation of wheat
breads supplemented with soybean and barley flour. Food Chemistry, 77,
479–488.

dhingra, s. and jood, s. (2004). Effect of flour blending on functional, baking and
organoleptic characteristics of bread. International Journal of Food Science and
Technology, 39, 213–222.

duffus, c.m. and cochrane, m.p. (1993). Formation of the barley grain – Morphology,
physiology and biochemistry. In: macgregor, a.w. and bhatty, r.s. (eds) Barley:
Chemistry and Technology. St Paul, MN: AACC International, Inc., 31–72.

ereifej, k.i., al-mahasneh, m.a. and rababah, t.m. (2006). Effect of barley flour on
quality of Balady bread. International Journal of Food Properties, 9, 39–49.

erkan, h., celik, s., bilgi, b. and koksel, h. (2006). A new approach for the utilization
of barley in food products: Barley tarhana. Food Chemistry, 97, 12–18.

© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013

Barley 193

european food safety authority (2010). Scientific opinion on the substantiation of
health claims related to beta-glucans and maintenance or achievement of normal
blood glucose concentrations (ID 756, 802, 2935) pursuant to Article 13(1) of
Regulation (EC) No 1924/2006. Parma: EFSA.

fao (2009). Agribusiness Handbook. Barley, Malt, Beer. Rome: FAO.
fao/un (2012). FAOSTAT database: http://faostat3.fao.org/home/index.html.
fastnaught, c.e. (2001). Barley fiber. In: dreher, c.m. (ed.) Handbook of Dietary

Fiber. New York: Marcel Dekker, 519–542.
fedak, g. (1985). Wide crosses in Hordeum. In: rasmusson, d.c. (ed.), Barley. Agron-

omy Monograph 26. Madison, WI: American Society of Agronomy, Crop Science
Society of America, and Soil Science Society of America, 155–186.
fedak, g. and delaroche, i. (1977). Lipid and fatty-acid composition of barley
kernels. Canadian Journal of Plant Science, 57, 257–260.
ferrari, b., finocchiaro, f., stanca, a.m. and gianinetti, a. (2009). Optimization of
air classification for the production of beta-glucan-enriched barley flours. Journal
of Cereal Science, 50, 152–158.
fincher, g.b. (1975). Morphology and chemical composition of barley endosperm
cell-walls. Journal of the Institute of Brewing, 81, 116–122.
fincher, g. and stone, b. (1986). Cell walls and their components in cereal grain
technology. In: pomeranz, y. (ed.) Advances in Cereal Science and Technology, vol.
8. St Paul, MN: AACC International, Inc., 207–295.
flores, r.a., hicks, k.b., eustace, d.w. and phillips, j. (2005). High-starch and high-
beta-glucan barley fractions milled with experimental mills. Cereal Chemistry, 82,
727–733.
frey, k.j. and holland, j.b. (1999). Nine cycles of recurrent selection for increased
groat-oil content in oat. Crop Science, 39, 1636–1641.
gauldie, e. (1981). Diet: the product of the mill. In: The Scottish Country Miller
1700–1900: A History of Water-Powered Meal Milling in Scotland. London: John
Donald, 1–21.
gerhäuser, c. (2005). Beer constituents as potential cancer chemopreventive agents.
European Journal of Cancer, 41, 1941–1954.
gill, s., vasanthan, t., ooraikul, b. and rossnagal, b. (2002a). Wheat bread quality
as influenced by the substitution of waxy and regular barley flours in their native
and cooked forms. Journal of Cereal Science, 36, 239–251.
gill, s., vasanthan, t., ooraikul, b. and rossnagel, b. (2002b). Wheat bread quality
as influenced by the substitution of waxy and regular barley flours in their native
and extruded forms. Journal of Cereal Science, 36, 219–237.
goering, k.j. and eslick, r.f. (1976). Barley starch VI. A self-liquefying waxy barley
starch. Cereal Chemistry, 53, 174–180.
goering, k.j., eslick, r. and dehaas, b. w. (1973a). Barley starch V. A comparison of
the properties of waxy compana barley starch with the starches of its parents.
Cereal Chemistry, 50, 322–328.
goering, k.j., fritts, d.h. and eslick, r.f. (1973b). Study of starch granule size and
distribution in 29 barley varieties. Starch, 25, 297–302.
grando, s. and macpherson, h.g. (2005). Food barley: importance, uses and local
knowledge. In: grando, s. and gomez macpherson, h. (eds) International Work-
shop on Food Barley Improvement. Aleppo: ICARDA.
greenfield, j.j.a., ross-murphy, s.b., tamas, l., bekes, f., halford, n.g., tatham, a.s.
and shewry, p.r. (1998). Rheological properties of monomeric and polymeric
forms of C hordein, a sulphur-poor prolamin of barley. Journal of Cereal Science,
27, 233–236.
gujral, h.s., gaur, s. and rosell, c.m. (2003). Note: effect of barley flour, wet gluten
and ascorbic acid on bread crumb texture. Food Science and Technology Interna-
tional, 9, 17–21.

© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013

194 Cereal grains for the food and beverage industries

guler, m. (2003). Barley grain beta-glucan content as affected by nitrogen and irriga-
tion. Field Crops Research, 84, 335–340.

han, x. (1996). Noodle-making quality from Australian Standard White Wheat and
Montana barleys, MS thesis, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT.

hang, a., obert, d., gironella, a.i.n. and burton, c.s. (2007). Barley amylose and
beta-glucan: Their relationships to protein, agronomic traits, and environmental
factors. Crop Science, 47, 1754–1760.

hansen, b. and wasdovitch, b. (2005). Malt ingredients in baked goods. Cereal Foods
World, 50, 18–22.

hashimoto, s., shogren, n.d. and pomeranz, y. (1987). Cereal pentosans – their
estimation and significance. 3. Pentosans in abraded grains and milling by-
products. Cereal Chemistry, 64(1), 39–41.

hatcher, d.w., lagasse, s., dexter, j.e., rossnagel, b. and izydorczyk, m. (2005).
Quality characteristics of yellow alkaline noodles enriched with hull-less barley
flour. Cereal Chemistry, 82, 60–69.

henry, r.j. (1985). A comparison of the nonstarch carbohydrates in cereal-grains.
Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 36(12), 1243–1253.

henry, r.j. (1987). Pentosan and (1 → 3),(1 → 4)-β-Glucan concentrations in endo-
sperm and wholegrain of wheat, barley, oats and rye. Journal of Cereal Science, 6,
253–258.

hibbs, a., shellenberger, j. and pence, r. (1947). The theory of impact grinding with
centrifugal machines. Transactions of the AACC, 6, 26.

holtekjølen, a.k., bævre, a.b., rødbotten, m., berg, h. and knutsen, s.h. (2008a).
Antioxidant properties and sensory profiles of breads containing barley flour.
Food Chemistry, 110, 414–421.

holtekjølen, a.k., olsen, h.h.r., faergestad, e.m., uhlen, a.k. and knutsen, s.h.
(2008b). Variations in water absorption capacity and baking performance of
barley varieties with different polysaccharide content and composition. Lwt–Food
Science and Technology, 41, 2085–2091.

huth, m., dongowski, g., gebhardt, e. and flamme, w. (2000). Functional properties
of dietary fibre enriched extrudates from barley. Journal of Cereal Science, 32,
115–128.

ibanoglu, s., ainsworth, p., wilson, g. and hayes, g.d. (1995).The effect of fermenta-
tion conditions on the nutrients and acceptability of tarhana. Food Chemistry, 53,
143–147.

igc (2012) Five-year Global Supply and Demand Projections for Grains and
Rice. London: International Grains Council. Available at: http://www.igc.int/
en/downloads/grainsupdate/IGC_5year_projections.pdf [accessed December
2012].

inglett, g.e., warner, k. and newman, r.k. (1994). Barleytrim: sensory and nutri-
tional evaluations. In: AACC 79th Annual Meeting, October, Nashville, TN.

izydorczyk, m.s. and dexter, j.e. (2004). BARLEY | Milling and Processing. In:
wrigley, c., corke, h. and walker, c. (eds) Encyclopedia of Grain Science. Oxford:
Elsevier, 57–68.

izydorczyk, m.s., storsley, j., labossiere, d., macgregor, a.w. and rossnagel, b.g.
(2000). Variation in total and soluble beta-glucan content in hulless barley: effects
of thermal, physical, and enzymic treatments. Journal of Agricultural and Food
Chemistry, 48, 982–989.

izydorczyk, m.s., dexter, j.e., desjardins, r.g., rossnagel, b.g., lagasse, s.l. and
hatcher, d.w. (2003). Roller milling of Canadian hull-less barley: Optimization
of roller milling conditions and composition of mill streams. Cereal Chemistry, 80,
637–644.

izydorczyk, m.s., lagasse, s., hatcher, d.w., dexter, j.e. and rossnagel, b.g. (2005).
The enrichment of Asian noodles with fiber-rich fractions derived from roller

© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013

Barley 195

milling of hull-less barley. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 85,
2094–2104.
jadhav, s.j., lutz, s.e., ghorpade, v.m. and salunkhe, d.k. (1998). Barley: chemistry
and value-added processing. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 38,
123–171.
jerumanis, j., van huynh, n. and devreux, a. (1976). Determination and properties
of barley and malt polyphenol oxidase. Journal of the American Society of Brewing
Chemists, 34, 38–43.
jonassen, i.b., ingversen, j. and brandt, a. (1981). Synthesis of Sp-Ii albumin, beta-
amylase and chymotrypsin inhibitor-Cl-1 on polysomes from the endoplasmic-
reticulum of barley endosperm. Carlsberg Research Communications, 46,
175–181.
kalra, s. and joad, s. (2000). Effect of dietary barley beta-glucan on cholesterol and
lipoprotein fractions in rats. Journal of Cereal Science, 31, 141–145.
kent, n.l. and evers, a.d. (1994a). Botanical aspects of cereals. In: kent n.l. evers,
a.d. (eds) Kent’s Technology of Cereals (4th edn). Oxford: Pergamon Press.
kent, n.l. and evers, a.d. (1994b). Kent’s Technology of Cereals (4th edn). Oxford:
Pergamon.
keogh, g.f., cooper, g.j.s., mulvey, t.b., mcardle, b.h., coles, g.d., monro, j.a. and
poppitt, s.d. (2003). Randomized controlled crossover study of the effect of a
highly beta-glucan-enriched barley on cardiovascular disease risk factors in mildly
hypercholesterolemic men. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 78, 711–718.
kerckhoffs, d.a.j.m., brouns, f., hornstra, g. and mensink, r.p. (2002). Effects on
the human serum lipoprotein profile of β-glucan, soy protein and isoflavones,
plant sterols and stanols, garlic and tocotrienols. The Journal of Nutrition, 132,
2494–2505.
kerssie, m. and goitom, a.l. (1996). Barley utilization. In: gebre, h. and joop, v.l.
(eds) Barley Research in Ethiopia: Past Works and Future Prospects: First Barley
Research Review Workshop. Addis Ababa: IAR/ICARDA, 167–170.
kim, y.s., ahm, s.b., lee, k. and lee, s.r. (1973). Development of composite flours
and their products utilizing domestic raw materials: III. Noodle-making and
cookie-making tests with composite flours. Korean Journal of Food Science and
Technology, 5, 25–32.
kirkman, m.a., shewry, p.r. and miflin, b.j. (1982). The effect of nitrogen nutrition
on the lysine content and protein composition of barley seeds. Journal of the
Science of Food and Agriculture, 33, 115–127.
kling, j.g., hayes, p.m. and ullrich, s.e. (2004). BARLEY | Genetics and Breeding.
In: wrigley, c., corke, h. and walker, c. (eds) Encyclopedia of Grain Science.
Oxford: Elsevier.
knuckles, b.e., hudson, c.a., chiu, m.m. and sayre, r.n. (1997). Effect of beta-glucan
barley fractions in high-fiber bread and pasta. Cereal Foods World, 42, 94–99.
kremezi, a. (1997). Paximadia (barley biscuits): Food for sailors, travellers, and poor
islanders. In: walker, h. (ed.) Food on the Move: Proceedings of the Oxford Sym-
posium on Food and Cookery. Totnes: Prospect Books.
kunze, w. (2010). Raw materials. In: kunze, w. (ed.) Technology Brewing & Malting.
Berlin: VLB, 39–112.
lagasse, s.l., hatcher, d.w., dexter, j.e., rossnagel, b.g. and izydorczyk, m.s.
(2006). Quality characteristics of fresh and dried white salted noodles enriched
with flour from hull-less barley genotypes of diverse amylose content. Cereal
Chemistry, 83, 202–210.
lamacchia, c., baiano, a., lamparelli, s. terracone, c., trani, a., and di luccia, a.
(2011). Polymeric protein formation during pasta-making with barley and semo-
lina mixtures, and prediction of its effect on cooking behaviour and acceptability.
Food Chemistry, 129, 319–328.

© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013

196 Cereal grains for the food and beverage industries

liu, d.j., robbins, g.s. and pomeranz, y. (1974). Composition and utilization of milled
barley products. 4. Mineral components. Cereal Chemistry, 51, 309–316.

lombi, e., smith, e., hansen, t.h., paterson, d., de jonge, m.d., howard, d.l., persson,
d.p., husted, s., ryan, c. and schjoerring, j.k. (2010). Megapixel imaging of (micro)
nutrients in mature barley grains. Journal of Experimental Botany, 62, 273–282.

lu, z.-r., kopeckova, p. and kopocek, j. (2000). Semitelechelic poly [N-(2-
hydroxypropyl)-methacrylamide] for biomedical applications, polymeric drugs
and drug delivery systems. In: ottenbrite, r.m. and kim, s.w. (eds) Polymeric Drugs
and Drug Delivery Systems. Boca Raton, FL. CRC Press.

macdougall, w.a.j. and selvendran, r.r. (2001). Chemistry, architecture, and com-
position of dietary fiber from plant cell walls. In: cho, s.s. and dremer, m.l. (eds)
Handbook of Dietary Fiber. New York: Marcel Dekker, 281–319.

macgregor, a.w. and fincher, g.b. (1993). Carbohydrates of the barley grain. In:
macgregor, a.w. and bhatty, r.s. (eds) Barley: Chemistry and Technology. St Paul,
MN: AACC International, Inc., 73–130.

macleod, l. (2004). BARLEY | Malting. In: wrigley, c., corke, h. and walker, c.
(eds) Encyclopedia of Grain Science. Oxford: Elsevier.

macleod, a.m. (1952). Studies on the free sugars of the barley grain: II. Distribution
of the individual sugar fractions. Journal of the Institute of Brewing, 58, 363–
371.

macleod, a.m. and preece, i.a. (1954). Studies on the free sugars of the barley grain:
V. Comparison of sugar and fructosans with those of other cereals. Journal of the
Institute of Brewing, 60, 46–55.

marconi, e., graziano, m. and cubadda, r. (2000). Composition and utilization of
barley pearling by-products for making functional pastas rich in dietary fiber and
beta-glucans. Cereal Chemistry, 77, 133–139.

marklinder, i. and johansson, l. (1995). Sour dough fermentation of barley flours
with varied content of mixed-linked (1→3),(1→4)-beta-D-glucans. Food Micro-
biology, 12, 363–371.

marklinder, i., johansson, l., haglund, å., nagel-held, b. and seibel, w. (1996).
Effects of flour from different barley varieties on barley sour dough bread. Food
Quality and Preference, 7, 275–284.

mcdonald, a.m.l. and stark, j.r. (1988). A critical examination of procedures for
the isolation of barley starch. Journal of the Institute of Brewing, 94, 125–132.

mcevily, a.j., iyengar, r. and otwell, w.s. (1992). Inhibition of enzymatic browning
in foods and beverages. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 32,
253–273.

mitsou, e.k., panopoulou, n., turunen, k., spiliotis, v. and kyriacou, a. (2010). Pre-
biotic potential of barley derived β-glucan at low intake levels: A randomised,
double-blinded, placebo-controlled clinical study. Food Research International, 43,
1086–1092.

mohammed, h. (1983). The Oromo of Ethiopia 1500–1850 with special enphasis on
the Gibe Region, PhD thesis, University of London, London.

moreau, r.a., wayns, k.e., flores, r.a. and hicks, k.b. (2007a). Tocopherols and Toco-
trienols in barley oil prepared from germ and other fractions from scarification
and sieving of hulless barley. Cereal Chemistry Journal, 84, 587–592.

morrison, w.r. (1978). Wheat lipid composition. Cereal Chemistry, 55, 548–558.
morrison, w.r. (1993). Barley lipids. In: macgregor, a.w. and bhatty, r.s. (eds)

Barley: Chemistry and Technology. St Paul, MN:AACC International, Inc., 73–130.
morrison, w.r., milligan, t.p. and azudin, m.n. (1984). A relationship between the

amylose and lipid contents of starches from diploid cereals. Journal of Cereal
Science, 2, 257–271.
morrison, w.r., scott, d.c. and karkalas, j. (1986). Variation in the composition and
physical properties of barley starches. Starch, 38, 374–379.

© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013

Barley 197

nam, s.h., choi, s.p., kang, m.y., koh, h.j., kozukue, n. and friedman, m. (2006). Anti-
oxidative activities of bran extracts from twenty one pigmented rice cultivars.
Food Chemistry, 94, 613–620.

newman, r.k. and newman, c.w. (1991). Barley as a food grain. Cereal Foods World,
36, 800–805.

newman, c.w. and newman, r. k. (2005). Hulless barley for food and feed. In: abdel-
aal, e. and wood, p. (eds) Specialty Grains for Food and Feed. St Paul, MN: AACC
International, Inc., 167–202.

newman, c.w. and newman, r.k. (2006). A brief history of barley foods. Cereal Foods
World, 51, 4–7.

newman, r.k. and newman, c.w. (2008). Barley for Food and Health: Science, Tech-
nology, and Products. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

nielsen, m.m. and hansen, å. (2008). Rapid high-performance liquid chromatogra-
phy determination of tocopherols and tocotrienols in cereals. Cereal Chemistry
Journal, 85, 248–251.

niffenegger, e.v. (1964). Chemical and physical characteristics of barley flour as
related to its use in baked products. MS thesis, Montana State University,
Bozeman, MT.

nigusse, b.t. (2005). Barley farming systems and types of barley end uses for human
consumption as described by farmers in Eritrea. In: grando, s. and gomez
macpherson, h. (eds) International Workshop on Food Barley Improvement.
Aleppo: ICARDA.

nilan, r. and ullrich, s.e. (1993). Barley: taxonomy, origin, distribution, production,
genetics, and breeding. In: macgregor, a.w. and bhatty, r.s. (eds) Barley: Chem-
istry and Technology. St Paul, MN: AACC International, Inc., 1–25.

nordkvist, e., salomonsson, a.c. and aman, p. (1984). Distribution of insoluble
bound phenolic acids in barley grain. Journal of the Science of Food and Agricul-
ture, 35, 657–661.

osborne, t.b. (1924). The Vegetable Proteins. New York: Longmans Green and Co.
ostman, e., rossi, e., larsson, h., brighenti, f. and bjorck, i. (2006). Glucose and

insulin responses in healthy men to barley bread with different levels of (1 -> 3;1
-> 4)-beta-glucans; predictions using fluidity measurements of in vitro enzyme
digests. Journal of Cereal Science, 43, 230–235.
papetti, a., pruzzo, c., daglia, m., grisoli, p., bacciaglia, a., repetto, b., dacarro, c.
and gazzani, g. (2006). Effect of barley coffee on the adhesive properties of oral
streptococci. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 55, 278–284.
pellechia, t. (2006). Wine, The 8,000 Year-Old Story of the Wine Trade. New York:
Thunder’s Mouth Press.
percival, j. (1921). The Wheat Plant. London: Duckworth.
peterson, d.m. (1994). Barley tocols – effects of milling, malting, and mashing. Cereal
Chemistry, 71, 42–44.
pins, j.j. and kaur, h. (2006). A review of the effects of barley beta-glucan on car-
diovascular and diabetic risk. Cereal Foods World, 51, 8–11.
pomeranz, y., ke, h. and ward, a.b. (1971). Composition and utilization of milled
barley products .1. Gross composition of roller-milled and air-separated fractions.
Cereal Chemistry, 48, 47–58.
price, p.b. and parsons, j.g. (1975). Lipids of seven cereal grains. Journal of the
American Oil Chemists Society, 52, 490–493.
price, p.b. and parsons, j. (1979). Distribution of lipids in embryonic axis, bran-
endosperm, and hull fractions of hulless barley and hulless oat grain. Journal of
Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 27, 813–815.
qi, j.c., zhang, g.p. and zhou, m.x. (2006). Protein and hordein content in barley
seeds as affected by nitrogen level and their relationship to beta-amylase activity.
Journal of Cereal Science, 43, 102–107.

© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013

198 Cereal grains for the food and beverage industries

quinde-axtell, z. and baik, b.k. (2006). Phenolic compounds of barley grain and
their implication in food product discoloration. Journal of Agricultural and Food
Chemistry, 54, 9978–9984.

raboy, v. (1990). Biochemistry and genetics of phytic acid synthesis. In: morré, d.j.,
boss, w.f. and loweus, f.a. (eds) Inositol Metabolism in Plants. New York: Wiley-
Liss, 55–76.

ragaee, s. and abdel-aal, e.s.m. (2006). Pasting properties of starch and protein
in selected cereals and quality of their food products. Food Chemistry, 95,
9–18.

riahi, e. and ramaswamy, h.s. (2003). Structure and composition of cereal grains and
legumes. In: chakraveryi, a, mujumdar, a.s. and ramaswamy, h.s. (eds) Handbook
of Postharvest Technology. New York: Marcel Dekker.

ryu, s. (1979). Grain quality of barley for human diet. Joint Barley Utilization
Seminar. Suweon: Korean Science and Engineering Foundation, 94–108.

salmenkallio-marttila, m., katina, k. and autio, k. (2001). Effects of bran fermen-
tation on quality and microstructure of high-fiber wheat bread. Cereal Chemistry,
78, 429–435.

sapers, g.m. (1993). Browning of foods – control by sulfites, antioxidants, and other
means. Food Technology, 47, 75–84.

satué-gracia, m.t., heinonen, m. and frankel, e.n. (1997). Anthocyanins as antioxi-
dants on human low-density lipoprotein and lecithin−liposome systems. Journal
of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 45, 3362–3367.

shewry, p.r., bright, s.w.j., burgess, s.r. and miflin, b.j. (1984). Approaches to
improving the nutritional value of barley seed proteins. In: agency, i.a.e. (ed.),
Use of Nuclear Techniques for Cereal Grain Improvement, STI/PUB/664. Vienna:
AEA, 227–240.

shimizu, c., kihara, m., aoe, s., araki, s., ito, k., hayashi, k., watari, j., sakata, y. and
ikegami, s. (2008). Effect of high beta-glucan barley on serum cholesterol concen-
trations and visceral fat area in Japanese men – A randomized, double-blinded,
placebo-controlled trial. Plant Foods for Human Nutrition (formerly Qualitas
Plantarum), 63, 21–25.

skendi, a., biliaderis, c.g., papageorgiou, m. and izydorczyk, m.s. (2010). Effects of
two barley β-glucan isolates on wheat flour dough and bread properties. Food
Chemistry, 119, 1159–1167.

sullivan, p., o’flaherty, j., brunton, n., gee, v.l., arendt, e. and gallagher, e.
(2010). Chemical composition and microstructure of milled barley fractions.
European Food Research and Technology, 230, 579–595.

sullivan, p., o’flaherty, j., brunton, n., arendt, e. and gallagher, e. (2011). The
utilisation of barley middlings to add value and health benefits to white breads.
Journal of Food Engineering, 105, 493–502.

sun, d. and gong, x. (2010). Barley germplasm and utilization. In: zhang, g. and li,
c. (eds) Genetics and Improvement of Barley Malt Quality. Hangzhou: Zhejiang
University Press; Berlin/Heidelberg: Springer, 18–62.

surh, y.j. (2003). Cancer chemoprevention with dietary phytochemicals. Nature
Reviews Cancer, 3, 768–780.

swanson, r.b. and penfield, m.p. (1988). Barley flour level and salt level selection
for a whole-grain bread formula. Journal of Food Science, 53, 896–901.

tashi, n. (2005). Food preparation from hull-less barley in Tibet. In: yirga, c.,
alemayehu, f., sinebo, w. and ethiopian agricultural research organisation
(eds) Barley-Based Farming Systems in the Highlands of Ethiopia. Addis Ababa:
Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organization, 115–120.

tester, r.f., south, j.b., morrison, w.r. and ellis, r.p. (1991). The effects of ambient-
temperature during the grain-filling period on the composition and properties of
starch from 4 barley genotypes. Journal of Cereal Science, 13, 113–127.

© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013

Barley 199

theuer, r. (2002). Effect of iron on the color of barley and other cereal porridges.
Journal of Food Science, 67, 1208–1211.

thondre, p.s., ryan, l. and henry, c.j.k. (2011). Barley β-glucan extracts as rich
sources of polyphenols and antioxidants. Food Chemistry, 126, 72–77.

tiwari, u. and cummins, e. (2008). A predictive model of the effects of genotypic,
pre- and postharvest stages on barley beta-glucan levels. Journal of the Science of
Food and Agriculture, 88, 2277–2287.

trogh, i., courtin, c.m., andersson, a.a.m., åman, p., sørensen, j.f. and delcour, j.a.
(2004). The combined use of hull-less barley flour and xylanase as a strategy
for wheat/hull-less barley flour breads with increased arabinoxylan and
(1→3,1→4)-β-D-glucan levels. Journal of Cereal Science, 40, 257–267.

trogh, i., courtin, c.m., goesaert, h., delcour, j.a., andersson, a.a.m., åman, p.,
fredriksson, h., pyle, d.l. and sørensen, j.f. (2005). From hull-less barley and
wheat to soluble dietary fiber-enriched bread. Cereal Foods World, 50, 253–260.

ullrich, s.e. (2002). Genetics and breeding of barley feed quality. In: slafer, g.a.,
molina-cano, j.l., savin, r. araus, j.l. and romagosa, i. (eds) Barley Science:
Recent Advances from Molecular Biology to Agronomy of Yield and Quality.
Binghamton, NY: Haworth Press, 115–142.

ullrich, s.e. and eslick, r.f. (1978a). Lysine and protein characterization of spon-
taneous shrunken endosperm mutants of barley. Crop Science, 18, 809–812.

ullrich, s.e. and eslick, r.f. (1978b). Lysine and protein characterization of induced
shrunken endosperm mutants of barley. Crop Science, 18, 963–966.

ullrich, s.e. and eslick, r.f. (1978c). Inheritance of the associated kernel characters
– high lysine and shrunken endosperm of the barley mutant Bomi, Riso 1508.
Crop Science, 18, 828–831.

upreti, r.p. (2002). Status of food barley in Nepa. In: grando, s. and macpherson, h.g.
(eds) Food Barley: Importance, Uses and Local Knowledge. Proceedings of the
International Workshop on Food Barley Improvement. Aleppo: ICARDA, 99–114.

USDA (2010). World Agricultural Production, Circular Series WAP 10-10, October.
Washington DC: USDA FAS. Available at: http://www.fas.usda.gov/wap/
circular/2010/10-10/productionfull10-10.pdf [accessed November 2012].

USDA/ARS (2012). USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference,
Release 25. Nutrient Data Laboratory Home Page, http://www.ars.usda.gov/ba/
bhnrc/ndl [accessed December 2012].

USFDA (2005). FDA allows barley products to claim reduction in risk of coronary
heart disease. FDA news release, 23 December. Available at: http://www.fda.gov/
NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnouncements/2005/ucm108543.htm [accessed
November 2012].

vasanthan, t. and bhatty, r.s. (1995). Starch purification after pin milling and air
classification of waxy, normal, and high amylose barleys. Cereal Chemistry, 72,
379–384.

von bothmer, r. (1992). The wild species of Hordeum: relationships and potential
use for improvement of cultivated barley. In: shewry, p.r. (ed.) Barley: Genetics,
Biochemistry, Molecular Biology and Biotechnology. Wallingford: CAB1.

von bothmer, r. and jacobsen, n. (1985). Origin, taxonomy and related species. In:
rasmussen, d.c. (ed.) Barley. Monographs in Agronomy. Vol. 26. Madison, WI:
American Society of Agronomy.

vorwerck, k. (1992). Industrial processing of barley for food. In: Barley for Food
and Malt: ICC/SFC International Symposium. Stockholm: Cerealistfoerening.

ward, j.l., poutanen, k., gebruers, k., piironen, v., lampi, a.-m., nyström, l.,
andersson, a.a.m., åman, p., boros, d., rakszegi, m., bedő, z. and shewry, p.r.
(2008). The HEALTHGRAIN cereal diversity screen: concept, results, and pros-
pects. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 56, 9699–9709.

weaver, j.c. (1950). American Barley Production. Minneapolis, MN: Burgess.

© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013

200 Cereal grains for the food and beverage industries
welch, r.w. (1978). Genotypic variation in oil and protein in barley grain. Journal

of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 29, 953–958.
wood, p.j., beer, m.u. and butler, g. (2000). Evaluation of role of concentration and

molecular weight of oat beta-glucan in determining effect of viscosity on plasma
glucose and insulin following an oral glucose load. British Journal of Nutrition,
84, 19–23.
xue, q., wang, l., newman, r.k., newman, c.w. and graham, h. (1997). Influence of
the hulless, waxy starch and short-awn genes on the composition of barleys.
Journal of Cereal Science, 26, 251–257.
zannini, e., paoloni, m., papa, r. and clementi, f. (2006). Impiego di impasti acidi
selezionati per la panificazione con farina di orzo. Tecniche Molitorie, 57,
650–658.
zannini, e., garofalo, c., aquilanti, l., santarelli, s., silvestri, g. and clementi, f.
(2009). Microbiological and technological characterization of sourdoughs des-
tined for bread-making with barley flour. Food Microbiology, 26, 744–753.
zheng, p., allen, w.b., roesler, k., williams, m.e., zhang, s., li, j., glassman, k.,
ranch, j., nubel, d., solawetz, w., bhattramakki, d., llaca, v., deschamps, s.,
zhong, g.y., tarczynski, m.c. and shen, b. (2008). A phenylalanine in DGAT is a
key determinant of oil content and composition in maize. Nature Genetics, 40,
367–372.
zhou, m. (2010). Barley production and consumption. In: zhang, g. and li, c. (eds)
Genetics and Improvement of Barley Malt Quality. Hangzhou: Zhejiang Univer-
sity Press; Berlin/Heidelberg: Springer.
zohary, d. and hopf, m. (1993). Domestication of Plants in the Old World. The Origin
and Spread of Cultivated Plants in West Asia, Europe and the Nile Valley. Oxford:
Clarendon.

© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013

A
P

FE
CE

200.0 µm
Plate III Confocal laser scanning microscope (CLSM) micrograph endosperm
section showing the corneous endosperm (CE), the floury endosperm (FE), peri-
carp (P) and aleurone layer (A) of the kernel. Starch storage granules stained
with fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC) for starch (green) and rhodamin B for

protein (red).

100.0 µm
Plate IV Confocal laser scanning microscope (CLSM) micrograph section of the
barley endosperm with starch storage granules stained with fluorescein isothiocya-

nate (FITC) for starch (green) and with rhodamin B for protein (red).
© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013

5

Triticale

DOI: 10.1533/9780857098924.201

Abstract: Triticale (X Triticosecale Wittmack) is the first man-made cereal grain
crop species designed to merge the positive attributes of wheat and rye into a
single plant. Triticale possesses wheat’s functional characteristics for food
production and rye’s adaptability to non-optimal growing environments. Triticale
offers a better amino acid balance, mainly due to the high lysine content, resulting
in a greater biological value than wheat protein. Nowadays, triticale is not much
used in the baking industry internationally, due to its low gluten content, although
triticale flour blends of up to 50 % with wheat flours produce bread of
appreciable quality. In malting and brewing, triticale performs well due to its high
level of α-amylase activity. Presently, triticale also represents the most efficient
crop for bio-ethanol production when compared with wheat and rye.

Key words: triticale, chemical composition, triticale utilization in food and
beverages.

5.1 Introduction

Triticale (X Triticosecale Wittmack), a small-seeded cereal grain, is the first
man-made cereal grain crop species. It resulted from the hybridization of
wheat (Triticum) with rye (Secale) and its name combines the scientific
names of the two genera involved. The first deliberate hybrid between
wheat and rye was reported by A.S. Wilson in Scotland in 1875; however,
the first fertile hybrid between wheat and rye was produced by the German
breeder W. Rimpau in 1888. While the ambitious objective of creating a
crop that combines all of the best attributes of wheat and rye – wheat’s
functional characteristics for food production and rye’s adaptability – in a
single plant has not yet been fully realized, the attributes of today’s triticale
provide the crop with enough competitive advantages for it to be increas-
ingly grown around the world. Under certain conditions the yield of triticale
is larger than that of either of its parents.

The nutritional quality of triticale is similar to and, in some respects,
surpasses that of wheat. In particular, triticale’s higher lysine content, better
protein digestibility and better mineral balance make it especially suitable

© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013

202 Cereal grains for the food and beverage industries

as a replacement for (or supplement to) other cereal grains in human food
and animal feed. The majority of the triticale produced around the world
is used for animal feed. Triticale has higher protein content than wheat,
together with a more favourable amino acid balance, factors which are
advantageous for the swine and poultry industries. It is also used as rumi-
nant forage or feed (in the form of silage or hay). Other factors that
promote its use as animal feed are its large yield under dry conditions. It is
used to a lesser extent for human consumption. Triticale products such as
whole berry, flakes and flour are available commercially, however usually
only in speciality health food outlets. The whole berry can be used in its
cooked form in a variety of dishes. Triticale is inferior to wheat for milling
and baking. The flour has low gluten content, and bread made exclusively
from it is heavy. However, bread made from a mixture of triticale flour and
either wheat or rye flour performs more acceptably and can be used to
make breads and pastries. Triticale readily produces α-amylase in large
quantities, so performs well in malting and brewing (Furman, 2004).

Production problems, including variable yield, pre-harvest sprouting and
the formation of light-weight, shrivelled kernels, together with nutritional
problems, such as low energy density, variable composition and low palat-
ability, initially detracted interest from the crop (Varughese et al., 1996,
Boros, 2002). Plant breeders have greatly improved it since the 1980s,
however. Modern triticale grain varieties are high yielding, and the grain is
plumper and has a heavier test weight than older varieties. Plant breeders
have also developed, and are continuing to produce, varieties both for
forage and dual purpose use.

The first commercial cultivars of triticale were released in 1969 (Zillinsky,
1974), and over 40 years later, triticale is grown on more than 4 million
hectares worldwide. The evolution of triticale as a commercial crop was
slow until the mid-1980s. Since then, triticale production has increased at
an average rate of 580 tonnes/year (an approximate 3.8 % increase per
year) reaching more than 15 million tonnes in 2009 (http://faostat.fao.org/
site/291/default.aspx) as a result of impressive genetic improvement work
conducted at the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Centre
(Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento de Maiz y Trigo (CIMMYT)
Mexico). The steady increase in triticale production has been mostly due to
an increase in the area planted, which has increased at an average rate of
156 000 ha/year (3.7 %/year) since the mid-1980s. Triticale is mainly pro-
duced in Europe, Oceania and Asia. The countries that produce the most
triticale are Germany, Poland, France, Australia and China. Although there
are yearly fluctuations, triticale production has increased in Africa and
Europe where, in the years since 2000, the harvest quantity and area cultiva-
tion of triticale were increased by 81 % and 70 % (Africa), and 44 % and
42 % (Europe), respectively. In contrast, over the last 10 years, the Ameri-
cas, Asia and Oceania showed a drastic reduction of triticale in terms of
production and cultivated area. In 2009, Europe (mainly Germany and

© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013

Triticale 203

Poland) produced more than 12 million tonnes (78 % of world’s produc-
tion), with the highest cultivated area (in ha) dedicated to triticale
cultivation. The producer prices for triticale very much depend on the
production country. During the last 10 years, Algeria, Switzerland and
Croatia showed the highest price (average of 364.4 US $/tonnes in 2009)
while the lowest producer price (average of 150.2 US $/tonnes) of triticale
is reported for Sweden and Kyrgyzstan, FAO/UN, 2012.

Today, triticale is an accepted crop in many countries, and the areas
under cultivation are expanding. Ample evidence now exists showing that
triticale has potential as an alternative crop for different end-uses in a wide
range of environments, particularly in marginal and stress-prone growing
conditions (Furman, 2004). Triticale performs well under high-rainfall con-
ditions throughout the world and excels when produced under irrigation in
fertile soil. Although triticale responds very similarly to wheat, which is
grown under a wide range of environments, it is in general superior when
grown under stress conditions. Modern hexaploid winter triticale cultivars
show higher yields and good adaptation to northern environments when
compared to wheat cultivars. Many triticale cultivars carry tolerance to acid
soils (Baier et al., 1998) and high aluminium toxicity (Butnaru et al., 1998)
and may have tolerance to other problems, such as the high level of man-
ganese which is typical of some soils in Australia (Zhang et al., 1998). The
acid tolerance and aluminium tolerance, together with its pathogen resis-
tance, are more similar to those of its rye ancestors. In areas where abiotic
stresses, such as drought, extreme temperatures, extreme pH levels, salinity
and trace element deficiency or toxicity are prevalent, triticale has been
consistently shown to be very competitive compared to the other cultivated
cereal crops.

5.1.1 Structure of the triticale grain
Both parents of triticale – wheat and rye – belong to the Triticeae tribe. The
resulting hexaploid triticale (x Triticosecale Wittmack) (AABBRR) created
by crossing species of wheat (Triticum) (AABB) and rye (Secale) (RR)
combines the properties of both parenting cereals.Triticale is self-pollinating
(similar to wheat) and not cross-pollinating (like rye) (Mergoum et al.,
2009).

The triticale kernel is more slender and pointed than wheat with a
slightly darker colour which results from its typically shrivelled appearance,
particularly in the ventral part. The kernels are usually 10–12 mm in length,
somewhat longer than the average wheat grain, and 3 mm or less in width.
As in the other cereals, the components of the kernel are the embryo (germ)
and the endosperm, which is attached to the embryo through the scutellum.
The embryo and endosperm are enclosed by the seed coat and by a pericarp
which surrounds the kernel and adheres closely to it. The crease, which
extends the full length of the grain on its ventral surface, varies in depth

© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013

204 Cereal grains for the food and beverage industries

Pericarp Aleurone cells
Peripheral endosperm
Aleurone cells
Peripheral endosperm Prismatic endosperm
Prismatic endosperm Central endosperm
Vascular bundle

Crease
Fig. 5.1 Cross-section of triticale section.

5 kV ×18 1 mm AMRF, UCC

Fig. 5.2 Scanning electron microscope (SEM) micrograph photographs showing
longitudinal cross-section of the triticale grain.

depending on the variety (Fig. 5.1). Microscopy investigations (Figs 5.2–5.4)
showed that arrangement and size of the pericarp, aleurone layers and
endosperm structure of the triticale grain are similar to those of wheat and
rye. As mentioned above, triticale grain has, in general, a wrinkled appear-
ance, the level of which ranges from slight to severe. When the wrinkling is
severe, the grain has a papery and shrivelled pericarp as well as depressions
in the endosperm. In Fig. 5.2, it is possible to observe that the amount of
endosperm cell mass produced is not sufficient to fill the sink cavity of the
grain and, consequently, pericarp, seed coat and aleurone cells collapse into
the empty spaces in the endosperm (Pena et al., 1982). Two types of starch
granules are present, as in wheat: lenticular/lens-shaped granules and small,
spherical granules (Fig. 5.4).

Compared with wheat, triticale has slightly higher levels of most of the
nutritious constituents. However, whether these increased levels translate
into benefits in the long term is uncertain because there is extreme

© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013

Triticale 205

50.0 μm

Fig. 5.3 Confocal scanning laser microscope (CSLM) micrograph showing peri-
carp and aleurone structure of the triticale grain.

100.0 μm

Fig. 5.4 CSLM micrograph showing papery and shriveled pericarp of triticale
grain.

variability in the levels of all of the constituents, reflecting both the crop’s
parentage and its short history. Nonetheless, the main nutritional compo-
nents of triticale are given in Table 5.1. Except for the free sugar content,
which is closer to that found in rye, the chemical composition of triticale
grain resembles that of wheat more strongly than that of rye (Table 5.2).
This is mainly due to the fact that triticale receives two genomes from wheat
and only one from rye.

5.2 Chemical composition of the triticale kernel

Compared with wheat, triticale has slightly higher levels of most of the
nutritious compounds. However, the levels of all constituents are

© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013

Table 5.1 Nutrients and other components in tritical (expressed as amount of nutrients in 100 g edible portions)

Amount Amount Amount

© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013 Proximate g 10.51 Polyunsaturated, total g 0.913 Valine g 0.609
Water Kcal 336 18 :2 g 0.853 Arginine g 0.671
Food energy 18 :3 g 0.061 Histidine g 0.311
Kj 1.408
Protein (N × 5.83) g 13.05 Vitamins mg 0 Alanine g 0.486
Total lipid (fat) g 2.09 Ascorbic acid mg 0.416 Aspartic acid g 0.785
Carbohydrate, total g 72.13 Thiamin mg 0.134 Glutamic acid g 4.006
Crude fibre g 2.60 Riboflavin mg 1.430 Glycine g 0.559
Ash g 2.23 Niacin mg 1.323 Proline g 1.184
Pantothenic acid Serine g 0.593
Lipids g 0.366 mg 0.138
Fatty acids: g 0.018 Vitamin B6 mcg 73 Minerals mg 37
0.014 Folacin Calcium
Saturated, total g 0.009 g 0.157 mg 2.57
8:0 g 0.274 Amino acid g 0.405 Iron mg 130
12 :0 g 0.031 Tryptophan g 0.479 Mangnesium mg 358
14 :0 g 0.211 Threonine g 0.911 Phosphorus mg 332
16 :0 g 0.018 Isoleucine g 0.365 Potassium mg
18 :0 g 0.178 Leucine g 0.204 Sodium mg 5
Monounsaturated, total g 0.015 Lysine g 0.275 Zinc mg 3.45
16 :1 g Methionine g 0.638 Copper mg 0.457
18 :2 g Cysteine g 0.383 Manganese 3.210
20 :1 g Phenylalanine
Tyrosine

Source: USDA/ARS (2012).

Triticale 207

Table 5.2 Proximate composition of triticale with other cereal grain

Component (% dw) Triticale Wheat Rye Corn Barley Rice

Carbohydrate 72.1 66.9 75.8 67.7 80 75.4c
Starch 60 61 54 64 62.5 –
Crude protein 14.8a 14.0b 13.4a 10.3c 12a 8.5c
Fat 2.0 2.1 1.8 4.5 2.5 2.1
Crude fibre 3.1 2.6 2.6 2.3 2.3 0.9
Ash 2.0 1.9 2.1 1.4 2.5 1.4
Moisture 10.5 12.5 10.6 13.8 9.4
11.7

aN × 5.85.
bN × 5.7.
cN × 6.25.

Source: Bushuk (2004), USDA/ARS (2012).

50.0 μm

Fig. 5.5 CSLM micrograph of triticale starch.

enormously variable, reflecting triticale’s mixed parentage and it newness
as a crop.

5.2.1 Carbohydrates
Triticale grain has a starch content similar to that of wheat and higher than
that of rye (Table 5.2). However, this difference disappears when the grain
is converted to flour (Pena and Bates, 1982). Triticale starch is similar to
that of wheat and rye in terms of morphology (both granular and lenticular
forms are present) (Fig. 5.5), granule size (Lineback, 1984), amylase content,
iodine affinities, gelatinization temperature and solubility during pasting
(Lii and Lineback, 1977; Park and Lorenz, 1977). The composition of starch
influences its digestibility and bread-making quality. Starch high in amylose
is preferred for human and ruminant consumption due to slower digestion
and absorption. In triticale, the apparent amylose content was judged to be
highly variable, ranging from 12.8 to 35.1 g /100 g of total starch (based on
maize standards), particularly when compared to that of wheat which ranges

© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013

208 Cereal grains for the food and beverage industries

from 26.9 to 42.8 g /100 g (Blazek and Copeland, 2008). Triticale is more
similar to wheat than rye in terms of the non-starch polysaccharide content
(O’Brien, 1999). In a study comparing triticale, wheat and rye, it was
observed that the soluble pentosan content (Saini and Henry, 1989), viscos-
ity of flour extracts (Fengler and Marquardt, 1988) and total arabinoxylans
(McGoverin et al., 2011) were similar in wheat and triticale, but significantly
higher in rye. However, the major fraction of cereal non-starch polysac-
charides in triticale consisted of arabinoxylans, which is not the case in rye
and wheat. Soluble arabinoxylans are considered antinutritive in animal
feed because they can negatively influence feed consumption, nutrient
digestibility and overall growth performance due to their high viscosity and
water retention properties (McGoverin et al., 2011). In contrast, they are
recognized as beneficial constituents of the human diet where they have
been classified as prebiotics (Pareyt et al., 2011).

5.2.2 Protein
The major importance of triticale lies in its protein content, the second most
abundant component in the grain. Triticale contains around 14–15 % of
protein, compared with 14 % or less for wheat and other cereals (Table 5.2).
The reported protein values range from 12 to 22 %. Triticale seems to be
more digestible as evidenced by feeding experiments involving farm animals
(Lorenz and Pomeranz, 1974). A higher protein retention was also observed
in studies conducted with humans (Lorenz and Pomeranz, 1974). The bio-
logical value of triticale protein has been shown to be greater than that of
wheat protein and is positively correlated with its lysine content (Heger
and Eggum, 1991). Typically, lysine is a limiting amino acid in cereal grains
(Kies and Fox, 1969). Although lysine is the amino acid most lacking in
triticale, it is present in higher proportions than in wheat (Table 5.3). Lysine

Table 5.3 Essential amino acid in triticale and other cereals

Amino acid (g/100 g protein) Triticale Rye Wheat Corn Rice

Histidine (His) 2.3 2.7 2.0 2.6 2.1
Isoleucine (Ile)
Leucine (Leu) 3.45 3.70 4.2 4.0 4.1
Lysine (Lys)
Methionine (Met) 7.20 7.75 6.8 12.5 8.2
Phenylalanine (Phe)
Threonine (Thr) 3.44 4.02 2.6 2.9 3.8
Tryptophan (Try)
Valine (Val) 1.28 1.35 3.7 4.0 3.6

4.94 4.74 8.2 8.6 10.5

3.55 4.06 2.8 3.8 3.8

1.02 n..d 1.2 0.7 1.1

4.48 5.10 4.4 5.0 6.1

Source: Data from Pomeranz and Robbins (1972), National Research Council (1984),Valencia-
Chamorro (2004), Cai (2004).

© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013

Triticale 209

levels do not decrease with decreasing protein content and have even been
reported to be higher when the protein content of the grain was low (Mosse
et al., 1988; Heger and Eggum, 1991). In triticale protein, the content of
threonine, another essential amino acid, is approximately 10 % higher than
that found in wheat. Besides lysine and threonine, there seems to be no
significant difference between the amino acid composition of triticale and
wheat (Table 5.3).

5.2.3 Lipids
In a study by Zeringue and Feuge (1980), the total lipid content of whole
triticale flour varied from 1.1 to 2.4 ( % on dry basis). The fatty acid com-
positions of the lipids from the triticale whole grain were the same as those
of its wheat and rye parents.The largest deviations found were the relatively
high content of palmitic acid and the low content of oleic acid in triticale
lipids (Zeringue and Feuge, 1980). Moreover, triticale contained more phos-
pholipids in bound form than wheat (Chung and Tsen, 1974).

5.2.4 Vitamins and minerals
The vitamin content of triticale is about the same as that of wheat (Michela
and Lorenz, 1976). The most limiting vitamin is niacin. In general, trials on
live animals have shown triticale to have a higher biological value (BV),
15–20 % higher than that of wheat (65 against 57). BV measures the propor-
tion of absorbed nitrogen which is retained in the body. The superiority is
due to triticale’s higher content of lysine (Knipfel, 1969) (3.4 against
2.8 g/100 g of protein) (National Research Council, 1989) and threonine.
True digestibility, the proportion of food nitrogen that is absorbed by blood-
stream, is above 90 % in triticale protein, a figure comparable to that of
wheat protein and much higher than that of rye protein (Taverner, 1986).
The mineral content of triticale is higher than that of its two parent grains,
in particular with regard to the levels of Na, P, Mn and Ca (Table 5.4). In

Table 5.4 Proximate content of certain minerals in triticale and other cereal seed
(mg/100 g day weight basis)

Mineral Triticale Rye Wheat Corn Barley Rice

Calcium 37 24 34 7 33 21
Manganese 3.21 2.57 3.01 0.48 1.94 1.33
Zinc 3.45 2.65 4.16 2.21 2.77 5.96
Sodium 5 – 2 – 7
Potassium 287 12
Phosphorus 332 510 431 210 452.00 427.00
Iron 450 410 380 2.71 264 433

2.57 2.63 3.52 3.6 1.96

Source: USDA/ARS (2012).

© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013

210 Cereal grains for the food and beverage industries

particular, the high phosphorus content makes it a desirable addition to
feeds for pigs and chickens whose phosphorus needs are significant. Phos-
phorus availability is a function of phytic phosphorus concentration and
phytase activity (Jondreville et al., 2007). The phytase activity of triticale
has been reported to be between those of rye and wheat: 770, 460 and 5350
phytase units (PU) kg−1, respectively (McGoverin et al., 2011). Triticale also
contains greater levels of Zn than rye.

5.2.5 Bioactive compounds
Triticale has been recognized as a source of proanthyocyanidins, lignans and
phenolic acids (Hosseinian and Mazza, 2009). Total proanthyocyanidins and
lignin contents (as represented by lignan secoisolariciresinol diglucoside) of
triticale were greatest in the straw: 863 mg 100 g−1 catechin equivalents and
0.27 mg 100 g−1, respectively. A comparison of the total proanthocyanidin
contents of triticale, wheat and rye bran again indicated that triticale con-
tained intermediate levels. The content of phenolic acids ranged from 65 to
253 mg/100 g, and 89–98 % of the phenolic acids were present in a bound
form. Ferulic acid represents the major phenolic acid in triticale. An oxygen
radical absorbance capacity (ORAC) assay showed that the antioxidant
activity of bound phenolics was higher than that of free phenolics in defatted
triticale bran, flakes, straw and leaves (Hosseinian and Mazza, 2009).

5.2.6 Antinutritional factors
By the mid-1980s, it was suspected that triticale contained a number of
potentially antinutritional compounds. These include pentosans (which
produce ‘gummy’ manure in monogastrics), enzyme inhibitors, pectin (a
binding agent that limits digestibility), alkyl-resocinols, tannins, acid deter-
gent fibre and protein–polysaccharide complexes. All of these have been
found in small amounts in triticale, but at much lower levels than in rye.
The extent to which any of these compounds may hinder feed efficiency is
unknown. Quantified, relevant data on this topic is not available and
research about them is rare (Bill Chapman et al., 2005).

5.3 Triticale milling and applications in foods and beverages

Triticale can be milled into flour and has a number of food and beverage
uses, such as baked products, noodles and beers.

5.3.1 Milling
Triticale can be milled into flour using standard wheat flour milling pro-
cedures (Weipert, 1986) where maximum triticale flour extraction rates will

© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013

Triticale 211

be obtained. In the past, triticale lines tended to produce lower flour yields
than bread wheat (50–65 %, compared with 66–72 %) due to the shrivelled
nature of the grains, which had deep creases and were not fully plump.
These characteristics made it difficult to obtain high extraction rates for
low-ash flour. Today the situation is quite different: many current triticale
varieties produce grains with a shape that is easier to process and has better
plumpness, giving extraction rates of more than 70 % that are equal to or
close to those of wheat (Saxena et al., 1992). Flour yields of even 73 %, fully
comparable to those of wheat, are found in some advanced lines. One way
to improve the milling performance of triticale is to mill wheat–triticale
grain blends, as suggested by Pena and Amaya (1992).These authors showed
that co-milling wheat and triticale at a 75:25 ratio resulted in a flour quality
similar to that of wheat milled alone. This milling strategy can be useful in
countries aiming to reduce their wheat importation.

5.3.2 Food and beverage applications: an introduction
The use of triticale for human consumption has not yet become widespread.
However, given the nutritional and agronomic advantages of triticale and
the improvements taking place in terms of its baking potential, it is believed
that the crop has the necessary attributes to become an important food
cereal for humans in the future (Naeem et al., 2002). The increasing level
of consumer interest in products made from alternative grain cereals will
also assist in popularizing the crop (Naeem et al., 2002). In developing
countries, triticale flour is often mixed with wheat flour during wheat short-
ages. Whole and refined triticale flours have been evaluated for their suit-
ability in the preparation of a variety of goods, such as different types of
breads, oriental noodles and soft wheat-type products. If mixed with wheat
or rye flour, triticale flour can be used to make a number of breads and
pastries conferring a pleasing, nutty, mild-rye flavour to the final products.
For baked products that require dough or batters with low protein, low
water absorption and minimal resistance to extension, triticale can be fully
substituted for wheat flour without modifying the baking methods. Thus, it
is highly suitable for products in which soft wheat is used. These include
cookies, cakes, biscuits, waffles, pancakes, noodles, and flour tortillas.

It is of course important that the crop is not infected with ergot. The
fungus Claviceps purpurea (Fr.) Tul. which causes ergot is widespread glo-
bally and occurs on over 400 plant species. Of all cereals, ergot infects, in
order of decreasing susceptibility, rye, winter triticale and, to an even lesser
extent, wheat (Dabkevicius and Semaskiene, 1998; McLean and Wrigley,
2004). Yield reductions are usually slight. However, the ergot bodies contain
toxic alkaloids that are poisonous to humans and livestock (Groeger and
Floss, 1998). In the past, contamination of cereals with toxic alkaloids has
led to severe disease symptoms in humans, which in the Middle Ages
resulted in vast epidemics called St Anthony’s fire (Tudzynski et al., 2001).

© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013

212 Cereal grains for the food and beverage industries

5.3.3 Bread and other baked products
Detailed studies of the nutritional composition and baking quality of triti-
cale have been conducted (Lorenz, 1982 ). The data generated indicate, that
while triticale is considered superior to wheat in terms of nutritional quality,
the higher ash content, lower milling yields and inferior loaf volumes and
textures detract from the use of triticale in commercial baking. In compari-
son with wheat, triticale has a low gluten content, leading to reduced gluten
visco-elasticity and therefore inferior bread-making quality (Pena and Bal-
lance, 1987). Moreover, triticale dough was observed to have greater sticki-
ness than wheat dough and inferior rheological properties. Farinograph,
mixograph and alveograph tests also showed that triticale dough absorbed
less water, had shorter development times, was less tolerant to mixing and
had lower dough strengths than wheat-based dough. Triticale flours have
higher α-amylase activity than wheat flour, which is responsible for the low
viscosity of triticale dough and the resulting inferior bread quality. Weak
doughs are unsuitable for the manufacture of wheat-type leavened breads
which requires medium-strong to strong dough properties, particularly pan-
type breads and breads produced under high work-input conditions, as
occurs in large baking plants and highly mechanized bakeries. Nonetheless,
there is variability in bread-making quality in triticale, and some triticale
lines have been found to possess medium dough-strength character, accept-
able for producing popular breads in Eastern Europe (Gryka, 1998; Tsvet-
kov and Stoeva, 2003).

The use of wheat–triticale flour blends in bread-making seems more
feasible. Leavened breads with very acceptable quality attributes can be
prepared with wheat–triticale flour blends containing up to 40 % triticale
(Pena, 2004). It has been shown that by combining strong wheat flour and
triticale flour with the best possible baking quality to prepare wheat–triticale
flour blends containing 30–50 % triticale, it is possible to produce breads of
a quality similar to, or even better than, 100 % wheat breads (Doxastakis
et al., 2002; Naeem et al., 2002). Additionally, recent baking tests have shown
that many cultivars of hexaploid triticale can be used in bread-making,
mixing the wheat flour with up to 70 % of triticale (Tohver et al., 2005).
Generally, in the case of triticale substitution, the volumes of the breads
increase as the level of wheat flour increases, mainly due to the fortification
of the gluten structure by the gluten added.

Both hard wheat and soft wheat are used for cracker production world-
wide, but it is desirable to use soft wheat or blends of hard and soft wheat
flour (Doescher and Hoseney, 1985). Since additional soft wheat cultivation
is not allowed in Argentina, triticale flours therefore appear to be an inter-
esting alternative for cracker production in this country (Perez et al., 2003).
Perez et al. (2003) showed that the presence of a 110 kDa protein which
positively influences flour quality measured as WL/H10 (ratio of the mean
between weight and length, WL and the height of ten crackers [H10]), while

© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013

Triticale 213

other flour constituents such as pentosans, soluble proteins and damaged
starch could positively affect the cracker weight. The potential of triticale
as a partial or total substitute for wheat in flour tortilla production was
evaluated by Serna-Saldivar et al. (2004). Tortillas produced from 100 %
triticale flour were defective. Addition of 2 % vital gluten to the 100 % triti-
cale flour increased water absorption and mixing time, thereby improving
dough properties and tortilla yields. Up to 50 % substitution with triticale
flour was possible without affecting texture, colour, flavour or overall
acceptability of tortillas as determined by sensory evaluation (Serna-
Saldivar et al., 2004).

5.3.4 Oriental noodles
Lorenz et al. (1972) evaluated the potential of triticale flours for the manu-
facture of oriental noodles. They showed that regular triticale noodles had
a higher cooking loss compared to the other noodle samples (noodles made
with all-purpose flour, durum flour and semolina). However, the addition
of eggs to the noodle recipe eliminated any statistically significant differ-
ences in cooking loss between noodles made from the different flours. They
concluded that triticale can be used for the manufacture of noodles. In a
further study, Shin et al. (1980) compared three winter wheats with spring
triticales in the preparation of Korean noodles. The main negative trait
found in some of the triticale flours was the high flour ash content, which
imparts an undesirable greyish colour to the noodles. Modern triticales,
particularly those with white or amber plump grain, should yield refined
flour suitable for noodle-making.

5.3.5 Malting and brewing
Recent studies have shown that unmalted triticale may be suitable as a
brewing adjunct (Glatthar et al., 2005). Most non-malt adjuncts contribute
neither enzyme activity nor soluble nitrogen to the wort; however, this is
not the case with triticale. As this grain has high levels of α-amylase activity
in its unmalted form, it performs well in malting and brewing. Because of
this and the low gelatinization range of triticale starch (59–65 °C), triticale
is capable of degrading its own starch content with the same level of effi-
ciency as barley malt (Ande et al., 1998). However, triticale malt produces
worts with extreme protein degradation and, therefore, high nitrogen
content, both of which promote haziness, instability and dark colour in beer
(Pomeranz et al., 1970; Lersrutaiyotin et al., 1991).

In general, triticale has larger malt losses but higher malt extracts, higher
diastatic power, a shorter steeping period (about four times shorter) and
higher α- and β-amylase activity than barley (Table 5.5). Pomeranz et al.
(1970) found that triticale beers were in general darker in colour and had

© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013

214 Cereal grains for the food and beverage industries

Table 5.5 Some physical and chemical characteristics of triticale and other
cereals malts

Malt Amylase
Loss (%) Extract (%)
Cereal and Diastatic β (maltose α (20º units)
sample power (º) equiv.)

Barley

Dickson 8.0 76.6 115 361 30.4
26.6
Piroline 8.9 77.6 98 308 15.3

Hembar 7.8 71.6 68 222 62.9
58.2
Triticale 66.0
61.6
6T204 9.7 78.8 253 804 45.6
42.8
6T208 9.3 75.1 252 822 44.7
25.2
6T209 11.2 77.9 231 704 50.8

6450-3-1 14.4 78.8 180 517 22.0

Rosner 10.2 82.4 140 422 61.8

6714 8.7 80.4 184 806 38.8

6804 8.7 80.8 173 558

6437-6 12.4 82.6 137 469

6450 12.3 81.9 161 483

Oats 7.1 56.4 23 25

Rye 11.3 n.d. 137 345

Wheat 8.2 73.5 189 625

Source: Adapted from Pomeranz et al. (1970).

higher pH values (presumably due to higher buffering by the wort proteins)
than beers from barley. The average real extract of triticale beers was higher
than that of barley beers (5.80 and 5.55 g/100 g, respectively); on the other
hand, the average degree of fermentation in barley was 54 % compared to
only 51 % in triticale beers. As a consequence, triticale beers contained
less alcohol and more nitrogenous compounds than barley beers. Another
study conducted by Grujic et al. (2007) showed how the application of
triticale malt, up to 70 %, as a partial substitute for barley malt, gave
worts with good analytical quality parameters; however, the authors revealed
that, with increasing contents of malt triticale in the grist, wort viscosity
increased, mainly due to the poor activity of cytolytic enzymes, especially
β-glucanase, in the triticale malt (Grujic et al., 2007). Glatthar et al. (2002)
showed that the addition of 30 % adjunct in the form of unmalted triticale
during brewing increased the wort viscosity by 10 %, compared with 100 %
malt, but did not significantly affect filtration rates (Glatthar et al., 2002).
In this context, the application of gibberellic acid and potassium bromate
during malting usefully reduced wort viscosity. However, the increase in
levels of wort-soluble nitrogen caused by this treatment would make it
unacceptable in the manufacture of traditional British brewing malts

© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013

Triticale 215

(Blanchflower and Briggs, 1991). In conclusion, the high diastatic power,
high malt extract and short steeping period in triticale, when compared with
barley, wheat and rye, seem to be advantageous industrial brewing charac-
teristics, while high total nitrogen, high wort viscosity and low germination
capacity appeared to be disadvantageous. Although there is malting quality
variability in triticale, Holmes (1989) has indicated that it would be difficult
to breed for this trait because there is no methodology available for rapid
and simultaneous screening for both protein solubilization and carbohy-
drate modification.

5.4 Conclusions

Triticale is a man-made cereal grass crop obtained from hybridization of
wheat with rye. Compared to the other crops, the general characteristics of
triticale include higher capability to adapt to harsh environmental condi-
tions, greater tolerance to common wheat diseases, higher yields of grain
and forage with fewer production inputs and potentially less impact on the
environment. For these reasons, triticale has the potential to become a
leading food crop in some areas of the world that is thus able to increase
global food production. Triticale production has increased tremendously
since the 1980s as the result of an impressive genetic improvement due to
the large-scale triticale development programme at CIMMYT, Mexico.
Since genomic maps for wheat and rye have been completed, it can only be
expected that triticale improvements will continue, especially with the tools
provided by biotechnology (i.e. genetic transformation). From a nutritional
point of view, triticale grain is high in essential amino acids, which makes it
more nutritionally valuable than wheat, even if its baking performance is
inferior.

5.5 Future trends

Triticale has found utility as animal feed and has potential as a ‘green’ crop
due to its ability to capture nitrogen in double-cropping systems. Although
used primarily for animal feed, triticale is believed to have the necessary
attributes to become an important food cereal for humans in the future
(Naeem et al., 2002).There is a great potential for triticale products in the
speciality markets, particularly in western countries where a healthier diet
is becoming increasingly popular and commercialized.

Triticale may also play an important role in the future for soil reclama-
tion and bio-energy production. In fact, modern cultivars of triticale are a
competitive substrate for ethanol production (Eudes, 2006) due to the fact
that triticale possesses an auto-amylolytic enzyme system able to convert
large quantity of starch into fermentable sugar (Pejin et al., 2009).

© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013

216 Cereal grains for the food and beverage industries

5.6 References

ande, b., pieper, h. j. and senn, t. (1998). Production of glucose syrup by direct sac-
charification from triticale with high autoamylolytic activity. Starch, 50, 518–523.

baier, c. a., de sousa, c.n.a. and wietholter, s. (1998). Tolerance to acid soil. In:
dyson, c. and juskiw, p. (eds) Proceedings of the 4th International Triticale Sympo-
sium, 26–31 July, Red Deer, Alberta, International Triticale Association, Vol. II,
285–288.

blanchflower, a. j. and briggs, d. e. (1991). Micromalting triticale – optimizing
processing conditions. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 56,
103–115.

blazek, j. and copeland, l. (2008). Pasting and swelling properties of wheat
flour and starch in relation to amylose content. Carbohydrate Polymers, 71,
380–387.

boros, d. (2002). Physico-chemical indicators suitable in selection of triticale for high
nutritive value. In: arseniuk, e. and osiski, r. (eds) Proceedings of the 5th Interna-
tional Triticale Symposium, 30 June–5 July, Plant Breeding and Acclimatization
Institute, Vol. I, 239.

butnaru, g., moldovan, v. and nicolae, f (1998). In: dyson, c. and juskiw, p. (eds)
Proceedings of the 4th International Triticale Symposium, 26-31 July, Red Deer,
Alberta, International Triticale Association, Vol. II, 303–305.

cai, y. z., corke, h. and wu, h. x. (2004). AMARANTH. In: wrigley, c., corke, h.
and walker, c. (eds) Encyclopedia of Grain Science. Oxford: Elsevier.

chapman, b., salmon, d., dyson, c. and blackley, a. k. (2005). Triticale Production
and Utilization Manual. Spring and Winter Triticale for Grain, Forage and Value-
added. Edmonton: Alberta Agriculture, Food & Rural Development (AAFRD).

chung, o. k. and tsen, c. c. (1974). Triticale lipids. In: tsen c. c. (ed.) Triticale: First
Man-made Cereal. St Paul, MN: AACC International, Inc.

dabkevicius, z. and semaskiene, r. (1998). Incidence of ergot in Lithuania and its
control. In: Seventh International Congress of Plant Pathology, 16–19 August,
Edinburgh, 6.2.

doescher, l. c. and hoseney, r. c. (1985). Evaluation of commercial cracker flours
by test baking and study of changes occurring during sponge fermentation.
Journal of Cereal Science, 3, 261–270.

doxastakis, g., zafiriadis, i., irakli, m., marlani, h. and tananaki, c. (2002). Lupin,
soya and triticale addition to wheat flour doughs and their effect on rheological
properties. Food Chemistry, 77, 219–227.

eudes, f. (2006). Canadian triticale biorefinery initiative. In: botes, w. (ed.) Proceed-
ings of the 6th International Triticale Symposium, 3–7 September, Stellenbosch.

fao/un 2012. FAOSTAT database: http://faostat3.fao.org/home/index.html.
fengler, a. i. and marquardt, r. r. (1988). Water-soluble pentosans from rye. 2.

effects on rate of dialysis and on the retention of nutrients by the chick. Cereal
Chemistry, 65, 298–302.
furman, b. j. (2004). Triticale. In: wrigley, c., corke, h. and walker, c. (eds) Ency-
clopedia of Grain Science. Oxford: Elsevier.
glatthar, j., heinisch, j. and senn, t. (2002). A study on the suitability of unmalted
triticale as a brewing adjunct. Journal of the American Society of Brewing Chem-
ists, 60, 181–187.
glatthar, j., heinisch, j. j. and senn, t. (2005). Unmalted triticale cultivars as
brewing adjuncts: effects of enzyme activities and composition on beer wort
quality. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 85, 647–654.
groeger, d. and floss, h. g. (1998). Biochemistry of ergot alkaloids – achievements
and challenges. In: cordell, g. a. (ed.) The Alkaloids: Chemistry and Biology. San
Diego, CA: Academic Press.

© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013

Triticale 217

grujic, o., miljic, u. and pejin, j. (2007). The application of triticale malt as the sub-
stitute for barley malt in wort production. APTEFF, 38, 117–126.

gryka, j. (1998). Study on the breadmaking quality in winter triticale. In: dyson, c.
and juskiw, p. (eds) Proceedings of the 4th International Triticale Symposium, 26–31
July, Red Deer, Alberta, International Triticale Association, 170–172.

heger, j. and eggum, b. o. (1991). The nutritional values of some high-yielding cul-
tivars of triticale. Journal of Cereal Science, 14, 63–71.

holmes, m. g. (1989). Triticale for malting and brewing. In: Triticale Topics. Interna-
tional Triticale Newsletter. International Triticale Association, 9–18.

hosseinian, f. s. and mazza, g. (2009).Triticale bran and straw: Potential new sources
of phenolic acids, proanthocyanidins, and lignans. Journal of Functional Foods, 1,
57–64.

jondreville, c., genthon, c., bouguennec, a., carre, b. and nys, y. (2007). Charac-
terisation of European varieties of triticale with special emphasis on the ability
of plant phytase to improve phytate phosphorus availability to chickens. British
Poultry Science, 48, 678–689.

kies, c. and fox, h. m. (1969). Studies on protein nutritive value of wheat and triticale
grain for humans. Cereal Science Today, 14, 671–678.

knipfel, j. e. (1969). Comparative protein quality of triticale wheat and rye. Cereal
Chemistry, 46, 313–316.

lersrutaiyotin, r., shigenaga, s. and utsunomiya, n. (1991). Malting quality of
hexaploid triticale in comparison with that of barley, wheat and rye. Japanese
Journal of Crop Science, 60, 291–297.

lii, c. y. and lineback, d. r. (1977). Characterization and comparison of cereal
starches. Cereal Chemistry, 54, 138–149.

lineback, d. r. (1984). The starch granule – organization and properties. Bakers
Digest, 58, 16–21.

lorenz, k. (1982). Triticale processing and utilization: comparison with other cereal
grains. In: wolfe, i. e. (ed.) Handbook of Processing and Utilization in Agriculture.
Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, Vol. 2, Part 1, 277–327.

lorenz, k. and pomeranz, y. (1974). The history, development, and utilization of
triticale. CRC Critical Reviews in Food Technology, 5, 175–280.

lorenz, k., dilsaver, w. and lough, j. (1972). Evaluation of triticale for the manu-
facture of noodles. Journal of Food Science, 37, 764–767.

mcgoverin, c. m., snyders, f., muller, n., botes, w., fox, g. and manley, m. (2011). A
review of triticale uses and the effect of growth environment on grain quality.
Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 91, 1155–1165.

mclean, j. and wrigley, c. (2004). CONTAMINANTS OF GRAIN. In: wrigley, c.,
corke, h. and walker, c. (eds) Encyclopedia of Grain Science. Oxford: Elsevier.

mergoum, m., singh, p. k., pena, r. j., lozano-del rıo, a. j., cooper, k. v., salmon, d.
f. and gomez macpherson, h. (2009). Triticale: a ‘new’ crop with old challenges.
In: carena, m. j. (ed.) Cereals. Berlin: Springer.

michela, p. and lorenz, k. (1976). Vitamins of triticale, wheat, and rye. Cereal Chem-
istry, 53, 853–861.

mosse, j., huet, j. c. and baudet, j. (1988). The amino-acid composition of triticale
grain as a function of nitrogen content – comparison with wheat and rye. Journal
of Cereal Science, 7, 49–60.

naeem, h. a., darvey, n. l., gras, p. w. and macritchie, f. (2002). Mixing properties,
baking potential, and functionality changes in storage proteins during dough
development of triticale-wheat flour blends. Cereal Chemistry, 79, 332–339.

national research council (1984). Amaranth: Modern Prospects for an Ancient
Crop. Washington DC: National Academy Press.

national research council (1989). Food and feed uses. In: nrc (ed.) Triticale:
Promising Addition to the World’s Cereal Grains. New York: BOSTID.

© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013

218 Cereal grains for the food and beverage industries

o’brien, l. (1999). Genotype and environment effects on feed grain quality. Austra-
lian Journal of Agricultural Research, 50, 703–719.

pareyt, b., goovaerts, m., broekaert, w. f. and delcour, j. a. (2011). Arabinoxylan
oligosaccharides (AXOS) as a potential sucrose replacer in sugar-snap cookies.
LWT – Food Science and Technology, 44, 725–728.

park, a. and lorenz, k. (1977). Physicochemical properties of starches of maturing
wheat, rye and triticale. Lebensmittel Wissenschaft und Technologie, 10, 73–77.

pejin, d., mojovic, l. j., vucurovic, v., pejin, j., dencic, s. and rakin, m. (2009). Fer-
mentation of wheat and triticale hydrolysates: a comparative study. Fuel, 88,
1625–1628.

pena, r. j. (2004). Food uses of triticale. In: gomez-macpherson, m. m. h. (ed.) Triticale
Improvement and Production, FAO plant production and protection paper 179.
Rome: FAO.

pena, r. j. and amaya, a. (1992). Milling and breadmaking properties of wheat triti-
cale grain blends. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 60, 483–487.

pena, r. j. and ballance, g. m. (1987). Comparison of gluten quality in triticale – a
fractionation-reconstitution study. Cereal Chemistry, 64, 128–132.

pena, r. j. and bates, l. s. (1982). Grain shrivelling in secondary hexaploid triticale.
1. Alpha-amylase activity and carbohydrate content of mature and developing
grains. Cereal Chemistry, 59, 454–458.

pena, r. j., nagarajan, p. and bates, l. s. (1982). Grain shrivelling in secondary hexa-
ploid triticale. 2. Morphology of mature and developing grains related to grain
shrivelling. Cereal Chemistry, 59, 459–468.

perez, g. t., leon, a. e., ribotta, p. d., aguirre, a., rubiolo, o. j. and anon, m. c. (2003).
Use of triticale flours in cracker-making. European Food Research and Technol-
ogy, 217, 134–137.

pomeranz, y. and robbins, g. s. (1972). Amino-acid composition of buckwheat.
Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 20(2), 270–274.

pomeranz, y., burkhart, b.a. and moon, l.c. (1970). Triticale in malting and brewing.
In: Proceedings of Annual Meeting. American Society Brewing Chemists, 40–46.

saini, h. s. and henry, r. j. (1989). Fractionation and evaluation of triticale pentosans
– comparison with wheat and rye. Cereal Chemistry, 66, 11–14.

saxena, a. k., bakhshi, a. k., sehgal, k. l. and sandha, g. s. (1992). Effect of grain
texture on various milling and end use parameters of newly bred advanced triti-
cale (wheat x rye) lines. Journal of Food Science and Technology–Mysore, 29,
14–16.

serna-saldivar, s. o., guajardo-flores, s. and viesca-rios, r. (2004). Potential of
triticale as a substitute for wheat in flour tortilla production. Cereal Chemistry,
81, 220–225.

shin, h. k., bae, s.h. and pack, m.y. (1980). Nutritional quality and food making per-
formance of some triticale lines grown in Korea. Korean Journal of Food Science
and Technology, 12, 59–65.

taverner, m. r. (1986). The digestibility by pigs of amino acids in triticale, wheat
and rye. In: darvey, n. l. (ed.) Proceedings of International Triticale Symposium,
Sydney, Occasional publication No. 24. Sydney: Australian Institute of Agricul-
tural Science.

tohver, m., kann, a., taht, r., mihhalevski, a. and hakman, j. (2005). Quality of triti-
cale cultivars suitable for growing and bread-making in northern conditions. Food
Chemistry, 89, 125–132.

tsvetkov, m. and stoeva, i. (2003). Bread making quality of winter hexaploid triticale
(X Triticosecale Wittmack) in Bulgaria. Bulgarian Journal of Agricultural Science,
9, 203–208.

tudzynski, p., correia, t. and keller, u. (2001). Biotechnology and genetics of ergot
alkaloids. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology, 57, 593–605.

© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013

Triticale 219
usda/ars (2012). USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release

25. Nutrient Data Laboratory Home Page, http://www.ars.usda.gov/ba/bhnrc/ndl
[accessed december 2012].
valencia-chamorro, s. a. (2004). QUINOA. In: wrigley, c., corke, h. and walker,
c. (eds) Encyclopedia of Grain Science. Oxford: Elsevier.
varughese, g., pfeiffer, w. h. and peña, r. j. (1996). Triticale (Part 1): a successful
alternative crop. Cereal Foods World, 41, 475.
weipert, d. (1986). Triticale processing in milling and baking. In: darvey, n. l. (ed.)
Proceedings of International Triticale Symposium, Sydney. Occasional publication
No. 24. Sydney: Australian Institute of Agricultural Science.
zeringue, h. j. and feuge, r. o. (1980). A comparison of the lipids of triticale, wheat
and rye grown under similar ecological conditions. Journal of the American Oil
Chemists Society, 57, 373–376.
zhang, x., jessop, r. and alter, d. (1998). In: dyson, c. and juskiw, p. (eds) Proceed-
ings of the 4th International Triticale Symposium, 26–31 July, Red Deer, Alberta,
International Triticale Association, vol. I, 239–244.
zillinsky, f. j. (1974). The development of triticale. Advances in Agronomy, 26,
315–348.

© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013